The Third Intern

ining Geology 0rllfe n CE

I O to I 4 November, I997
Country' Club Casino
Launc e s to n ,Tasmania, A ust ra Iia
Third International Mining
Geology Conference
10 14 November 1997

Launceston, Tasmania

The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy

Publication Series No 6/97

Jointlyorganised by the Western Tasmania Branch of The Australasian Institute of

Mining and Metallurgy and the Australaian Institute of Geoscientists

Published by

THE AUSTRALASIAN INSTITUTE OF MINING AND METALLURGY

Level 3, 15-31Pelham Street, Carlton Victoria Australia 3053
 0 The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy 1997

The Institute is not responsible as a body for the facts and opinions advanced in any of its publications,

ISBN 1 875776 50 8

Desktop published by:

Katrina Fogg and Penelope Griffiths for The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy

Printed by:
RossCo Print
Factory 4/188Plenty Road
Preston South Vic 3072
 Edit01s

Kim Denwer (Technical Program Co-ordinator)

RGC Exploration Pty Ltd
Peter Benjamin
Copper Mines of Tasmania
Mark Berry
Pasminco - Rosebery Mine
Scott Dunham
Goldfields (Tasmania) Limited - Henty Gold Mine
Peter Edwards
Pasminco - Rosebery Mine
Cameron Graves
Pasminco - Rosebery Mine
Paul Harbon
Copper Mines of Tasmania
Peter Hills
Beaconsfield Mine Joint Venture
Paul Kitto
Codes - SRC, University of Tasmania
Gary McArthur
Aberfoyle Resources Limited
Chris Mroczek
Renison Limited
Bill Shaw
Mining & Resource Technology
Michael Vicary
RGC Exploration Pty Ltd
 Organising Committee

Mark Berry (Convenor) Chris Davies (Finance)

Pasminco - Rosebery Mine Aberfoyle Resources - Hellyer Division
I

Kim Denwer (Technical) David Evans (Pre-Conference Tours) I

RGC Exploration Pty Ltd Renison Limited
Keren Benjamin Peter Benjamin
Copper Mines of Tasmania
Jan Carpenter Pamela De Mark
Pasminco - Rosebery Mine Goldfields (Tasmania) Limited - Henty Gold Mine
Lisa Flitcroft Murrary Flitcroft
Flitcroft Consulting Flitcroft Consulting
Dave Garrard Cindy Hale
Copper Mines of Tasmania Pasminco - Broken Hill Mine
Paul Harbon Peter Hills
Copper Mines of Tasmania Beaconsfield Mine Joint Venture
Rohan Hine Elizabeth Kubiak
Aberfoyle Resources - Hellyer Division RGC Exploration Pty Ltd
I
Gary McArthur Mick McKeown
Aberfoyle Resources Limited McKeown Mining Pty Ltd
Bill Shaw Miriam Way
Mining i5 Resource Technology The Australasian Institute of Mining and
Metallurgy

Conference Secretariat
Lee Slaidins
Conference Design Launceston
PO Box 393
ProspectTas7250

IV
 Sponsorship
The organising committee of the Third International Mining Geology Conference. in conjunction with The
Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy and the Australian Institute of Geoscientists. would like to
gratefully acknowledge the generous contributions made by the following sponsors and exhibitors toward the
staging of this conference.

Aberfoyle Limited
Pasminco Limited
RGC Limited

Aminya Laboratories
Beaconsfield Mine Joint Venture
Copper Mines of Tasmania
Diamond Drilling (Tas) Pty Ltd
Mining & Resource Technology

Paydirt
,

Low Impact Diamond Drilling Specialists

Pontil Pty Limited
Swann Consulting Group
Australian Laboratory Services
Minproc Engineering Ltd
Oil Mineral Exploration Drilling Pty Ltd
Rocklabs Ltd
An sett Australia

We also acknowledge the contribution of the following Trade Exhibitors

Codes - SRC, University of Tasmania Global Mining Services

Coffey Partners International Pty Ltd Maptek Pty Ltd
Datamine Metech Pty Ltd
DEMS Pty Ltd Mineral Resources Tasmania
DHT Technologies Pontil Pty Limited
ECS International Prospectors Earth Sciences Pty Ltd
Fractel Graphics Sietronics Pty Ltd/Rocklabs
Gemcom Australia Surpac Software International Pty ltd
Geo Instruments WMC Resources

V
VI
 Foreword
As the 20th century draws to a close the mining industry maintains its critical importance
to the health and well-being of the planet and all its inhabitants. As part of the mining
industry geologists continue to sit at the forefront of innovation and improvement, Whilst
research and development activities form the basis of the industry's aim of continuous
improvement, technical conferences and mine visits are crucial in providing a forum for
exchange and discussion of issues relevant to all mining geologists, irrespective of the
location, commodity or method utilised at a site.

The Third International Mining Geology Conference follows on from successful events
staged at Kalgoorlie, Western Australia in 1993 and Mt Isa, Queensland in 1990. It
represents one of the few events in Australia aimed directly at mining geologists and has
been designed to consolidate the advances achieved in 1990 and 1993. Presentations
covering a range of commodities across both new and mature mining operations are
included in these proceedings, including exploration, resource estimation, grade/quality
control, geotechnical and structural issues, drilling, geophysics, computing and
environmental controls. I hope that the proceedings, together with the valuable learnings
gained from discussions held during the conference will provide delegates with new
insights to challenge the way we all do business, both now and in the future.

The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy and the Australian Institute of
Geoscientists have joined together to organise this conference. Tasmania, the host for this
conference exemplifies the economic importance of mining to the prosperity of the
community and the generous support of the mining companies on the west coast is
gratefully acknowledged.

The organisation of a major event such as the Third International Mining Geology
Conference requires the support of a large group of people. I take this opportunity to thank
everyone who has helped on the organising and editorial committees, for without their
dedication and enthusiasm the conference would not have proceeded.

On behalf of the organising committee 1 would like to thank the authors of all technical
papers for their excellent and thought provoking contributions. Presentations are the core
of a conference and the quality of the contributions to this conference are the equal of
those at both Kalgoorlie and Mt Isa.

Finally I would like to acknowledge the contribution provided by industry organisations

throughout Australia and overseas, for sponsorship, a stimulating trade exhibition and for
supporting delegates to attend this conference.

Mark Berry
Convenor
November 1997

Vli
Vili
 Contents
The Role of Mining Geologists
Are Mining Geologists Reully Necessaty.9 B Davis 3

The Contribution of Competent Mine Geologists to Exploration H Skey 5

The Role ofthe Mine Geologist in Modern Mines J T Carswell 7

Focus on Tasmania
Cambrian Tectonics and Mineralisation in Western Tasmania R F Beny and R A Keele 13

Granite Related Copper-Gold Mineralisation in the Southern Mt Read B Wyman, D Cooke and 17
Volcanics, Western Tasmania, Airstralia R Large

Rosehery Mine Exploration - Recent Successes C C Graves, 21

C W A Carnie and
C T Hale

Geology and Mineralisation of the Henty Gold Mine, Tasmania P De Mark and T Callaghan 25

Renison - New Advances in Geological Understanding of a World-Class P A Kitto, D A Evans and 31

Ore Deposit C R Mroczek

A Review qfGeomechanic.7 Applied to Reopening of the Beaconsfield P B Hills 41

Gold Mine

General Minine Geoloev

Geology ofthe Esperunzu Copper Deposit S M Richardson and 51
A D Moy

The Geology oj’the Browns Creek Gold-Copper Skurn Deposit. Blayney. G Smart and C Wilkins 59
NSW

Exploration on a Mature Mine - A Case Historyfrom Broken Hill R Morland 65

Resource Estimation, Grade and Quality Control

Discovering New Orebodies - Creation of an Exploration Datahase, M D Goodz. F E L Harvey- 73
Morning Star Gold Mine. Vic Kelly, C J Cusack and
D J Kentwell

Draw Parameters and Reserve Estimution using PC-BC at the E26 Block M House and R Seck 81
Cave Mine, Northparkes NSW

Optimisation oj’ Ore Selection in Mining - Method and Case Studies N Schofield and P Rolley 93

Geostatistical Texture Modeling in Enhancing Ore Reserve Estimation in A Richmond and 99

Base Metul Deposits R Dimitrakopoulos
Development 9fGrade Control Sy.sten1.s at the Mt Muro Air-Ag Project. H Hoogvliet 1os
Central Kalimantun. Indonesia

Reconciliation ofthe McKinnons Gold Deposit, Cohar. New South Wtr1c.s S M Elliott, D V Snowden, 113
A Bywater, C A Standing
and A liyba

Geological Modelling of a Stoping Block ut BHP :s Cannington Ag-Ph-Zn G Strceton I23

Mine

Quality Control Systems ut BHP '.s Mount Whaleback Iron Ore Mine. M Kainperman 127
Newman, Western Australia

Grade Control Sampling and Ore Blocking: Optimisation Based (111 W J Shaw and 131
Conditional Simulation S Khosrowshahi

Towards 2000 - The AuslMM Mineral Resources und Ore Re.sei.ve.s G I< Appleyard 135
Estimation Seminars and the JORC Reporting Code

Geotechnical Issues
Discontinuity Analysis in Open Cut Exposures - Exarnplesjrom Selected C N Winsor and 'I' J Fowler 141
Central Victorian Sites

Probability Analysis ($Rock and Soil Slopes in a Complex Geology D a w i Xu 147

Environment

Using Rock Mechanics Classification to Reduce Ground Instability in J C Koppe, A C Zingano 153
Amethyst Underground Mines and J F Costa

Structural Geological Modelling for Geotechnicul Investigations ut BHP J Ronaszeki 157

Iron Ore9Newman Western Australia.

Drilling and Geophysics

Applications of Downhole Electromugnetics in Extensional Exploration in A Wellington 161
the Nickel Mines of Kambalda

Optimising the drilling budget with geophysical logging G N Fallon and P K 167
Fullagar

Diamond Drill Core Versus RC Chips: The Real Sample, Chapter 2 M D Goodz and 175
D J D'Astoli

Exploration, Environmental and Computing

Goonumhla - 25 Years, Four Deposits, 52 Prospects and Still Drilling . . . M Anindell 183

Environmental Management of Sulphidic Waste Rock ut MI Lyell. A M Iiobertson, 189

Tasmania I M Stanley, D Brett and
R Dickson

Moving Broken Hill into the Third Dimension P Kay 193

X
The Role of Mining Geologists

Session Chairperson

Mark Berry
Pasminco = Rosebery Mine
i
 Rryun Duvis tius enjoyed ( i n extensive career in the base metul/gold mining
industiy ufter graduating ,froin the University of NSW in I967 with ( I degree
in mining engineering. He has worked with the Rio Tinto group of’
companies, Austrulian Consoliduted Mineruls, North F1inder.s Mines Limited
and Pusr?iinco Limited. He joined Pasriiinco in I99 1 us Executive Generul
Manager - Mining and was uppointed to the hoard of Pasminco us Evecutive
Director - Mining in 199.5. Uryun is directly responsible ,for the company’s
mining operations ut Broken Hill and Elura in NSW, Rosehery in 7usmaniu
and the recently acquired Century deposit in Quwnsland. He is a Fellow of‘
The AuslMM, u Member of‘ the Austruliun Institute o j Company Directors,
Chairmun of the New South Wules Mineruls Council and a Director o j the
Centre f o r Mining Technology und Equipment.

Keynote Address

Are Mining Geologists Really Necessary?

Bryan Davis

ABSTRACT
Altcrnativcly are they a neccssary evil?
Exploration geologists are a much highcr protilc group but then again tlic higher they are the bigger they fhll.
At a mine site they are rcluctantly being accepted as cquals by mining cngincers given the requirements of the ‘Code’ in the reporting of
Ore Reserves. How best can mining geologists servicc their customers? Arc morc reveilling questions to be answered in who are their
customers‘!
In the past mining geologists livcd isolated existences pouring over plans and sections. now with user-fricndly software packages
available and the use of LAN, mining geologists and mining engineers talk electronically - God forbid what the future might bring - they
might even talk to accountants and metallurgists!

Mining Geology Conference Launceston. 10 14 November 1997

~ 3
4 Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997 Mining Geology Conference
 Hugh Skey graduated from Nottingham University in 1966 and
1za.s spent 30 yecirs exploring f o r a wide range of metallif~?rous
rninPruls, principally in Australia. H e / i u s been fortuncite to
participate in severul economic discoveries and hus observed
the recurrent cycle of development, rnaturution and depletion oj-
mines in the Aherfilyle group. As Executive General Manuger -
Explorution, he is responsible for Aherjoyle 's $15 - 20
rnillion/year exploration program in Australiu, Indonesia and
elsewhere. He is (i Fellow of 'lhe AuslMM, a Member of AIG
and a Member of GSA and Izus served on vurious advisory
councils f o r geoscience and educational bodies.

Keynote Address

The Contribution of Competent Mine Geologists to Exploration

Hugh Skey

ABSTRACT
Mine geologists have access to an economic mineral deposit, production parametcrs and secure exploitation title. They are wcll placed
to understand ore formation and should contribute to the effective exploration of company mine property. Application of their special
skills has been curbed by pre-occupation with production duties and by company re-cngincering, including stal'f reductions.
Contributions to exploration havc been diminished and personal development inhibitcd. Modified management is required. Participation
in mineral system studies and in exploration research comprise part of the b x i s for the re-emcrgcnce of mine geologists on the
exploration scene. Changes in investment strategies i n the minerals industry may create new employment opportunities. With regard to
estimation of resources and reserves, the competencc of practitioners who :ire incapable of disclosing their methods in transparent terms
is under question. Ethical standards are also under public scrutiny because of some notnble ma1pr;ictice. Independent iiuditing may
become more intrusive. While understandable in a market context, i t retlects poorly on the profession. More substantial et'fort in public
communications can improve the credihility of the industry and equip practising mine gcologisls for wider responsibility.

Mining Geology Conference Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997 5

Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997 Mining Geology Conference
The Role of the Mine Geologist in Modern Mines
J T Carswell’
ABSTRACT
The role of the mine geologist and the exploration geologist have
:diverged considerably in the lasr two decades. The principal focus of the
mine geologist now is on ore resource managernenr rather than ore
resource discovery
INTRODUCTION
Few mines employed staft geologists in the first half of this
century and when they did, i t was purely 21s exploration
geologists. The first staff geologist employed at Mt Lyell, for
instance, was in the early- 1950s to undertake an extensive
exploration program. Much of the work now carried out by the
mine geologist was undertaken by mining engineers and
exploration was mostly conducted by consultants. Mining
engineers then carried out a wide range of functions now done by
specialists including surveying and sampling.
The modern mine geologist’s primary task is to provide
geological data for effective ore resource managcnicnt but the
mine geologist has an opportunity to take a wider role i n resource
management, The mine geologist has other roles, which relate to
the resource management role, including exploration, v:ilue
adding and a s an agent of change.
MINE GEOLOGIST AS A MEMBER OF THE
RESOURCE MANAGEMENT TEAM
The mine geologist’s principal function is, in conjunction with
other mine staff, to manage the ore resource that is the focus of a
mining operation. The objective of ore resource management is
maximising the profit from resource exploitation. Resource
management for the mine geologist involves developing,
maintaining and presentinglcommunicating a comprehensive
understanding of the resource, sufficient to ensure that extraction
and processing technologies are applied in the most profitable
way. This role may be wide ranging. can be quite complex and
requires a range of skills not confined to the science o f geology.
I n many mines it is still the case that the mine geologist’s role
in resource nianagement is restricted to providing character maps
of the resource such as ore outlines, flitch plans, block models or
rock mass data and that the mine geologist’s work is almost
exclusively confined to collecting and processing the data that
form the basis of these maps. The mining engineers and
metallurgists then use this data to plan extraction and processing.
The traditional process of the mine geologist handing the
planning engineer ore outlines or in some circumstances a set o f
raw drill sections, then the planning engineer developing a set of
blast drilling plans followed by the scheduling engineer
generating a production plan and so on not only limits the scope
of the mine geologist’s work but will also severely limit the
potential to improve the planning process and maximise value-
adding within the mine. The modern mine geologist needs to
have input into, or at the very least an understanding of every
step in the mine planning process through to estimating refinery
returns and gross mine protit. How else will the mine geologists
define ore if they do not know the current value of smelter by-
products?
I. J T Carswell & Associates Minc Geology Consultanls and
Contractors, PO Box 124. Scortsdale Tas 7260.
Mining Geology Conference Launceston, 10 -
There have been considerable and significant changes in ore
resource definition technology in recent years including
improved and cheaper methods of drill sampling, more flexible,
quicker and cheaper methods of data handling-storing-
processing-presentation and much improved understanding of the
spatial statistics o f mineral distributions. These advances in
technology allow the resource geologist more scope to evaluate
and present ore resource data. Some of these changes iire mining
specific rcsulting in a divcrgcnce of training rcquirements
hetween mine and exploration geologists.
Resource management h:is improved considerably iis a result
of these changes which allows the mine geologist more
opportunity to impact on the rcsource management process. For
the full benefit of the changes to be realised it is esscntial that the
mine geologist be fully involved in and conversant with mine and
metallurgical planning and production procedures. Changes to
general mine management has also placed added demands on
resource mnnagement, requiring more flexible and responsive
systems. Better outcomes for the resource management process
i i n t l for the mine geologist will be achieved it’ the process is
cari-ied out i n ii team environment and a s an iterative process.
Team based mine planning is itleally suited to modern mines
with flat management structures and smaller workforces, but not
s o well suited to fly-in/tly-out nor contract staffing.
MINE GEOLOGIST AS GEOSCIENTIST
Because ot the nature of much of a mine geologist’s work and
the environment in which a mine geologist works. it is often the
case that ;I mine geologist’s role develops to that of a technician.
Mine geologists spend a large part of their time logging core or
rock chips and mapping development laces or battcrs. Unless
this work is directed toward clear objectives such a s improving
x i ore genesis model or linking grade distribution maps to
lithotypes. logging and mapping becomes nothing more than a
gcotechnical task. Geotcchnical work of this nature should
where possible mid along with sarnpling and drilling supervision
be ciirried out by ii geotecliiiician such as a triiince mine
geologist, undergraduate or preferably a specifically trained
geotechnician.
The minc geologist’s role i n data gathering, data storage and
processing and in resource management should be as a
geoscientist not a s a geotechnician. The geoseientific task is to
ensure that the nature and quality of geological data being
collected is relevmt to the resource management process. The
geoscientist needs to continually question which data should be
collected and to what degree of detail the data is amassed as i t is
not possible ;ind certainly not profitable to attempt to collect all
gcologiciil information exposcd in drill samples or mining faces.
Once a system of data collection is established it can be carried
on by a geotechnician.
Decisions about what type of data needs to be collected and
how the data is collected will to ;I large extent be deposit and
exploitation technique specific. The type of sampling, the
sample density and size, elements to be assayed, and geological
characteristics to be recorded ;ire just ii few of the parameters that
should be subjected to regular codbenetit analysis. These
decisions need to take into account potential future requirements
of the resource managers. Data considered irrelevant today may,
with changes in mineral markets or exploitation technology be of
importance in the future. Decisions about data densityltype will
14 November 1997 7
J T CARSWELL
vary with the life cycle of the mine. Early in the life of a mine
there will be more uncertainty o f data requirements necessitating
the potential risk of either the cost of collecting more data than is
essential or collecting insufficient data. Late in the life cycle of
the mine data collection could have greater emphasis on
exploration objectives than production requirements.
Regular reviews of geological requirements of the resource
management team need a rigorous scientific approach in
conjunction with a good understanding of exploitation
technologies. The mine geologist has an obligation to ensure
that the geology of the mine ore deposit is well documented and
understood in an explorationkacademic context but the
geologist’s over-riding priority is toward the profitable
exploitation of the deposit. The profit/value adding objective
constrains the extent to which the mine geologist can go in
achieving academic goals or potential exploration benefits.
The mine geologist’s professional work environment will also
influence the extent to which the geologist works as a
geotechnician or geoscientist. The image of the geologist
amongst other mining professionals as ‘the long haired scatter
brain in the planning office’ is due in no small part to the contrast
between the technical approach to problem solving by mining
engineers, metallurgists and accountants and a more scientitic
approach by geologists.
A successful mine geologist will be one that can apply his
scientific skills to improving the understanding of an ore deposit
that in turn leads to improved technical solutions and extraction
efliciencies.
MINE GEOLOGIST AS EXPLORATIONIST
The mine site based geologist may, when working with a well
explored orebody have no exploration role. It is usually the case
however that at most stages in the life cycle of a mine that there
is justification for some ‘in-mine’ exploration and depending on
the size of the mine and the mine owner organisation, in-mine
exploration might be carried out by the mine geologist, a
contractor or an exploration geologist possibly from elsewhere in
the owner organisation.
The approach to near mine exploration may differ to green
fields exploration because of a number of factors. Exploration
targets are much more precisely defined in an operating mine
where the economic and technical limits are establishcd.
Secondly, traditional exploration techniques may be
inappropriate because of cultural disruption or depth of mining
and thirdly, a much better developed geological model in an
operating mine should considerably constrain targets. These
factors favour the mine geologist having considerable input into
any mine site exploration program but the requirement for
exploration expertise will be circumstance specific.
Mine site exploration should be conducted within tlie
framework of existing ore reserves/resources and the current and
forecast economics of the mining operation. Obviously
exploration will be low key in a prolitable mine with rclativcly
large ore reserves but in a mine with large reserves and
deteriorating profitability, commitments to exploration will be
made in the context of potential changes to exploitation
technologies, scale or cut-off grades or possibly mine closure.
Exploration decisions then take on a strategic perspective that
requires consideration by the resource management team and the
general management team.
It follows that there should be a clear distinction between
funds allocated to exploration and funds allocated to resource
evaluation and reserve definition. Similarly there should bc a
clear distinction between the geoscientists time allocated to
exploration and time allocated to resource management. The
8 Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997
quality of resource management should not be compromised for
exploration. There is littlc point in allocating funds to mine site
exploration without a sti-ategic objective, if tlie known ore
resource is not being exploited efficiently.
MINE GEOLOGIST AS VALUE-ADDER AND
CHANGE AGENT
The roles of value iiddcr and agent o f change are implicit roles
for most if not all professionals in profit driven organisations.
The role of the mine geologist in modern mines is no different.
As the role of the mine geologist continues to evolve and
management and technical change keep apace, the mine
geologist will play an increasing role i n change and value adding
in the mine.
Value adding generally means profiting from a transformation
process. I n the case of ;I mine this process is essentiiilly
extracting an ore rcsource m d producing ii v;iluablc product such
as metal concentrates, gold bars, coal or maybe lump iron ore.
The minimum role of the geologists and planning engineers a s
the resource managers, in the value adding process. is to provide
an extraction planning service. As professionals however, the
resource managers have ii responsibility to ensure that there is
maximum value adding not just in the planning services but in
the entire exploitation process and to achieve this goal requires
an ongoing commitment to improving the process through
change. The mine geologist has a key role in value adding and in
the change process.
The main factor that distinguishes mining from other value
adding processes is the large variability in the nature of ore
resources lroni mine to mine. No two mines are the same, but a
car assembly plant in Australia will be quite similar to other car
assembly plants elsewhere in the world. ‘The variability in ore
resources is compounded by the practise of defining ore reserves
by a cut-off grade. The same resource could theoretically have
different reserves and different exploitation technologies, with
different cut-offs imposed by many factors such a s location costs,
changing mineral prices or customer requirements.
The other factor that distinguishes mining from other value
adding processes is that ore resources, the raw materials, ;ire
finite :md therefore the mine will h w e a finite, often relatively
short life.
The implications of the variability i n the character of
resources. the technical and economic difficulty of delining ore
and the finite life of mines is that the approach to value adding
and process optimisation in the mining industry will be much
more urgent and dynamic than most other industries and that the
burden of dealing with these inherent complexities will fall
heavily with the resource geologist and other members of tlie
resource management team. The mine geologist has
considerable scope to add value in modern mines and to be an
agent of change either i n ;I reactive or Iexlership role.
MINE GEOLOGIST IN THE ORGANISATION
STRUCTURE
Until quite recently the only geologists on the staff of mining
companies were exploration geologists. As the mine geology
function developed the larger mine site ‘geology departments’
were split into exploration and mine geology sections with a
chief geologist as the department head. These dcpartmcnts
existed within a hierarchical organisational structure possibly
with the chief geologist two or three levels removed from the
mine general manager.
The opportunities for tlie mine geologist to have any influence
in the operation of the mine were limited by the large vertical
and horizontal ‘distance’ between the mine geologist and the
mine operators or general management. Opportunities for the
mine gcologist would also have been limited if the chief
Mining Geology Conference

geologist had a bias toward exploration. Recent changes in mine
general management toward flatter management structures and
smaller support stalling particularly in the small-medium s i x
mines has resulted in the mine geologist takin: on greater
responsibilities in short and medium term planning of mining
operations.
Interestingly, at head office or executive level, the mine
geologyhesource management role still receives little recognition
in spite of the fact that ore resources are the fundamental asset of
any mining company. In recent years, and mainly in response to
external forces mining companies have appointed head office
human resource managers, environmental managers, technical
resource managers and even indigenous people managers but
employ few, if any, orc resource managers or ‘chief’ mine
geologists. The ore resource management responsibilities at
executive level in most mining companies :ire still carried out
explicitly o r implicitly by the exploration executive.
Mining Geology Conference Launceston, 10 - ‘ l 4 November 1997
THE ROLE OF THE MINE GEOLOGIST IN MODERN MINES
Changes to m;inagement :it the operations level i n recent years
hiis given greater recognition and opportunities for the mine
gcologist. I n the future these changes can be expected to occur at
all IeveIs i n the mining industry presenting wider opportunities
for the mine geologist.
CONCLUSION
The role of the mine geologist i n modern mines has changed
considerably in recent years from providing either a geotechnical
service or ;in exploration role, to that of a professional resource
inanagemcnt role. This c1i:inge has resulted from changes in
general mine management, considerable improvement and
specialisation i n resource definition technology and changes to
mine planning systems.
Geologists should feel comfortable in choosing mine geology
:IS a career that offers professional stimulation, multi-disciplinary
cxposurc and inrich improved potential for advancement in a
rapidly changing technical environment.
9
 3

Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997 Mining Geology Conference

 Focus on Tasmania

Session Chairpersons

Paul Harbon
Copper Mines of Tasmania

Paul Kitto
-
CODES SRC, University of Tasmania
Cambrian Tectonics and Mineralisation in Western Tasmania
R F Berry' and R A Keelel
ABSTRACT
The Canihrian structure in the Mt Read Volcnnics was produced by four
deforinational events: ohduction of forcarc-derived ~nafic/ultraniafic
complexes i n the early Middle Cambrian, :I middle Middle Cambrian
extension;rl phase rclated to the post-collisional Mt Kcatl volcanisin and
VHMS mineralisation, Middle Cambrian E-W folding. and Late
Cambrian N-S folding and basin inversion.
The major phase of VHMS niineralisation in westerii Tasmania is
restricted to the very brief period of extensional tectonics within the
middle Middle Cambrian. Within this period :I N-S graben was produced
with a cornplex series of transfer zones. largely striking E-W. Most
VHMS mineralisation is restricted to lhc top of innssive volcanic
successions. with scveral mines close lo Canihrian transfer structures.
Many of the transfer structures continued to be active until the Devonian.
The later coniprcssional Cambrian events :ire not significant in localising
ore forination. Within the R o s e k r y mine ii complex p:ittcrn of minor
Cambrian normal faults has a second order control on the distribution of
the mineralisation.
INTRODUCTION
The structure of western Tasmania has been complicated by the
large number o f tectonic events (Berry, 1995). Devonian folding
(Williams, 1989) and faulting (Berry, 1989) have been well
described but the recognition of Cambrian structure is difficult.
Berry and Keele (1003) proposed a structural history based on
tlie nature of Cambrian unconformities in Tasmania which is
reviewed below. The structure of the Rosebery Mine is
considered i n the light of this structur;il history. A regional
model for Cambrian normal faulting is proposed and tested
against the distribution of known mineralisation.
CAMBRIAN FOLDING
Outside the Dundas Trough, Cambrian folding (Tycnnan
Orogeny) has two distinct orientations. East of tlie Dundas
Trough, Middle to early Late Cambri;in folds have E to NE
trends (Berry 1095). Within the Dundas Trough, Laic Cambrian
open folds have ;I N trend with a wavelength of 10 to 15 km.
Middle Cambrian normal faults should have been inverted during
this event but the much stronger Devonian inversion has
destroyed most of the evidence for this activity. Thrusts
associated with the Late Cambrian faulting are present south of
Queenstown iit Miners Ridge but no evidence was found that the
Great Lycll Fault was active at this time.
The Henty Fault was probably active i n the Late Cambrian. It
forms the apparent western boundary of the Owen Conglomerate
at Tullah and south to the Henty Mine. Major movement on the
fault post-dates regional Devonian folding but a pre-folding
reverse movement was rccognised by Berry (1989). A major
zone of steeply plunging Devonian folds lies along this structure
indicating it had a pre-cleavage phase that may have been part of
the Tyennan Orogeny. In contrast we have found no evidence
that the Rosebery Fault was present in the Cambrian.
I. CODES SKC.University of Tasmania, GPO Box 252-79. Hoban TLS
7W1.
Mining Geology Conference Launceston, 10
CAMBRIAN EXTENSIONAL STRUCTURES
The unecpivoc;il evidence of Cambrian extension are syn-
volcanic growth f;iults. The best examples of growth faults are
tlie Mt C:harter Fault (Corbcrt and Solomon, 1989) and minor
faults along the eastern margin of the Dundas Trough (eg Anio
('reek and Marsdeii Creek, Vicxy and Pemberton, 1988; Sprent
River. Bradbury, Pcmberton. Vicziry and Corbctt, 1992).
Dctiiiled study at llellyer Mine (Downs, 1993) and Rosebery
Mine (Berry, 1091) have defined growth faults on a much smaller
scale. The remainder of the volcanic belt has a large number of
f x i e s variations indicating :I complex basin geometry which may
be the result of active faulting but it is now impossible to prove
that these were normal faults and/or that the fault movement
occurred during the Middle Cambrian. VHMS-style
mineralisation requires a combination of high heat tlow, high
porosity ;ind a substantial water depth. Modern analogues of
VHMS style volc;inism form during extensional phases (eg
Lctouzey and Kimura, 198s). I n tlie Dundas trough, the
evidence is that an extensioiul event occurred in the Middle
Cambrian iissociatcd with post-collisional volcanism (Crawford
;ind Herry. 1992). This event was short lived and a
compressional environment returned by the Late Cambrian.
Based on tlie axiom that VHMS deposits form in an
extensional environment, the geometry of the feeder veins should
be at a high angle to the extension direction. The geometry of
the feeder system under Hellyer Mine has been the focus of a
great deal of study. Gemmell and Large (1992) report the feeder
system as striking 040" (suggesting extension to 130"). Downs
(1993) interpreted the structiire as indicating an original E-W
extension followed by extension to NW-SE. Elongation of the
Que River deposit may rcllect control by ;I feccler system
trending 030" (extension to 120"). At Hercules Mine the ore
occupies tlie feeder veins thcmselves and the orientntion of the
veins (Burton, 1975) implies extension towards 080". At the
Blow, near Mt Lycll, unfolding of quartz pyrite feeders suggests
extension towards 060". At Jukes Proprietary Prospect the vein
geometry (Doyle 1000) suggcsts extension to 070-+20°' These
extension directions are sumniarised on Figure I .
Rosebery Mine
The structure of Rosebery is dominated by footwall offsets
produced by Cambrian norni;il faults and by Devonian thrusts.
'fho detailed assessment of drill sections and level plans from 14
to 10 level support the existence of an imbricate array of high
angle reverse faults in the mine from 0 - SO0 in mincN (Figure
2 4 . These fiiults have a combined displacement of 300 m.
Restoration of tlie mine lenses i n this area (Figure 2b) shows G
lens was originally stacked on top of E lens. H lens is
completely separate but may be tied to the same Cambrian
growth fault. The centre of mineralisation drifted east with time
;is indicated by tlie source 0 1 I+ lens lying east of that for G/E
lens. The metal zonation and host sequence distribution support
;I complex seafloor topography and syn-depositional fault pattern
which influence the ore deposition geometry.
The reconstructed Cambrian geometry of Rosebery shows the
pattern of mineralisation has ii moderate correlation with the
normal l'hult pattern (Figure 3). The recognisable
syndepositional faults control the local distribution of high-grade
ore hut have only ;I second order control over the primary WNW
trend in the mineralisation.
- 14 November 1997 13
R F BERRY and R A KEELE

Limilol known Dundad

Tyndall Group deposlion
Limilol volcanr dmmaled
Cambnan lithologies
(cvc. Ews)
~ o n Range
d Porphyv
Cambnan granite

2 Mineral deposil

- Carnbnan lranster zmes

-
A Cambnan normal laults
Miners Ridge. Modder R N ~
Cambnan ThNSl
- importan1 Devonian faults

j extension direction during

f mineralisation
I. lOOm

FIG2;i - Geological cross-section at 200 111 N in the Rosebay deposit

showing the inultiple thrusts producing ;i complex footwall geometry.
h. The 2OU in N section with reverse fault inovcinents removed, a 3 0 pcr
cent flattening coinponent removed (assuiiiiiig the cleavage dips
and rotated to horizontal. At this northing the sharp thinning in host
sequence thickness occurs under H lens a i d is interpreted as a growth
fiiult. A siiialler structure rnay occiir under D lens.

especially in the north where it abuts Precambrian basement, is

FIGI - Cambrian fault patterns in the Dundas Trough. The interprctation
adapted from the geology base of Corbett and McNeill(1986)
Given the evidence of extension direction from feeder veins in
other deposits, this pattern of faulting is interpreted as N-S
striking normal faults with E-W striking transfer faults. The
limited correlation with the mineralisation suggest that the
surface fault patterns were not the same as those at depth. The
complexity of the fault pattern is consistent with a transfer ramp
rather than a simple dominant fault control (Morley, 1995). We
found no evidence for a Cambrian movement on the Rosebery
Fault and its present geometry, essentially subparallel to the
hangingwall stratigraphy, makes an early normal fault history
unlikely. The structure of Rosebery supports the interpretation
that it was formed in an extensional stress regime during the
Middle Cambrian.
Regional fault patterns
The fault pattern recognised from detailed mine studies can he
extended as a model for regional Cambrian growth f x ~ l t
geometry. Cambrian faults are classified as normal faults or
transfer zones (Figure I). The faults here have been identified
from a number of criteria. Mostly they have been defined by
stratigraphic changes beneath the Owen Conglomerate reflecting
the geometry in the Late Cambrian. T h e western boundary of the
Dundas Group (Figure I ) is interpreted as a growth fault
sharply truncated against a fault and contains Precambrian
sourced clasts. There are several offsets in this boundary which
are interpreted as transfer zones.
While the Dundas Group continues ;icross the south end o f the
Ilusskisson syncline, the Central Volcanic Complex (CVC) is
never found west of Rosebery. Thus it is assumed that the
northern fault sector separates into two distinct segments at a
transfer system (TZ2) directly west of Rosebery. The
Precambrian block in tlie Dundas field (Concert Schist) has ;i
structural position similar to the Precambrian along John Lynch
Creek. 20 km to the N ;ind it is assumed here that the e;is[ern
segment o f the normal fault continues to the eastern side of this
block. The basement uplift at this point may be due to a footwall
short-cut thrust during basin inversion. A second transfer zone
(TZ3) is suggested as a southern boundary for the Precambrian
basement at Dundas. South of T Z 3 thc westcrn margin of the
Dundas Group moves far to the west.
The e x t e r n margin of the Dundas Trough is limited by tlie
erosional unconformity under the Owen Conglomerate with the
Sticht Range formation dipping west ;it 40" along most of the
margin in tlie Late Cambrian. Within tlic trough, the Henty Fault
has an inverted normal fiiult geometry from Mt Farrell to Rcd
Hills (Figure I ) . East of this fault tlic Owen Conglomerate sits
directly on the CVC or eastern quarti.-phyric sequence (EQI'S)
and no Dundas or Tyndall Group sediments are preserved. 'l'he
Henty Fault is interpreted as a west-dipping normal fault in the
Middle Cambrian.

14 Launcesfon. 10 - 14 November 1997 Mining Geology Conference

 CAMBRIAN TECTONICS ANI) MINERAI~ISATIONIN WESTERN TASMANIA

FIG3 - Map of growth fnult positions and their relation to iiiinernlisation at Koscbery Milie before tleforination The long section has been rotated to
horizontal assuining the fore-shortening due I o the 45" (lip (70 per cent) balances out the stretching :issocialed witli Devonian cleavage devclopinent. The
mine grid noilhing is preserved i n this rotatioi1. Map E-W refers to the Cuiihri:in orientatioii Reconstructed W is 111) on the long section and rcconstructcd
E is down on the long section.

The Great Lycll Fault has been tied to models of
mineralisation at Mt Lyell but appears to be largely related to
Late Cambrian and Devonian tectonism and we havc been unable
to demonstrate any control on middle Cambrian sedimentation.
Transfer zones
A number of structures within the Mt Read volcanics strike E-W
and truncate sedimentary sequences i n a style most consistent
with growth fault gcomctries. The Mt Cripps Fault (TZI, Figure
I ) forms a boundary across which thcrc are largc chnnges in
thickness of the Dundas Group and the Tyndall Group (under the
Owcn Conglomerate) which are interpretcd here as evidence that
this fault was active i n Cambrian. This structure was also active
in the Devonian but Devonian deformation cannot explain the
stratigraphic variations. The extension of the Mt Cripps Fault to
thc west passes just to the south of the Que River deposit
A Rosebery/Pieman River transfer (TZ2) is proposed to
explain the northern truncation of the Husskisson Group in the
Pieman River area. There is no direct evidence of extension
towards Rosebery but the mapping evidence (Brown 1986)
suggests Roscbcry is slightly north of the along strike projection
of this transfcr structure. The WNW alignment of mineralised
lenscs at Rosebery (Figure 3) are sub-parallel to this trcnd.
A major transfcr zone is proposed along the line Zeehan -
Dundas - Henty - Selina (TZ3, Figure I). The western limit of
the Dundas Group shifts west just south of Zeehan. The
boundary is largely covered here and the geometry is poorly
constrained. The southern margin o f the Precambrian hlock at
Dundas lines up with an offset in the CVC boundary which
Dugdale (1992) has shown is one of a set of growth faults on this
contact. Just cast of Hcnty Mine, the eastern margin of the
Tyndall Group (under Owen Conglomerate) stcps cast rcquiring
a Cambrian fault (TZ3 offset by Devonian sinistral displacement
on the Henty Fault). This pohition is north of Hcnty. Cambrian
mineralisation along this structure arc limited to the eastern
sector (Selina prospect) and thc White Spur pyrite zone.
A possihlc explanation for the transition from Eastern Quartz-
phyric sequence to Tyndall gi-oup along the Tyndall Range is a
transfer ramp geometry (TZ4. Figure I). North of this structure,
the Owcn Conglomerate sits directly on the older volcanic
dominated units but to the south Tyndall Group is widely found
under the Owen Conglomerate. The position is only exposed at
the eastern limit of the Mt Kc;id Volcanics (Corhett 1992). The
remainder o f any transfer system is hidden under Owen
Conglomerate.
The Coinstock Vrillcy has ;I long history of fault movement. A
sinall fault (TZ5 on Figure I ) was a growth fault during Tyndall
Group deposition (White, 1997). This structure is striking E-W
in ;I transfer geometry but is mailer than the transfcr structures
proposed above. The structiii-c lies at the northern limit of the Mt
Lyell mineral liclcl.
A major east-wcst structure (Firewood Siding Fault - Owen
Thrust - Linda Zone) dominates the Mt Lycll area (TZ6, Figure
I ) . There is no direct evidence that it controlled the deposition of
C:VC rocks but i t forms tlic southern limit of the MI Lyell
alteration zone. I t also controls thc geometry of iill Dcvonian
deformation cvcnts indicating ii major crustal weakness which
predates the Devonian.
This is not an cxhaustivc list of possible Middle Cambrian
transfer zones. I t rctlccts those structures which unambiguously
off set lithological boundaries that can still he recognised. The
conccpt of Cambrian transfer faults provides a usctul way to
explain the variation in structure along the Dundas Trough. The
structures recognised represent largc-scale transfer zones and in
modern cxtcnsiond terrains tlicre are a large number of smaller-
scale structures which may also control mineralising tluids. In
the Mt Read volcanies many deposits have a spatial association

Mining Geology Conference Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997 15

 R F BERRY and R A KEELE
with thc proposed transfer zones. In most cases the deposits sit
just north of the position where these cross structures intersect
the top of thc volcanic dominated package. Examples are Mt
Lyell Mine where the altcration extends from TZ5 for 4 kni to
the north and Q u e River Mine whcrc the deposit is 600 in north
of the TZI. Rosebcry Mine is a good examplc 0 1 a
stratigraphically controlled line of deposits within which the
largest deposit occurs along strike from a recognisable transfer
zonc (TZ2). No large-scale transfer fault was recognised near
~
Hcllyer Mine but small-scale transfers have been recognised
(Downs, 1993).
We have recognised very few regional scale normal fiiults
within the Dundas Trough. Examples are the Henty Fault Zone
from Tullah to Red Hills, the westcrn boundary fault west of
Rosebery and the Mt Charter Fault. These have nearby alteration
zones but no major deposits havc been found near them.
Detailed work in the major deposits suggest very small-scale
normal faulting in Hellyer and Rosebery. T h e displacement on
these structures is too small to be a reliable handrail for regional
exploration. It may be useful as a guide to within mine
exploration.
SUMMARY
T h e nature of Cambrian deformation is complex in both time and
place. T h e whole of the Cambrian was a period of very active
tectonics in western Tasmania. T h e major phase of V H M S
mineralisation in western Tasmania is restricted to the very brief
pulse of extensional tectonics within t h e middle Middle
Cambrian. Within this period there was a N-S graben produced
with ii complex series of transfer faults, largely striking E-W.
Most V H M S mineralisation is restricted to the top of the massive
volcanic successions, with scvcral deposits linked to thc positions
of the Cambrian cross structure. T h e late Cambrian
compressional events were not significant in localising ore
formation.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work included was carried O u t with support Of
A M l R A Projcct P29 I and an A R C grant. T h e work at Rosebery
made extcnsive use of the Rosebery Mine data and would not
have been possible without the help and support of Jim
Farquahar and Geoff Illiff.
REFERENCES
Berry. R F, 1989. The history of rnoveinent on the Henty Fault Zone.
western Tasmania: ;in analysis of fault striations. Ausr J E(irrh
.S(iericm, 36: 189-20s.
Berry, K F, 1991. Structure of the Roscbcry deposit. AMlRA I’ro,iect
P291 Report 3:1-16 (unpublished).
Berry. K F, 1995. Tectonics o f westcrn Tasmania: Late Precambrian -
Devonian, Geologiccil Soc.iery of Ausrrditr. Ab.srni(m. 3 9 6 8 .
16 Launceston. 10 -
Beny, II F :ind Kccle, I~ A, 1993. C;iiiibrian structure in wesicrn
Tasiiiania. AMlRA I’ro.jcc1 P291. Repuit 5 . 55-68 (unpuhlishctl).
Berry, K F :ind Crawford, A 1. 1988. The tectonic significance of
Caiiihrimi allochthonous innfic-ultraiii;ltic coinplexes in Tasmania,
Bradhury. J. l)eniherion. J. Vicary, M J x i d Corhett K L), 1992. Mi
llead Volcanics I’rcipt Map 12: Gculugy of the D’Agililar Ikinge
area. l’a\inanian I)cpan~l~ent Mines.
Brown. A V, 1086. C;cologs of the Duntl;is-Mt Lindsay-Mt Younghuck
region. Brill Grolo~ic.ti/ I I ~2
.Survey ~ I , ~ ~ I I ~ I I62. I .2 I p.
Burton. C C J. 1975 Ikrciilcs and Farrcll orrhodies. Koscbcry d ~ s t r ~ c t .
Ewironric tierilo,q?. ( I / Air.vrrtiliti trnd I’ir/iri(i’Nrit, Guinm - 1. Mero1.v.
pp 626-028 (lhe Austr:ilasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy:
Me1bourne).
Corbett. K I). 1Y92 Stratipraphic-volcaiiic setting of rnas:;ive sullitle
deposits in the Cainhrian Mount IIe:id Volcanics, Tasiriania.
~ f ~ ~ l 87:.564-.5x6.
~ ~ ~ ~ O Ge(J/(l,c)’l f f ~ ~
Cohctt, K 1) and McNeill. A W, I9XX. Mr K e d Volctinicr l’riyecr Mirp
6 Gciilii,crid i . o i r f / ) i / ( i / r o t f n r c c p [ I /
1 h c 3 Miicoi/ Head I.iilcwiic.\ R
t i . ~ . vr~c it r c d roc.tv: Hellwr r o Sourlr I)crrwin Peck Tasrnman
Departiiient Mines.
Corbett. K I 1 : l i d Solomon. M. 1989. Cainhrian Mt Kead Volcanics m d
associated inincr;il deposits, i n tieiilo,qv t i r i d M i n e r d Kesourcs of
7iwminrir (Etls: C F Bui-rett and E L Martin), pp 84-153 (Special
Puhlicatiiin of the Geological Society of Austrnlia IS).
Crawford. A J and Berry. K F. 1992. Iinplications of Late Proteruzoic-
early kilaeozoic igneous rock associ;itions for the tectonic evolution
of Tmiiania. 7rc.rr~rriip/r!..vic.s, 2 I4:37-50.
Ihwns. R C, 1993. Syii-depositional fault controls on Hellycr voIc:uiic-
hosted iimsive sulphide deposit. MEcuiiGcol thesis (unpuhlishctl).
Uiiivcrsity Eisin;inia. Hohnrt 65p.
Doyle, M G . 1990. The geology. miner:ilis;ition and alteration of the
Jukcs Proprietary prospect. western T:isniania. RSc(1 Ions) thtsis
(tinpuhlishctl), University Tasinania, Hohart I 14p.
I)ugdale, J S, 1992. Lithostratigraphy ol’ the White Spur area, Wcstern
Tnsinanin. BSc(1lons) thesis (unpuhlishcd). University Tasnlallia,
llohart 031).
Geininell. J H and Large, K K. 1992. Stringer systems and altcr:itiun
zones uiiderlyiiig the Hcllyer volc;inic-hosted inusive sullide
deposit. Tnsinaiii;i. Ecoirrimic. G‘eolo~y,87:620-649.
Letotizey. J and Kiiriura. hi. 1985. Okiiiawn Trough genesis; structure
aiid evolution of a hackarc basin develoncd in a contincnt. Mtr!-rire
trnd /’erro/euin C;oilnRy. 2 : I I I - 130.
Morley. C K. IWS. I)evelopinents in the \tructural geology of rifts over
the last decade and tlicir impact oil hydrocarhon exploratioii. i n
H ~ c / i ~ i i i : t r r h o ilrttbirtir
i
(deological Society of l a i d o n Special Publication 8 0 ) .
..
. nn 1-32
111 K i f i B(isiii.p (Ed: J J Larnbiase).
Vicary. M J and Peinhcrtoii, J. 1988. MI k ! i u / L4ilctinic.v Projecr Miip 7.
Grolo,cy of /lw Brick 1’c.tik- C h d l e Mnirnrtrin Link / h i d ( I I ~ N I .
Tnsinanian I>cpart~~ient Mines.
White. M J. 1997. Vulcanic facies annlysis o f the Cambrian Tyndall
Group, Mount Kcad volcanics, wcstcrn Tasmania. I’hll thesis
(uiipuhlishcd). Uiiiversity Tasmania. Hohart 225 p.
Williaiiis. E. 1989. M i d Prrl;ic.ozoic deforiii:ition. I ~ Geiiloxy I irnd M i i ~ r i ~ ~ d
K c w i u r i r . ~o/ 7 i i . w u i i i i i i (Eds: C F Burrc~tand E L Martin), pp 2.39-
2.53 (Spcci;iI I’uhlicatioii of the Geological Society of Austrnli:~1.5).
14 November 1997 Mlning Geology Conference
Granite Related Copper-Gold Mineralisation in the Southern
Mt Read Volcanics, Western Tasmania, Australia
6 Wyman’, D Cooke’ and R Large’
ABSTRACT
The Darwin granite is a highly fractionated homogeneous
phanerocrystalline pink equigranular granite of the magnetite
series. The main pink granite phase is intruded by a smaller
white leucocratic, phanerocrystalline, equagranular to
porphyritic. medium to coarse-grained granite or granodiorite.
The Darwin granite is located in the south central portion of the
Cambrian Mt Read Volcanic Belt in western Tasmania (Figure
I). Numerous small tonnage but relatively high-grade copper-
gold prospects (Table I and Figure 2) are located along the
exposed llanks and northern subsurface projection of the Darwin
1 Ccntre for Ore Deposit Rcscarch (CODES), University of Tasmania,
GPO Box 2.52-79C. Hobart TJS7001.
FIG1 - Location niap for the Cambrian Mt Read Volcanic Belt. western Tasmania. Australia.
Mining Geology Conference
Launceslon. 10 14 November 1997
granite. With increasing distance from the granite. ores vary in
style from iron-oxide veins and stockworks containing pyrite and
chiilcopyritc f specular-hematite i magnetite f tourmaline and
quartz-pyrite-chalcopyrite veins, to disseminatetl pyrite-
chalcopyrite f covellite, to veins containing q u a m , bornite,
neodigenite, chalcopyrite and hematite. At the Jukes Proprietary
prospect (Figure 2). mineralisation is hosted in coherent rhyolitic
volcanics of the Central Volcanic Sequence (CVC).
Mineralisation occurs as disseminated pyrite and chalcopyrite,
magnetite-pyrite +-tourmaline f scheelite veins, chaleopyrite-
pyrite-magnetite veins, magnetite f chlorite hydrothermal
breccias, and qu~irtz-chalcopyrite stringers. Intense chlorite
alteration and copper mineralisation also overprint the margins
and bodies of several quartz-porphyry dykes that intruded the
CVC rhyolite.
-
17
I B WYMAN. D COOKE and R LARGE

Name Comniodity Tonnage and grade Style Alteration type -. . Keferc:nces

Jukes Proprietary Cu-Au Up 10 4. 1 % Cu and 0.27 Disseniinated pyrite antl chalcopyrite iii Styles vary from intense K - Wyinan. 1996.
opt ,411. Tonnages were schistose rhyolitic volcmiics. ~nagnctitc- feld.;p;ir altered v(i1c;iiiics i n Doyle. 1900,
very low. ~ s l i e e l ~ t e the iiiincrnlised zoiie
~ ~ y r i t c ~ t ~ ~ u r i i i a l i ~ ~ eveins, Gadaloff. 1996.
~Iialcopyrite-pyrite-~na~~ie~~tc veiiis. outwxd to intensc cliloritc- White 1075
:iiid iii:i~netiteand chlorite iii:itrix sc'ricite alteration :iiiiI
hrcccias pcrip1ier:iI scricitc :iltcration.
Lake cu Small tonnages I3ornitc. neotligcnite. cli:ilcopyrite and Minor chlorite :iItcr;itioii and White. 1975.
Jukes(inc1udes processed o n site. low hematite in veins up to 1 in wide. a noted lack of inteiisc Ilills. 1914
King Jukes. Hal grades sericitic alteration.
Jukes. Queen
Jukes)
Fi ndons Copper Grab samples contain up Quart7.-clialoopyritein stringer veins. , Inlense chlorite-pyrite Gadaloff. I 990.
to 5% copper and as ininor disseininntions and hlehs Altcr:ition. and chlorite- White. 1975.
within chloritic zones. qu;irtz-scricite a1tcr;ition. Hills, 1914
Taylours Reward Barite No ore shipped, low Massive bariteipyrite*ch;rlcopyr~te I n Serlcite and chlorite Gadaloff, 19Y6.
grades veins up to I r n wide and occuring i n en alteration. White. 1975.
echelon vein sers for over I k i n Hills. 1914
13enn and Thow. cu N o ore shipped, low Uisseininatcd chalcopyrite in pyritically Scricite and chlorltc White. 1975.
Hydes grades altered volcanics. altcr;ition. Hills. 1914
__--
East Danvin Copper 9.5 tonnes :it 6% Copper Pyrite-cIinlcop)ritc veins within the Sei-lute alteration, pcrvasivc Gadaloff, 1990.
CVC. and disseniinated pyrite- chlorite alteration. a i d White, 1975.
cIia1col)yrite-covellite within the perwsive K-1eldsp;ir Hills, 1914
EQI'S(Tyndal1 Group). Possihly fault al1cr;ition.

Mt Darwin, Cu-Au No ore shipped, low Iron oxide veins and stockworks lnteiisc chlorite dtcration, wynian, 1996,
including Prince griides containing pyrite, chalcopyrite and sericitc alteration ;ind locally Wliitc. 1975.
Darwin magnctiteitourinaline. K-feldspar alteration. Hills. 1914 ...

T h e hydrothermal alteration assemblages at Jukes Proprietary
are grossly zoned and are dominated by an inner zone of intense
K-feldspar alteration associated with copper mineralisation.
grading outward to zones o f chlorite and sericitc alteration.
Accessory minerals in the K-feldspar zone include pyrite,
magnetite ;itid chalcopyrite. In the chlorite zone accessory
pyrite, magnetite, chalcopyrite and tourmaline occur as do barite
veins. I-lydrothermal alteration appears to be most intense Lind
widespread above and to the north of the granite and decreases
markedly in intensity away from the western side of the intrusion
(Figure 2). Regional aeromagnetic data suggests that the Darwin
granite underlies the entire northerly trending belt . o f
hydrothermal alteration and Cu-Au mineralisation (Large of 01,
1996; Le;iman and Richardson, 19x9; Payne, I99 1 ). T h e eastern
margin of the intrusion is an erosional unconformity with
Cambrian Tyndall Group volcanics and therefore no
hydrothermal alteration remains exposed o n that side. Magnetite
and tourmaline veins, copper mineralisation and hydrothermal
alteration overprint the pink granite phase of the Darwin granite
and appear to be related to the later -white granite phase.
Hydrofracturing and phreatic brecciation resulted in release of
magmatic-hydrothermal fluids, which reacted with the country
rocks and produced hydrothermal alteration, Cu-Au veins and
disseminated mineralisation.
Textural and mineralogical evidence h i v e been used to
discriminate granite-related hydrothermal alteration froin
regional metamorphic and diagenetic alteration assemblages o n
the basis of: 1 ) T h e widespread occurrence o f intense alteration
assemblages in association with mineralised veins. 2) The
intensity with which chlorite replaces plagioclase feldspar
phenocrysts (Sericite alteration of feldspar phenocrysts in weakly
altered rocks can vary greatly, but chlorite after plagio
feldspar appears to be an indicator of proximity to hydrothermal
systems). 3) T h e presence of chalcopyrite, tourmaline.
magnetite o r hem;itite. 4 ) T h e degree of textural destruction -
rocks with moderate to intense textural destruction. are most
likely hydrothernially ;iltcrcd. Exceptions to these criteria are
possible. For example. although albitc alteration of ;I Jukes I<oad
I caused intense tcxtural destruction of the
groundmass. the ;iltcr;ition assembl;ige is believed to liave
formed during dingenesis invalidatin_c point 4. Generally,
however. these four criteria appear to he good discriminators of
Cambri;in hydrothei-mal alteration in tlic Jukes-Darwin area.
Sulphur isotope studies (Gadaloff, 1096; Jones, 1993; Doylc,
1990) indicate that the source of sulphur in the sulphides is most
likely ;I mixture o f masmatic sulpliiir and reduced seawatcr
sulphate. I n the Jukes-Darwin area. there appears to be ;In
increase i n heavy sulphur with increasing distance from the
Darwin granite (nv I I .3%. av) to Intercolonial Spur (15.5%:~;IV).
A similar sulphur i w t o p e zonation hlis been observed around the
Murchison granite (Polya i'/ 01, 1986). This spatial tlistril~ution
of sulphur isotope5 may hiive been c;iuscd by sulphur saturation
occurring within and close to the granite and its contacts, in the
early stages of granite emplacement. I n the later stages, sulphur
saturation occurred throughout the whole system, reducing the
effects of' m:rgmatic sulphur input antl resulting in a Cambrian
seawater sulphur signature (Solomon C / til, 1988). The sulphur
isotopes i n the Jukcs-Darwin area (Figure. 3) contrast sh>~rply
with sulphur isotopes fIom Mt Lyell (av +6%) and from typical
porphyry copper deposits. where v:ilucs average from -4 to +4 %IC
(Ohmoto and Rye, 1979).
Intrusion-relatctl hydriitliermal altei-ation assemblages and Cu-
Au mineralisation in the Jukcs-Darwin field share sonic
similarities with porphyry Cu-Au alteration and minera1is;ition
(eg Cookc ci d . 1996; Sillitoe. 1993) ; i d could be considered a
submarine analogue to porpliyry-style minera1is;ition.
Favourable elements for Cambrian porphyry-style mineralisat ion
in the Jukes-Darwin tield include:

18 Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997 Mining Geology Conference

 GRANITE RELATED COPPER-GOLD MINERALISATION

Legend

I
t
I
I Quaternary Alluvium
t

Ordovician Sediments
Gorden Group Limestone

141 Owen Conglomerate

(Late Cambrian - Early Ordovician)
Sequence including the

Cambrian
Mount Read Volcanics

-
ndall Group and correlates
lddle Late Cambrian)
Central Volcanic Com lex
(mainly feldspar p h d )
Sedimentary Rocks, mainly shale and
sandstone
-
Western volcano sedimentary sequences

Damin Pink Granlte

3 Darwin White Granlte

\ Fault

X CU-AU Prospects

Hydrothermal Alteration
C
C
c
r
N

s
Scale:
I
0 1 2Km
I
6
t
L

FIG2 - Study area showing the location of significant Cu-Au prospects and the cxtrnt of granite related hydrothermal alteration

Mining Geology Conference Launceslon, 10 - 14 November 1997 19

 B WYMAN. D COOKE and K LARGE

Typical porphyry Copper

Lyell Area
MI. sedgwldr
m- REFERENCES
Cooke, I.) R , Heithersay. I' S. Wolfe, R m i d Losada-Calderon, A, 1996.
Concepts and Exploration Criteria lor Australian and SW kicilic
Poiphyry Cu-Ail deposits. CODES Key Centre. M Econ Geol Short
Course Manual 5 - Ore Ikposit Stutlles nnd Exploration Studies -
Porphyry Cu-Au. skarn :und epitherrnal deposits (4th ed); p I . 15- I 32
LIL Lye11 (unpuhlished)
Juksr-Dawln Area
Crawford. A J and Berry, I< F. 1992. kctonic implications 01 Late
Proteromc - Early Paleozoic igneous rock associations in western
J u k m Ply.
Tasmania, Tec,fo,if,/,/?):rrc'.r. 2 1437-56
laylour R o w d
Doyle, M. 1990. The geology, mineralisation and alteration of the Jukes
Earl Dr*ln Proprietary Prospect, Western Tasmnnia, Unpublished RSc( Hons)
Findons Thesis. University of Tasinania. 1 1 4 ~ .
D a n h CrmHr Hills, C L. 1914. The Jukes-Darwin mining field, B i t / / Geol Surv I i t . w i ,
Rincr Dawln 16.
Jones, A T. 1903. The g~ology.geochemistry and structure of the Moiiiit
Darwin - South Darwin Peak area, Western Tasmania. Unpublished
RSc(Hons) Thesis, University o f Tasni;inia, 120p.
Large, K K. Doyle. M , Rayiiiond, 0. Cookc. I). Jones, A and Heasinan.
L. 1996. Evaluation of the Role of C:iiiibrian Granites in the Genesis
FIG3 - Sulphur isotope comparison of the Jukcs - Darwin area. of World Class VHMS Deposits in T:isin:inia, Ore Geology R e i ~ i ~ i i ~ . ~ .
10:2 15-230.
Leaman. D E and Richardson, K G. 1989. The granites of west ;ind
north-west Tasmania - a geophysical interpretation. Ttrsrrrtrriict
collisional event in the middle Cambrian, followed by a I)tyirrnie/ir o/ Mi,re.c. Hobcirr: C;eologtc.lr/ Survey Ritlleriri 66, 1441).
period of bimodal volcanism (Crawford and Berry, 1992); Ohmoto. H and Rye, R 0, 1979. Isotopes of Sulfur and Carbon, in (Ed:
magnetite-series granites emplaced post-obduction; H Barnes) Geochernisrr). of Hydrorheruw/ Ore De/,osif,r, pp SO9-556
(Wiley Kr Sons: New York).
Cambrian granite-related Cu-Au vein mineralisation
Payne. B. 199 I . Geophysical interpretation of the MI Sedgewick - Ked
associated with potassic and intermediate argillic (chlorite)
Hills area, western Tasmania, Unpublished BSc(Hons) Thesis,
alteration (Cooke e t u f , 1996); University of Tasmania, 107p.
the presence of tourmaline breccias and magnetite veins; and Polya. D A. Solo~iion.M. Extoe. C J and Walshe, 'J L, 1986. The
multiple intrusions. . Murehison GoIgc, Tasmania - a possihle cross-section through a
Cainbrian massive sulphide system. /:r:o,iomic G'eoloRy. 76: I34 1 -
Unfavourable elements for Cambrian 'porphyry-style' 135s.
mineralisation in the Jukes-Darwin field include: Sillitor. K I I , I993 Gold-rich porphyry copper deposits: Geologic
. no porphyritic stock recognised to-date; rnodel antl exploration ilnplications. i n (Eds: R V Kirkham. W L)
lack of quartz diorite to monzodiorite intrusions; Sinclair, R I Thorpe and J M Duke). Mineral Deposit Modeling:
Geo/ogiutl As.rocrdon of Grnc~drr.S / J C W ~ I Atper 40, pp 46.5-478.
'large-scale zoned alteration systems not known (except for
Solomon. M. h s t o e , C J, W:ilshe, J L antl Green. G R. 1988. Mineral
Mt Lyell); deposits and sulfur ahundances i n the Mount Kcad Volcanics
sulphides have heavy 6348 values; between Que River and Mount Darwin. Tasmania, Ecoriouric
barite veins; and Geology, 83: 1307- 1328.

submarine volcanism. White. N C, 1975. Cainhrian volcanism and mineralisation, SW

Tasiiiania: Unpublished PhD Thesis, Universily of Tasmania. 26411.
It is possible that Cu-Au mineralisation in the Jukes-Darwin Wyman. H , Allen, I< and Iluhig, N, 1996. Jukcs Road: Prcliiiiiiiary
field is low-grade 'porphyry-style', but the submarine setting volc:inic facies analysis :ind alteration petrography. /\MIRA/AKC
favours rapid inundation by seawater, thus explaining the isotopic projecr P4.39. R c p r r 2. pp 29-S4.
character of the sulphides. Early seawater inundation diluted and
dissipated the Cu-Au-bearing magmatic-hydrothermal fluids,
producing intermediate argillic (chlorite-sericite) alteration and
preventing the development of extensive Cu-Au stockwork
mineralisation.

, 20 Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997 Mining Geology Conference

Rosebery Mine Exploration Recent Successes -
C C Graves', C W A Carnie2 and C T Hale2

ABSTRACT I
380000mE 390000mE
Rosebcry mine has had over 100 years of mining activity. The reserve
Post-Ccntral Volcanic
has remained static for the last cight years with an expected niine life of
six years. A move to rectify this was made in 1994 with thc birth of the
1 Complex : Middle Cambrian
\
Deep Exploration Project (DEP). $45 M was committed to drill IO0 kin Middle Cambrian Central
Volcanic Complex
of underground exploration diamond drilling and develop 5.5 kin of
decline aiming to add 9.5 MI to the reserves and nunimise lead time for
development of P and K lenses discovered in the early-1990s. In I996
this aim was expanded with the objective to build the resource b s e to 20
Mt by June 2000 allowing the inill to operate at 1 .O Mtpa (0.9 Mt from
underground). Preliminary results of the project to-date are outlined and
exploration diamond drilling techniques and strategies are described.

INTRODUCTION
Rosebery is in western Tasmania at lat 41'48's. long 145"35'E
on the Queenstown (SK 55-5) 1:250 000 scale and Ihc Sophia
(8014) 1: I 0 0 000 scale map sheets. T h e deposit is hosted by the
Cambrian Mount Read Volcanics which also host the Hercules.
Q u c River, Hellyer, klcnty and Mount Lyell sulphide deposits
(Figurc I). T h e mine is owncd by Pmminco Limited. The
Identified Mineral Resources at June 1997 were 10.28 Mt at 4.2
per cent lead, 12.1 per cent zinc, 0.39 per cent copper, 139g/t
silver, 2.3g/t gold, 9.7 per cent iron (Table I). T h e geology of
western Tasmania and thc Rosebcry district has been described in
detail by various authors and rcferenccs to these as well as a
comprehensive account of thc recent discoverics can bc Iound in
Berry et af (in press).

MINING HISTORY
Base metal mineralisation was discovered at Roscbery in 1893.
Mining commenced within three years as an open cut and a
series of small adits into the side of Mt Black and continued
semi-continuously until I9 13 when local smelting facilities
closed. For the next 2 0 years mining was intermittent, with
continuous operations commencing in the mid-1930s when a
concentrating plant was constructed at Rosebery. When the
orebody became too deep to access by adit, No I Shaft was sunk F a I - Sunplifieti geological map ot the Kosebery area, inodified from
from thc existing 8 Level adit and was completcd in the late- Allcn (1991).
1940s. A major expansion was undertaken to sink N o 2 Shaft to
mine the deeper extensions (15-18 Levels). No 2 Shalt and 7
Level adit were completed in 1972 and provides mail riding and
'I'AHLE1
gear haulage to I7 Level and ore haulage from approximately 18
Level. Diesel equipment was introduced into the mine in 1980 Iilenti/icrl rnitierul resources and ore reserves, June 1997.
starting the internal decline from 17 Level. Since then annual
mining production has grown to 0.6 Mtpa. Mining opcrations
now extend down to 25 Level some 400 m helow 17 Level over a
strike length of 2 k m and to more than I kin below surface.

GEOLOGICAL SETTING
T h e rocks o f t h e Central Volcanic Complex, part of the Cambrian
Mount Read Volcanics containing the Rosebery deposit. arc fault
bound; on the footwall (west) by the Rosebcry Fault and o n the
hanging wall (east) by the Mount Black Fault. T h e Rosebery and
Mount Black Faults are reverse faults dipping nominally 45'
east. Within this fault block the mine footwall sequence (MFW)

I. Senior Geologist, Pasininco Rosebery Mine, PO Box 21. Rosebery

Tas 7470.
2. Mining Geologist, Pasininco Rosckry Mine, PO Box 2 I . K o s e k r y
Total 1 3652 I 3.7 I 10.7 I 0.46 I 119 2.4 10.9
Pas 7470.

Mining Geology Conference Launceston. 1 0 - 14 November 1997 21

C C GRAVES, C W A CARNIE and C T HALE
consists of subaqueously-deposited massive volcaniclastic
pumice breccias of dacitic to rhyolitic composition. The mine
host sequence (MHS) represents a transitional environment of
bedded volcaniclastic siltstone and sandstone. In places this
horizon is capped by a black slate which grades upward into the
mine hanging wall sequence (MHW) which is composed
primarily of dacitic and rhyolitic volcaniclastic rocks. Overall
the entire stratigraphic sequence dips 40 to 50" east, subparallel
to the main bounding faults, however the cleavage tends to be
consistently steeper than bedding by I O to 20". The deposit
consists of many lenses and pods which historically have been
alphabetically named and vary in size from tens of thousands of
tonnes (M and Q lens) up to a maximum of some 5 Mt ( F lens).
Individual lenses arc typically of the order of 100 to 400 m
strike, 100 to 500 m down dip length and mostly less than 20 m
true thickness, often less than I O m. A generalised cross-section
of the south end of the mine illustrates the broad geological
setting and distribution of ore lenses (Figure 2).
3200 rn RL]
.Hkn.
~
Fir; 2 - Generalised cross-section of the Rosebery mine, south end.
Several genetic models have been applied to the Rosebery
deposit since its discovery. These include Cambrian deposition
of sulphide mineralisation as stratiform lenses or as replacement
of permeable horizons by hydrothermal fluids, depositing metals
shortly after the emplacement of the MHS. In contrast, a
Devonian origin with alteration and veining occurring in
dilational structures formed by deformation during the
Tabberabbcran Orogeny has also been proposed (Berry et a/,in
press).
DEEP EXPLORATION PROJECT
The history of exploration at Rosebery has been successful. The
declining ore reserve in recent years has seen an increase in
exploration. The exploration program from 1990 - 04 involved a
twofold approach, drilling diamond holes from both the surface
(on Mount Black) and from underground. During this program
K, M and P lenses were discovered. These drill holes were, at
the time, the deepest in Tasmania from both surface or
underground.
The level of detailed knowledge required about the new lenses
could not be provided by a continuation of either deep surface or
underground holes from existing development. Hence. the
Rosebery deep exploration project (DEP) (Bergin et a / . 1994)
was proposed, which on completion would establish access to P
and K lenses and open up new target areas for further
exploration. The DEP was instigated with the specilic aims of
adding 9.5 Mt to the ore reserve, minimising lead time for
22 Launceston. 10. 14 November 1997
development of P and K lenses and discovering other resources
up to 500 in below the current mine workings. Five and ;i hall'
kilometres of drive and decline were planned to be developed
and some 100 000 m of underground exploration diamond
drilling were estimated to fulfil this god. Expenditure of $45 M
over a lour-year time-frame was proposed. Development i n the
MFW (as compared with MHW) location was considered the
preferred position for the DEP as it could also provide
infrastructure necessary to extract the lower lenses and decrease
the lead time tor the development of the orebodies. The
longitudinal projection (Figure 3) of the Rosebery mine and the
DEP outlines the existing lenses and tarset areas. At June I997
the DEP had spent $24 M. It had drilled 68 000 m of cxploration
holes and driven some 3.5 km of decline development, The DEP
drilling is scheduled for completion in July 1998 and
development in October 1908.
FIG 3 - Longitudiiinl prqjection of the Rusebery mine looking east,
showing the distribution 0 1 orc lenses.
EXPLORATION RESULTS TO-DATE
Exploration was targeted accordins to priorities within the
Rosebery mine objective to build the resource base to 20 Mt by
June 2000. Results to-date are outlined.
Short- and medium-term ore sources
P lens
P lens is in the north o f the mine 120 in south of K lens between
740 and 1 I60 m N and from 2165 to 2745 m RL (Figure 3) nnd
is a possible down dip extension of H lens. I t was discovered in
March I003 during an underground hased exploration drilling
program testing the central mine area south of K lens. P lens is a
series o f stacked. tabular to podilorm. stratabound sulphide
bodies separated by zones of weakly ~nineralisedMHS ranging
in dip from 37" to S6". Up until recently the upper lenses were
called BP lens but the latest geological interpretation has
incorporated them into I' lens. The largest sublenses arc zinc-
lead-gold dominated massive sulphide units all with similar ore
characteristics of brown, low to medium iron sphalerite with
intergrowths of galena and pyrite. To the south, mineralisation
diminishes where the MHS becomes strongly chloritic and
pyritic. Between K and P lenses the few holes drilled to-date
indicate only trace mineralisation and the lower limit of P lens is
not yet defined. A total of 48 holes have intersected the lenses
to-date including one surlacc hole. The June 1097 Inferred and
Indicated Resource is estimated at 2.86 Mt containing 3.8 per
cent lead, 10.5 per cent zinc, 0.27 per cent copper, 133 glt silver,
2.1 g/t gold and 6.9 per cent iron. This resource currently
Mining Geology Conference

comprises I I individual lenses but there is a strong likelihood of
this number increasing with further drilling. P lens is scheduled
to commence production in the I998 - 99 financial year.
T letis
T Lens is in the south of the mine and occurs between 560 to 700
m S and 2500 to 2650 m RL at this stage (Figure 3). I t was
discovered i n April 1096 during exploration from tlie South
Exploration decline (SED). The June 1097 Inferred Resource is
estimated at 0.27 Mt containing 6.1 per cent lead, 17.9 per cent
zinc, 0.4 per cent copper, 257 g/t silver, 2.6 g/t gold and 16.3 per
cent iron. T lens is a single massive sulphide sphalerite-pyrite
dominant pod with a true thickness up to 15 m. Commonly the
hanging wall is massive magnetite-pyrrhotite-garnet replacement
of sphalerite-pyrite ore for up to 7 m. Exploration drilling to
define the extent of T lens to the south continues and potential
exists to exceed I Mt . Deep holes have yet to be targeted down
dip o f T lens.
Long-term ore sources
K lens
K lens is at the northern end of the mine and extends from 1280
to 1660 m N and from 2080 to 2680 m RL and is the most
northern ore lens found to date (Figure 3). It was discovered in
May 1991 by surface drill hole 120R which penetrated the lens in
its middle southern area. The June 1996 Indicated and Inferred
Resource is estimated at 2.77 Mt containing 6.2 per cent lead,
16.7 per cent zinc, 0.4 per cent copper, 103 g/t silver, 3.4 g/t gold
and 8.6 per cent iron. and production is scheduled to commence
i n 2000-2001. Drill holes to-date indicate that K lens forms a
consistent tabular horizon 350 m in strike length, 600 m long
down dip and varying from 2 to 17 m in true thickness. Relative
to its nearest neighbours, P lens (120 m to the south) and H lens
( I 5 0 m up dip and to the south), K lens mineralisation is thicker,
:. internd host rock dilution and has higher-grades.
h.'IS. I css
Central Mitie areu
The area between M and P lens has been called the Central Mine
area. The drill hole spacing here has been fairly broad, with
some gaps of 200 m along strike with little to no information.
The purpose of the deep drilling for this region was to delineate
any resource and t o further the geological knowledge of this
sparsely defined region.
Some I O 000 m of diamond drilling later, there is considerably
more information about the area. The first pass drilling has been
at a spacing of 240 m strike, with a series of holes designed to
delineate each section over a vertical limit of some 400 m.
To-date mineralisation has been intercepted in the region from
280 to 360 mN as several lenses of sub- to economic grade. The
June 1997 Inferred Resource includes V lens estimated at 0.25
Mt containing 4.8 per cent lead. 16.6 per cent zinc, 0.61 per cent
copper, 192 g/t silver, 1.5 g/t gold and 10.9 per cent iron. Further
north, low-grade mineralisation has been detected between 600
to 780 mN. Remaining undrilled sections are still prospective
and there is potential to increase this resource.
The geology of the area has proved interesting. MHS
thickness varies along strike and is linked to the mineralised
horizons. Devonian alteration as characterised by tourmaline,
pyrrhotite and pyrite is common to the southend of the mine.
This alteration is pervasive in the lenses on 360 inN, but its
influence appears to fade further north. The northern most limit
of Devonian alteration and ore replacement is at approximately
500 mN.
Mining Geology Conference Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997
ROSEHERY M I N E EXPLORATION - R E C E N T SUCCESSES
EXPLORATION DRILLING TECHNIQUES
Cuddies are mined 40 to 80 ni apart down the length 01 the North
Exploration Decline (NED) and South Exploration Decline
(SED) to allow exploration drill access along strike of the
Icosehery orebody. These cuddies are designed to nllow drill
coverage from steep up-holcs ( ~ 3 0 0m in length) using LM45
rigs and deep holes (>IO00 m i n length) using LM75 rigs. As the
drilling is from the MFW consideration is needed for the core
size and the amount of deviation (bearing or dip) required in
order to reach the planned target area. There is a dominant
cleavage i n the mine rocks which dips between 5 0 to 70" to the
e;ist. Marked variations in thc amount of deviation in drillholes
can occur depending on thc angle the hole is drilled to the
cle;ivage (Figure 4) with ultimately the drill string bending until
i t is normal to the cleavage (if the hole proceeds far enough). For
very deep holes a decision needs to be made as to the maximum
dip possible (compared to tlic local cleavage) whereby the hole
does not dcviate to the west (opposite to the planned direction).
Generally tlie problems arisc from too much lift. Revision of
previous drill hole surveys and local geology is important when
planning deep exploration holes.
FIG4 - Curreiir deep drilling philosophy. R o s e b a y Mine section 70 mN.
LM4S holes are drilled conventionally using LTK48 bits,
heavy duty reamers (front and hack) and harrel lengths of either
3 or 6 m. LTK46 drilling gear was utilised initially but the need
to Maxibor survey the holes. because of magnetic minerals
influencing the tlownhole camera surveys, led to this change.
'Iypical hole deviations are around 1 to 3' per 30 m i n dip and I"
per 100 m in bearing but consideration needs to be given to the
drilling angle to the cleavage and deviation caused by drill string
rotation. Skew holes drilled off-section also lead to problems
planning the expected deviation.
LM75 holes are drilled using the wireline method in NQ and
HQ size core. Chrome barrels are used commonly to inhibit the
;imount of deviation which can vary markedly with the different
sized rods.
Evolution of drilling philosophy
The deep exploration drilling techniques used at Rosebery have
evolved over time and drilling experience. The first deep holes
underground at Rosebery wcre drilled in 1992. using a LY44
with an cxtendcd 6 m mast. The technique used was to drill a
deep hole up to 1000 m starting in NQ oriented at -50' dip,
allowing the ground to lift the hole until at the end it was
23
C C GRAVES. C W A CARNIE and C T HALE

horizontal or climbing. The hole would use a casing wedge set tit
a planned point to continue in BQ, which would increase the lift
in the hole. A daughter or wedge hole would involve the rods
being pulled hack u p the hole and a Hall-Rowe wedge (some of
which were orientated for lift or bearing dcllcction) cemented
into the hole. The hole could continue up dip from the parent
holc in BQ. I t was possible to do two wedges from the original
parent hole.
The second phase of deep drilling using the LY44 utilised the
experience gained in the earlier holes. These holes were
generally steeper and drilled deeper in NQ in order to lessen the
flattening towards the end of hole. This enabled better hole
control and cheaper drilling costs. The wedging technique also
changed. Instead of drilling the parent hole as the deepest holc,
i t became the shallowest hole, with the greatest lift. The hole
would he cased off in NQ, and the second hole would continue in
NQ from the point where the pilot changed to BQ. In this way
the wedge was retrievable and these holes were also easier and
cheaper to drill. I t was also possible to do three deflections from
the parent hole.
Ftc 5 - Proposed method of seismic reflection to image massive sulpliitle
Current drilling philosophy (Figure 4) lenses.
The current drilling philosophy uses similar principles but with
the more powerful LM75 rigs. An NQ (chrome) hole is drilled to
plan at Rosebery is to trial the metliod underground using
the required depth and monitored by downhole camera surveys.
horehole seismic methods (Figure 5 ) . The lowermost drill hole
The hole is cased-off and drilled BQ standard barrel with step bit
of a well drilled section where an orebody interpretation and
for I O to 15 m and then surveyed. The deviation is assessed and
physical logging data exkt (probably l.rorn the central mine area)
the hole continues with standard bit and barrel if deviation is
would be used and assessments made with the seismic image of
sufficient. A survey is taken again after 15 m and should the
the orebody. I t thc method is suitable i t is hoped to be able to
hole be lifting too much a chrome barrel is supplemented and
test otlicr less explored prospective areas.
progress monitorcd with regular surveys. This method is
succcssful and typical lifts are 3" in 15 m off the casing then 2 to Apart from the targets outlined alrc;idy there is consider;ible
3" in 30 m for the continuation in BQ (chrome). Extra lift will potential for more orcbodics still to be lound at h s e h e r y . Future
sometimes occur in soft, strongly chloritic and sericitic rocks or arcas of interest outside the DEP will be largely determined by
in badly broken zones but this is not always the rule. At the the success or otherwise pf the surface exploration program
completion of this hole the BQ string can be removed and the which is currently testing prospective areas to the immediate
original NQ parent hole resumed down to the next planned lip- north and south of existing mine workings.
off. If the parent hole starts around -45 to -50' dip then it is
possible to drill two o r more deflections should it not lift too ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
much. Typical lifts for NQ chrome at this angle is around I to
1.5' in 60 m. The authors thank Pasminco Rosebery mine for permission to
publish this paper and Gillian Bennett for initial drafting of the
figures.
FUTURE DIRECTIONS
The DEP is a large amount of drilling and a substantial financial REFERENCES
commitment towards meeting Rosebery's objectives. It begs the
Allen, K L, 1991. Structure, stratigraphy and volcanology o f the
question - why not drill less holes and do more geophysics and Roscbery-Ilerculcs Zn-Pb-Cu-Au massive sulphide district,
cover more territory for the same outlay? Numerous geophysical Tasmania: Results 19x8- 1990, report to Pasminco Exploration m d
surveys (gravity, magnetics, EM, IP and others) have been Pasrriiiico Kosehery mine (unpubl). Figure 1.
attempted in the past at Rosebery and these have had only limited Bergin, N. Georgi, 11. Lorrigan, A and Lutherhorrow, C. 1991, Rosehery
succcss. deep exploration proposal. Pasrninco Rosebery mine (unpubl): 1-35.
The role and extent of in-mine geophysics is currently under Berry, M V, Edwards. P W. Georgi, H T. Graves, C C, Carnie, C W A.
consideration as a tool at Rosebery. Pare. R J, Hale. C T, Helm, S W, Hohhy. D J and Willis. R D, 1997.
Thc Kosebery Ieatl-zinc-gold-silver-copl,er deposit. in C;eo/ogy o/ r h !
c t e w Gui!iectn Miwrctl Deposils, h i press (The
Ausfrctlicoi e m f / ' e ~ ~ ~ u N
Seismic reflection surveys Austr;il;isian Institute of Mining and Met;kllurgy: Melbourne).
The use seismic techniques to locate massive Fullagar. P K, Fallon. G N. Hatherly, I' J and Zhou, B, 1996. In-iiiinc
geophysical tri:ils at Rosebery. Centre for Mining Technology and
sulphide orebodies is one such tool and has been trialled :it Equipment, Brisbone, report MM 1 - 9 W : 39-49.
Rosebery in AMIRA project P436 (Fullagar et al, 1996) with
Milkereit. B. Eaton. 11, Wu, J. Perron. G , Salisbury, M, Bcner, E K and
initial results indicating the technique could be successful. Morrison, G . 1096. Seismic imaging of innssivc sulphide deposits:
Milkereit ef a1 (1996) demonstrated, for the first time, how part 11. Reflection seismic profiling, E(wiornic Geology, !)1:829-834.
surface seismic reflection profiling may be used to accurately
detect and delineate deep, large massive sulphide deposits in a
complex geologic setting charactcrised by moderate dips. The

24 Launceslon, 10 - 14 November 1997 Mining Geology Conference

Geology and Mineralisation of the Henty Gold Mine, Tasmania
P De Mark' and T Callaghan2
INTRODUCTION
'The Henty Gold Mine is located approximately 30 km north of
Queenstown, at the head waters of the Henty River on the west
coast of Tasmania at 4I050'S,145"40'E on the Queenstown (SK
55-5) I :250 000 and Sophia (8014) I : 100 000 map sheets (Figure
I ) . The mine is accessed from Queenstown along the A10
Highway and Anthony's Road. The town of Queenstown is
located 260 km north west of Hobart on the A I 0 Highway, and
I. Mine Geologist, Henty Gold Mine. PO Box 231. Queenstown Tas
7467.
2. Exploration Geologist, Henry Gold Mine. PO Box 23 I , Queenstown
Tas 7467.
FIGI - Location map of Henty Gold Mine and regional geology. After Corhett and Lees. 1987
Mining Geology Conference Launceston, 10 -
approximately 40 km equidistant from the towns of Strahan,
Zech;in and Rosebery.
The Henry Gold Mine encompasses four major zones of gold
mineralisation trending along strike and down plunge within a
package o l highly altered volcanic rocks. The shallowest zone is
termed the Sill Zone, followed by the Intermediate Zone
(currently undergoing exploration), Zone 96 (the main focus of
mining), and Mt Julia, also currently in the exploration stage.
licnty is owned and operatcd by Goldfields (Tasmania) Ltd, and
is the first mine to open in Tastnania since I989 and the lirst gold
mine to open since HeaconsIield last century.
The Zone 96 1996 reserves ;ire 526 000 lonnes at 26.2 g/t Au,
containing 442 678 ounces of' gold. Annual gold production is
estimated to average 90 000 ounces over a period of 4.5 years.
14 November 1997 25
 P De MARK and T CALLAGHAN
I During the 1996-1997 financial year, Henty produced 74 930
tonnes at 21. I g/t Au, recovering 48 377 ounces.
Exploration and mining history
Exploration in the Hcnty area was initiated by Renison Ltd in
1966. In 1973, samples from a costcan over an IP and soil
geochemical anomaly at the current portal pad returned 2.4 in of
semi-massive sulphide mineralisation at I .8 per cent Cu, I .76 per
cent Pb, 0.2 per cent Zn, and 37.89 per cent FeS2. At this time
samples were not assayed for Au. Two diamond drill holes into
the costean intersected only a narrow sulphide lens.
Goldfields Exploration Pty Ltd took over the exp1or;ition
license in 1982 and drilled three diamond holes the following
year, with two of them again intersecting thin massive sulphide
mineralisation. Routine gold assaying began at this time and
returned high gold values for the massive sulphide intersection
and another silica-pyrite alteration zone. Wider exploration
around the site of the Henty Gold Mine renewed in 1984 when
EL 9/66 became due for reduction. The area was reinterpreted
and previous drill holes were assayed for Au. HFZO5, one of the
first diamond drill holes sited at the portal pad, returned an
intersection of 6.7 m at 7 g/t Au.
Exploration intensified on the basis of these results, and from
1984 to 1988 a further 38 diamond holes were drilled,
identifying a shallow gold resource between 50 and 150 m below
the surface over a strike length of 650 m, known as the Sill Zone.
The initial resource estimate of the Sill Zone in 1987 was 500
000 tonnes at 10 g/t Au. However, the irregular spatial
distribution and style of mineralisation observed in drill holes
required further work to prove geological continuity and
sufficient tonnes and grade to economically develop the deposit.
In November 1988 development commenced on an 800 in long
exploration decline and a 200 m long ore drive into the Sill Zone
to further define mineralisation. Results from ii 25 m by 25 m
spaced diamond drilling program and methodical sampling of the
ore drive delineated insuflicient mineable reserves to justify
further development of the Sill Zone. However, continued
diamond drilling located a deeper target down plunge of the Sill
Zone mineralisation at 350 to 550 m below the surface. In
September 1989, diamond drill hole HP096A intersected 7.5 m
at 107.1 g/t Au. During the next three years the Zone 96 area,
named in honour of the bonanza drill hole, was drilled to 40 m
by 30 m spacing. identifying a mineable reserve of 526 OOO
tonnes at 26.2 dt Au.
Following a feasibility study undertaken between I990 and
1992, Goldfields decided to drill a shaft to access the deeper
mineralisation. Excavation of the decline leading to the
underground shaft collar and drilling of the internal shaft
commenced in 1993. Henty officially opened in July 1996 after
a three-year pre-production period and an investment of $53
million. Because of delays encountered in accessing the Zone 96
orebody, mining of the Sill Zone during 1995 - 1996 provided
approximatcly 22 000 tonnes at 7.09 g/t Au for the
commissioning of the gold plant. Development driving from the
bottom of the shaft intersected the Zone 96 orebody in October
1996.
A 250 m spaced diamond drilling program in late-1995
identified Henty-style mineralisation at Mount Julia
approximately 1.3 km south of the current mine workings. A
150 m by 75 m spaced infill drilling program is presently under
way and is expected to be completed by the end of 1997.
Drilling of the Intermediate Zone, located between the Sill Zone
and Zone 96 orebodies, has been on-going since late-1996.
Should infill drilling programs in these areas prove to be
successful, an incline to the Intermediate Zone and a decline to
Mt Julia from Zone 96 will be considered.
26 Launceston, 10 - 14 November 1997
REGIONAL GEOLOGY
llenty lies within the Canibrian Mount Read Volcanic I k l t , ;I rich
mineral zone that hosts the Hellycr, Que River, Rosebery,
Hercules and Mt Lycll ore deposits. The Mount Read Volc;inics
form a 2 0 kin wide arcuate belt of' submarine and subaerial
rhyolitic to basaltic liivx, intrusions, ;ind volcaniclastics with a
strike length o f over 200 km. lying along the eastern mar9in of
the Dundas Trough. They ;ire bound to the east by Precambrian
basement rocks o f the Tyennan Region, interlinger Cambrian
volcano-sedimentary rocks of the Duncl;is Group to thc west iind
are overlain by Late Cambrian to Eorly Ordovician siliciclastics
of the Owen Conglomerate.
Stratigraphy
Corbett (1992), Corbctt and Lees (1987) and White and McPhie
(1996) have documented the stratigraphy of the Mount Rcad
Volcanics and form the basis of the following summary. The
Cambrian Mount Read Volcanics may be divided into four major
lithostratigraphic units comprising the Central Volc;inic
Sequences, the Eastern quartz-porphyritic sequence, tlie Western
volcano-sediment~ily sequences (comprising the Yolande River
sequence, the Dundas Group, and the Mount Charter Group), nnd
the Tyndall Group (Figure I). The N N E trending Henty Fnult
Zone was active (luring the deposition of the Tynclall Group
rocks, causing rapid facies changes i n its vicinity, and divides
these sequences into two distinctly differing stratigraphic and
structural domains.
Southeast of the I lenty Fault, volcaniclastics, mudstones, and
sandstones of the Western volcano-sedimentary sequences
overlie or intertingcr with the Central Volcanic Sequences. The
Central Volcanic Sequences comprises mainly rhyolitic to dacitic
h a s , pyroclastics. and intrusives, and is characterised by
potassic rhyolites. The Eastern quartz-porphyritic sequence
mainly comprise quartz porphyritic volcanics, intrusives, and
volcaniclastics interlingering with the Central Volcanic
Sequences. The Tyndall Group niiiinly comprise:; rhyolitic
volcanics and vo1c;iniclastic breccia, conglomerate. s:uidstone.
and mudstone and overlie both the Western volcano-sedimcntary
sequences and the Central Volcanic Sequences, in places
unconformably. The Mount Read Volcanics are overlain by tlie
Owen Conglomerate, a thick sequence of shallow marine to
fluvial conglomerate derived from the rapid uplift of the
Precambrian Tyennan basement rocks. The Newton Creek
Sandstone locally occupies the base o f the Owen Conglomerate
and unconformably overlies or interlingers with the Tyndall
Group.
Northwest of the Henty Fault. the Central Volcanic Sequences
comprises lavas and pyroclastics dominated by dacites and
andesites. The Central Volcanic Scqucnces is unconformably
overlain by felsic tuffs, siltstones, grcywackes, slates, mudstones.
and conglomerates of the Dundas Group.
Regional structural setting
The NNE trending Henty Fault, ii Late Cambrian structure
running for over 60 km between Mount Charter and Mount Read,
dominates the structure in the centre of the Mount Read
Volcanics (Figure I). The Henty Fault dips at 70' to the west
and diverges into the North and South Henty Faults at its
southern extremity near Mount Read. The Great Lyell Fault, a
major Cambrian structure reactivated in the Devonian, trends
south of and parallel to the Henty Fault and possibly intersects it
near the Henty Gold Mine. l h e Hcnty and Great Lyell Faults
formed tlie western margin of an active graben during deposition
of the Owen Conglomerate. Other important structures i n the
area are Devonian NNW trending broad, open folds and later
NW trending folds and faults, and a strong steeply dipping,
NNW trending regional foliation.
Mining Geology Conference
 ~~~~~~

GEOLOGY AND MINERALISATION OF THE HENTY GOLD MINE

Mineralisation of the Mt Kead Volcanic Belt

Hcnty is contcmporary with tlic high-grade Cambrian Pb-Zn-Cu-
Au-Ag VHMS deposits at Hellyer, Que River, Rosebery and
Ikrcules and the Cu-Au Mt Lycll deposit in the Mt Rcad
Volcanic Belt. The high-grade gold deposits at I-lcnty arc a new
stylc of mineralisation in the Mount Read Volcanics, and arc thc
only cconomic deposits hosted i n Tyndall Group rocks. Henty is
n remark;ibly Au-rich volcanogcnic gold deposit at ncarly 30 g/t
Ail, compared lo an average o f 2.8 g/t Au for other Tasmanian
volcanogenic deposits and an average of I .8 g/t Au t o r deposits
world widc (Halley and Roberts, in press).
Pb isotope ratios from samplcs taken from gold-rich alteration
types at Hcnty, including quartz infill in Devonian tension
gashes, are highly uniform and lie in the same field a s the other
Cambrian Mount Rcad Volcanic deposits (Halley and Roberts, in
prcss).

MINE GEOLOGY

FIG2 - Plan of Henty Gold Mine and local geology
Stratigraphy
Thc Hcnty minc lease covers rocks of the Central Volcanic
Scqucnces, thc Henty Fault Sequences, and Tyndall Group rocks
of the Mount Read Volc,inics and the overlying Owen
Conglomerate (Figures 2 and 3). Near the minc, thc Henty Fault
splays into the North and South Henty Faults, dividing the

Mining Geology Conference Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997 27

P De MARK and T CALLAGHAN
geology into segments to the east and west of the faults. and a
package between the splays. Gold mineralisation IS hosted i n
Tyndall Group rocks to the east of the Henty Fault.
Rocks to the west of the Henty Fault comprise dominantly
pink, feldspar phyric dacitic lavas and coarse grained crystal-rich
volcanics of the Central Volcanic Sequences. Numerous
chloritised, fine grained tholeiitic dykes of the Henty Dyke
Swarm intrude rocks of the Central Volcanic Sequences.
The Henty Fault Sequences lie between the North and South
Henty Faults and comprise carbonaceous black shales, matic to
ultramafic volcanics, and quartz phyric volcaniclastics.
Rocks to the east of the Henty Fault comprise quartz phyric
volcanics of the Tyndall Group and siliciclastics of the Newton
Creek Sandstone of the Owen Conglomerate. Minor altered
dacitic volcaniclastics and lavas of the Central Volcanic
Sequences also occur east of the Henty Fault in the southern area
of the lease.
White and McPhie (1996) have divided the Tyndall Group
rocks into the overlying Zig Zag Hill Formation and the
underlying Comstock Formation, which broadly correspond to
the Upper and Lower Tyndall Groups of Corbett (1974, 1988,
1992). They have further subdivided the Comstock Formation
into the upper Mount Julia Member and the lower Lynchlord
Member, which hosts the Henty orebodies.
In the mine area, the Lynchford Member comprises green to
red, massive coarse grained crystal-rich feldspar phyric
volcaniclastic sandstone with lesser siltstones and matrix
supported lithic breccias and minor interbedded cherts and
cream, pink, or purple carbonates. Original textures are still
discernible despite subsequent hydrothermal alteration and
deformation.
Basal units of the Mount Julia Member comprise massive
quartz crystal-rich volcaniclastics and autobrecciated and llow
banded rhyolites which thicken rapidly from north to south,
coinciding with a swing in the strike of lithology from 340" to
020'. subparallel to the Henty Fault. The basal units of the
Mount Julia Member are present at Mt Julia but are not present at
the Henty Mine.
The middle and upper portions of the Mount Julia Member
comprise polymictic volcaniclastic grcywacke, graded mass
flows, quartz crystal-rich volcaniclastic sandstones and epiclastic
shales, overlain by massive crystal-rich volcaniclastic sandstones
with minor matrix supported diamictic breccias.
The overlying Zig Zag Hill Formation comprises polymictic
volcaniclastic conglomerate, coarse grained quartz crystal
sandstones, and laminated siltstones.
Abundant quartz-feldspar to quartz porphyritic rhyolites occur
throughout the Tyndall Group, along with pepperitic and
autoclastic sills, dykes, and flows. This rhyolite complex
intruded the Comstock Formation lithologies and formed
subaqueous extrusives and lava domes with associated
autoclastic deposits at the top of the Comstock Formation and
within the Zig Zag Hill Formation. The autoclastic deposits were
extensively reworked and formed a large localised sediment
source for the Zig &g Hill Formation.
Structure
The Henty orebodies are hosted east of the Henty Fault (Figure
3). on the steeply west dipping overturned western limb of a
shallowly south plunging asymmetric syncline trending into the
Henty Fault. The orebodies plunge at 45' to the south between
the Sill Zone and Zone 96, and shallow at depth towards Mt
Julia. The mineralised zone at Zone 96 is up to 300 m long, 30
m wide, and 200 m high. The lithologies and regional foliation
strike at 340' with a steep westerly dip, and swing parallel to the
Henty Fault as they approach the structure. Two generations of
cleavages (SI and S2) overprint the orcbodies, with the earlier S I
cleavage dragged into the later Devonian S2 cleavage.
28
Launceston, 10 14 November 1997
The structure of the Henty Gold Mine is dominated by the
steeply west dipping Henty Fault Zone. which splays into the
North and South Henty Faults in the middle of the lease. The 20
m wide South Henty Fault forms the upper boundary to
mineralisation, and truncates it to the south. At depth the
vertically dipping orcbodies become increasingly separated from
the westerly dipping fault. Adjacent to the South Hcnty Fault,
foliation intensifies and lithologies become brecciated and
mylonitised. The orebodies are disrupted by numerous north-
south trending, steeply west dipping brittle-ductile lhults with
displacements of up to a lcw metres.
Alteration
Nearly all of the stratigraphic units of the Tyndall Group present
at the Henty Gold Mine have undcrgonc hydrothermal alteration.
The most intense quartz-sericite-sulphide alteration and gold
mineralisation has affected the Lynchford Member of the
Comstock Formation, adjacent to the Henty Fault, and is referred
to as 'A-Zone' type alteration. A Zone alteration types include
MA, MZ, MV, MQ. MP, and CR (Figure 3). The main
mineralised zone comprises MQ, MV, and MZ. and are the
alteration types followed in underground orc drives.
From west to east, the alteration types are as follows:
MA (.wricite-quurtz k pyrite k carboriute k felrl.spar+ fuclisite
.schi.st) - The MA alteration type ranges between IS and 60 m
thick and lies between the Henty Fault to the west and A Zone
type alteration to the east. It is an orange, brown, to green
moderately to strongly altered, highly foliated to mylnnitic rock.
The original lithology is believed to be coarse epiclastic mass
flows and sandstones (Taheri and Green, 1991).
MZ (quartz-sericite-sicll,hide schist)- is a black, fine grained,
sheared and brecciated rock containing quartz, sericite, pyrite,
local carbonate and minor chlorite. feldspar, chalcopyrite,
sphalerite and galena. The MZ contains less silica and sericite
than the MQ and MV alteration types and is less strongly
foliated, and has ii higher sulphide cnntcnt at about five per ccnt.
MZ is volumetricnlly the most abundant alteration type in the
mineralised zone, ranging between 2 and 30 m thick and is
present stratigraphically above and below the MQ and MV
alteration types. It contains discontinuous lenses of MQ and MV.
Petrographic studies support a felsic epiclastic origin for the MZ.
MV. and MQ alteration types (Taheri and Green. 1991). 'The M Z
averages 0.6 g/t Au.
MV (qunrrz-sericite-curbot~ute-.sup/iide .schist)- is a yellow-
green. tine grained, highly foliated rock containing quartz.
sericite, pyrite and local carbonate and minor chlorite, feldspar,
chalcopyrite, sphalcritc, and galena and rare purple fluorite. The
total sulphide content is less than one per cent. MV is the second
most volumetrically abundant alteration type in the mineralised
zone, followed by MQ and MP. The M V forms I to 15 m thick
lenses and commonly envelops the MQ alteration type. It
extends for tens of metres beyond the most northerly lenses of
MQ and is more extensively developed on the hangingwall side
of the MQ, where it is associated with clevated gold values and
base metal mineralisation. The MV averages 4.0 g/t Au.
MQ (massive qrturtz-.sulphide-nativc gold) - is a grey, cream.
or pink massive to recrystallised brecciated quartz rock with
minor muscovite, sericite. pyrite, carbonate and chalcopyrite,
with lesser galena and sphalerite and rare gold and bismuth
metal. Si02 forms 90 - 95 per cent of the rock mass and the total
sulphide content is about two per cent. It forms lenses 2 to 50 m
long and up to 8 m wide. Remobilised sulphides, gold, and
carbonates till late horizontal tension gashes in the MQ formed
during Devonian deformation. The MQ averages 55 g/t Au.
Thicker zones of MQ contain higher gold values.
M P ( t ~ ~ a s s i v~e~ ~ r i ~ e - c a r b o n a t e - q u ~- ~isr t a~ ~bronze-
~~ld)
black massive pyritic rock containing 40 t o 80 per cent pyrite
-
Mining Geology Conference

with interstitial carbonate and quartz. I t forms discontinuous
lenses about IO to 20 cm thick and a few metres long and is
hosted in the MZ. It has undergone extensive fracturing,
brecciation, and recrystallisation.
CB (tnassive curbonare) - The CB alteration type forms the
hangingwall of A Zone type alteration and occurs as white to
pink laterally discontinuous lenses up to 5 m thick containing
carbonate. sericite, sulphides, albite and red jasper fragments.
with a banded to stylolitic texture. The massive carbonate beds
are commonly interbcdded with feldspar phyric sandstones and
siltstones of the Lynchford Member. It is possible that the CB is
an original lithology rather than an alteration product.
AS (nlhite-silica ulferntioti) - occurs to the east of the A Zone
alteration and overprints volcaniclastics of the Lynchford
Member and pervades up through the Mount Julia Member and
the overlying Zig Zag Hill Formation. The alteration occurs as
an irregular pervasive flood of massive white o r orange tine
grained silica and albite, completely destroying original textures
of the volcaniclastics.
Mineralisation
Gold at the Henty Mine is present as both free gold and gold-rich
electrum associated with chalcopyrite and galena in the main
mineralised zone (MQ, MV. MZ). The electrum forms irregular
grains ranging i n size from I pm to about 15 mm. Initial studies
(Taheri and Green, 1991) show that most grains are on the order
of 5 to 15 pm and arc found in microfractures, pyrite grain
boundaries. cleavages in galena, or as inclusions in quartz,
carbonate, pyrite. chalcopyrite and galena. The presence of gold
along grain boundaries or microfractures indicates remobilisation
of gold and later recrystallisation. Gold is also found in
subhorizontal quartz tension gash veins in MQ associated with
Devonian deformation.
Ore genesis
The initial Cambrian system formed sub seafloor by similar
processes to VMS systems but was probably low in base metals
and had a gold content of about 2 to 3 g/t Au. Devonian
deformation remobilised the gold to form the current high grade
gold deposit.
One model (eg Halley and Roberts, in press) suggests that
Henty is a Middle to Late Cambrian volcanogenic gold deposit,
formed in the actively filling shallow water Dundas Trough, at
the footwall of the early Henty Fault. The deposit is laterally and
vertically zoned away from the Henty Fault, with proximal sub-
sea floor quartz-sericite alteration and Cu, Au, Pb, and Bi
mineralisation and distal low level Zn, Pb, carbonate, jasper, and
Mining Geology Conference Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997
GEOLOGY AND MINERALISATION OF THE HENTY GOLD MINE
massive pyrite lenses at or below the sea Iloor. This
interpretation has mineralisation synchronous with deposition of
the Lynchford Member and positioned within I O t o 20 m of the
sea Iloor.
A second interpretation is that the sea lloor position was
higher in the stratigraphy during mineralisation, possibly at the
top of the Tyndall Group. H;ingingwall carbonate horizons may
be replacement rather than primary features, and Na stripped
from the volcanic rocks in the A zone may have remobilised into
the overlying intense albite-silica alteration.
Both models suggest that subsequent Devonian deformation
repeatedly fractured and vcined the brittle MQ lenses and
intensely foliated the more ductile, sericitic MV lenses. Au,
pyrite. chalcopyrite, and galena sourced from the M V and MZ
lithologies locally remobilised on the scale of a few metres, and
recrystallised into late brittle fractures in the MQ.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thanks to S Dunham for the opportunity to write this paper and
for subsequent discussions regarding the history and geology of
the Henty Mine. Thanks also to W Edgar and D Glover of Henty
Gold Mine, Dr R Berry at the University of Tasmania, and Kim
Denwer and Michael Vicary of RGC Exploration for reviewing
drafts ofthe paper.
REFERENCES
Corbctt, K I), Reid. K 0, Corlxtt. E B. Green. G R, Wells, K and
Sheppard, N W. 1974. The Mount Read Volcanics and Camhrian-
Ordovician relationships at Queenstown, Tasmania. Journctl of the
C;coloKtcd Soctrfy ofAustrdict. 2 1 : 173- 186.
Corbett, K D and Lees, T C, 1987. Stratigraphic and structural
relationships and evidence for Cambrian deformation ;it the western
margin of the Mt Read Volcanics. Tasmania, Ausfrcrltciti Journd of
Ectrtlt .Sc:imce.v.34:45-67.
Corbett, K D, 1988. Geological compilation map of the Mt Read
Volcanics and associated rocks. Hellyer to South Darwin Peaks,
Tiisinanian Department of Mines. Mt Read Volcanics Prqject Map 2.
Corbctt. K D, 1992. Stratigraphic-volcanic setting of massive sulfide
deposits i n the Cambrian Mount Read Volcanics. T;ismania,
E c w l f ~ t ! l /GenloKy,
c 87564-5x0.
Halley. S W and Kobcns. R H. in press. Henty: A shallow-water.gold-
rich VMS deposit in western 'I'xmania.
Taheri, J and Green, G R, 1991. The origin of the gold mineralisation at
the Hcnty Prospect, Division of Mines and Mineral Resources.
White. M J arid McPhie, J, 1996. Stratigraphy and paleovolcanology of
the Cambrian Tyndall Group, Mt Read Volcanics, western Tasmania,
h.Yfrd/cttl Jourtictl ofEurrh Scirtices, 43: 147- 159.
29
 .I, -

30 -
Launceston. 10 14 November 1997 Mining Geology Conference
Renison - New Advances in the Geological Understanding of a
World-Class Ore Deposit
P A Kitto', D A Evans2 and C R Mroczek3
ABSTRACT
Kenison is a world-class ore deposit that hns k e n rninetl lor over IO0
years. It currently has reserves of S.06 Mt @ I 88 per cent Sn and a
projected mine life of 8.5 years. Recent advances in the geological
understanding of the deposit have been associated with detailed structural
and geophysical investigations accompanied with the discovery and
exploitation of the Rendeep orehodies. Mineralisation is linked to the
forceful ernplacement of the Devonian Pine Hill Granite that resulted in a
complex britlle (-ductile) deformation of the Eo-Cainbrinn host
stratigraphy. Dilation jog development on the Federal-Rassett Fault in
the Federal and Kendcep area.. provided access for cassiterite-rich
inagrnatic hydrothermal fluids responsible for carbonate repl;iceinent
iiiincralisation.
INTRODUCTION
Renison is one of the world's largest operating underground tin
mine and Australia's largest primary tin producer. It is located at
Renison Bell on the west coast of Tasmania, at longitude
145'26'E and latitude 41"48'S (Queenstown S K 55-5, 1:250 000
sheet). The mine is operated by Renison Limited. a wholly-
~~ ~ ~~
I. Research Fellow. CODES Special Research Centre, University of
Tasmania. GPO Box 252-79. Hoban Tas 700I.
2. Senior Exploration Geologist, Renison Limited. PO Box 20, Zeehan
Tas 7469
7. Chief Geologist. Renison Limited, PO Box 20, ikehan Tas 7469.
RENISON HORST
I I -- %a
FIG1 - Generalised cross-seclion of [lie Renison Tin Mine. western Tusiiiania (Alter McQuiity er (if. in press)
Mining Geology Conference Launceston. 10 14 November 1997
owned subsidiary of RGC Pty Ltd. The identilied mineral
reserve (proved and probable) a s of June 1007 was 5.06 Mt at
1.88 per cent Sn, representing 95 137 t of contained tin derived
from the following sources: Upper Mine (2.27 Mt @ 1.61 per
cent Sn) x i d Rcndeep (2.79 Mt @ 2.1 per cent Sn; Mroczek,
1997). Historical production from the Renison district, 1890 -
1007, has totalled 156 422t contained tin (Mroczek, 1997).
The deposit, comprises 42 oi-ebodies, of which 24 are currently
regarded ;IS economic. The cconomic orebodies are subdivided
into I12 separate mining blocks. Renison represents the largest
of three major stratabound, carbonate replacement, pyrrhotite-
cassiterite deposits within western Tasmania. At Renison, the
three major tlat lying carbonate horizons hosting replacement
mineralisation lie within thc subaerial to shallow marine, Late
Precambrian Success Creek Formation (Corbett ct NI, 1987) and
shallow marine Early Cambrian Crimson Creek Formation
(Kitto, 1990). Forceful emplacement of an asymmetrical granite
ridge associated with the Devonian Pine Hill Granite (355 k 4
Ma: Brooks, 1066) resulted in a complex brittlc (-ductile)
deformation of the host rocks (Kitto. 1990 and 1992; Kitto and
Berry, I99 1 and 1992). The Federal-Bassett Fault, a northwest-
southeast striking normal kiult dipping 70' to the northeast,
provided the major focus for xcending hydrothermal fluids that
resulted i n tin-rich carbonate replacement and vein styles of
mineralisation.
Four main styles of tin mineralisation are recognised and
mined at Renison. These are: (i) Stratabound carbonate
replacement ore, (ii) Fault ore, (iii) Stratafault ore and (iv)
Fracture ore (Figure 1 ). Stratabound mineralisation is the most
-
LI I
-1
t + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +\
~~
~ 31
P A KITTO, D A EVANS and C R MROCZEK
economically signiticant ore type at Renison, formed by the
replacement of dolomite horizons by massive to semi-massive
pyrrhotite. Other minerals include pyrite, minor arsenopyrite and
base metal sulphidcs plus gangue minerals of talc, siderite,
calcite and quartz. The sulphide content of stratabound
mineralisation decreases significantly with depth along the
Federal-Rassett Fault (eg Lower Federal and Rcndeep areas).
Fault ore contains less pyrrhotite than the stratabound
mineralisation and has significant quartz plus base metal
sulphides, arsenopyrite, bismuth, fluorite and tourmaline.
Stratafault ore zones develop in areas of complex faulting where
two or more subparallel faults allow intermediate mine sequence
material, both dolomitic and non-dolomitic to be mineralised.
Economic fracture mineralisation consists of quartz-pyrrhotite
veins and disseminated pyrrhotite replacement of brecciated
siliciclastic units. This ore type typically has elevated
arsenopyrite, bismuth and tourmaline.
MINING HISTORY AND TECHNIQUES
In 1890. Ringrose Nicholson discovered alluvial and gossanous
cassiterite deposits at Renison, then known as the North Dundas
Mineral Field (Montgomery, 1893). At that time George
Renison Bell held prospecting claims for silver and lead along
the Argent River west of Renison (Morland, 1990). The
discovery of cassiterite-sulphide ore occurred in 1900 during
construction of the Emu Bay Railway, but processing of the tin-
bearing gossan and oxidised sulphide ore only began in 1905.
The total Sn production prior to this was estimated at 2N) tonnes.
Several small companies were formed to treat oxidised sulphide
in the first mill, erected in 1907. By 1914 the dominant
Rendeep ORbod
FIG2 - Longitudinal projection of the Renison Tin Mlne. western Tasmania illustrating the locat~onof the new Kcndeep orebodies
32
Launceston, 10 14 November 1997
production was lrom oxidised sulpliides. Hard rock milling
ceased i n the 1920s when only untrcatablc massive iron sulphide
remained. Between 1925 and 1935 tlic mineral field went into
decline and eventual abandonment iis surface deposits were
depleted. In 1930, as technology overcame the difficulty of
recovering tin from massive pyrrhotite by flotation, inost of the
smaller leases amalgamated to form Renison Associated Tin
Mines. Consequently, small-scale open cut and underground
mining resumed, but production remained low (SO - 100 tonncs
Sn per annum; Blissett, 1962). Exploration in the late-1950s
defined ;I potentially major orebody and in 1960 the Mt Lyell
Mining and Railway Company acquired control of Renison
Associated Tin Mints. Mining of the Federal orebody
commenced in 1960 closely followed hy the discovery of
additional reserves of ‘sill ore’ (Morland, 1986).
Commissioning of a new concentrator in 1967 hailed tlic
beginnings of large-scale underground mining operations ;it
Renison. In I976 Consolidated Gold Fields Australia Lttl (to
become RGC Pty Lttl in 1981) obtained direct control of Renison
Ltd. In I990 Rcnison commenced tlic Rendeep Project. in the
northern section of h e operating mine adjacent to the Federal-
Bassett Fault, resulting in the discovery of the ‘Rendecp’
orebodies (Figure 2). This discovery necessitated the
construction of a 575 n i hoisting shaft and conveyor system
commissioned in June 1996 allowing over 700 000 t per annum
to be mined. At this rate of mining Renison has a life of 8.5
years based on reserves of 5.06 Mt C J ~1.88 per cent Sn and the
expected conversion of 1 Mt of resources to reserves (Mroczek.
1997).
South
--F=T
++
++
++
++
++
++
\
-
Mining Geology Conference

At Renison, mine access from surface is via approximately 80'
kms of interlinked haulage declines and underground roadways
developed in the footwall of the Federal-Bassctt structure to a
depth 780 m below the surface. Stoping methods are primarily
in-ore silling and bench techniques plus minor flatback cut and
fill. Access to and within ore i s by 6 m high and 5 m wide drives
and sills. Bench stopes are designed to a height of 12 to 15 m,
whilc llatbacking faces are 3 to 4.5 m high. Some hand-held
mining i s implemented for thin high-grade resources. Bench
firings typically result in 3000 to 8000 t of liberated rock; flat-
back firings produce 500 to 1500 t; and continuous production
from hand-held stopes provide approximately 500 t of ore per
week (Mroczck, 1997).
REGIONAL GEOLOGY
The Renison Tin Mine is located in the Palaeozoic Dundas
Trough, south-east of the Proterozoic Rocky Cape m
the Mine Sequcncc unconformably overlies the polydeformed
Precambrian basement. The host sediments to mineralisation
include the top -80 m of the shallow water terrigenous Late
Precambrian Success Creek Group and the base (-60 m) of the
conformably overlying Early Cambrian Crimson Creek
Formation (Figure 1). The Crimson Creek Formation is a
shallow water succession of turbiditic and volcaniclastic
sedimentary rocks, interbedded with tholeiitic lavas (Kitto,
1990). The mine sequencc is interpreted by Morrison (1982) as
two regressive and a partial transgressive cycle of subtidal-
intertidal-supratidal and fluvial units. The stromatolitic-oolitic
facies, ie the No I , 2 and 3 carbonate horizons are each less than
30 m in thickness and are numbered in reverse stratigraphic order
(Figure 1).
The Serpentine Hill Ultramafic Complex, described by Berry
and Crawford (1988) as part of an Early Middle Cambrian
allochthonous thrust sheet, occurs 2 km east of the mine area and
passes in an arcuate manner 2.5 km south of the mine at Pine Hill
(Figure 3). In the far southeast corner of the mine lease, the
Middle to Upper Cambrian Dundas Group outcrops adjacent to
the ultramafic complex. The Dundas Group conglomeratic
llysch sequences conformably overly the Crimson Creek
Formation and at least part of the ultramafic complex (Elliston,
1954; Ranks, 1962; Blissett, 1962). Boundaries between these
units are typically faulted (Brown, 19x6 and 1989). The
Devonian Pine Iiill Granite is exposed at Pine Hill, in the
southcast region of the mine lease (Figure 3). This highly
fractionated tin granite forms a north-west plunging ridgc
beneath the mine area, and most likely sourced the hydrothermal
tluids responsible for carbonate replacement mineralisation ;it
Renison (Leaman, 1990; Lea, 1991; Kitto, 1992). Minor
porphyritic granite dykes radiate northwest from the apex of Pine
Hill across the mine lease. Finally, a number of minor Jurassic
(3 dolerite dykes cross-cut the mine lease in a north-
northwesterly trend through the underground mine workings at
Renison.
ORE DEPOSIT GEOLOGY
Structure
A detailcd geological interpretation of the geology at the Renison
Tin Mine using cross-section interpretations and computer
modelling has demonstrated a close association between granite
emplacement and brittle deformation structures (Kitto, 1994).
Kinematic indicators on the mineralised faults were used to
detcrmine associated stress fields during mineralisation.
Devonian D1, cast-west compression associated with the Wcst
Coast Range/Valentines Peak Trend resulted in broad scale tilting
of the sediments to the east (Figure 4a; Holyland, 1987). D2
northeast-southwest cornpression overprinted these structures
Mining Geology Conference Launceston. 10- 14 November 1997
KENISON - NEW ADVANCES
and produced the open northwest trending Kcnison Bell
Anticline ;IS part of the ZeehnnlGormanston Trend (Figure 4b).
Many of the structural complexities at Renison resulted from
Mid Devonian DT deformation due to the forceful eniplaccmcnt
of tlic asymmetrical northwest-trending Pine Hill Granite, at the
intersection of tlie Renison Hell Anticlinal high with the
Serpentine Hill Ultramafic Complex (Figure 4c). Initial normal-
dextral brittle deformation at Renison (D3 - i ) fornicd under a
near vertical maximum compressive stress, 01, and near
horizontal minimum compressive stress, 03. trending 8 4'. In
western Tasmania this stress regime is unique to Rcnison and
initiated the Federal-Bassett Fault along a developing eastern
monoclinal margin of the northwest trending Renison Bell
Anticline on the eastern margin of the granite. Displacement of
up to 700 m occurred on this fault during normal-dextral
movement, and tlie early stages of mineralisation were coeval to
this event. In the Rcndeep area deformation of the Mine
Sequence was transitional ftom brittle to ductile (McQuitty,
1995). Initial movement on tlie Blow Fault Complex and
'Transverse Faults' also occurred during this event. The
'Transverse Faults' interconnect the Federal-Bassett and Blow
faults. These second order listric fault structures propagated
from convex-west flexures in the footwall of the Federal-Basset1
Fault and dissected the mine horst, resulting in approximately IS
per cent north-south extension. The axial regions of the flexures,
which plunge -70" S, became major uptlow zones for tin-bearing
hydrothermal fluids as reactivations on the Fedcral-Hassett Fault
breached the cooling Pine Hill Granite carapace (McQuitty et al,
in press).
Dextral-wrench reactivation (D3 - ii) of 5 - I O m overprintcd
earlier normal-dextral fault structures in response to a near-
liorizontal (31 trending 172", and a near-vertical (32. This
reactivation produced a steep southerly plunging dilational jog in
the Federal region of the Federal-Bassett Fault as a consequence
of differential displacement on the 'Transverse Faults' and the
formation of a weak dextral kink fold across the mine horst
(Figure 4d). A similar dilational jog developed in the Rendeep
region at this time. The stress field associated with the dextral
wrench may also have played ;I significant role in the formation
of the largest carbonate replnccment styles of mineralisation at
Renison, which occur in dil;itional sites adjacent to sigmoidal
convex flexures on thc 'Transverse Faults'. The Melba Fracture
Orehody formed in a dilational zone in the competent Renison
l3cII Memhcr, between 'Shear L' and 'Shear P', as a consequence
of normal-dextral faulting ;ind dextral wrench reactivation.
Carbonate-magnetite mineralisation associated with the Polaris
Orebody occurs iit the western extremity of 'She;ir P' in a
dilational site created by the intersection of 'Shear L' and this
structure.
Third order, north-south striking, horst and graben structures
developed in response to synthetic and antithetic faulting above
basal listric extensional 'Transverse Faults'. The third ordcr
structures resulted in 20 per cent extension of the mine sequence
i n the direction of the minimum compressive stress for normal-
dextral fiiulting above an apophysis outlined by the -500 rn
granite contour. The third order faults controlled the extcnt of
carbonate replacement mineralisation in the Updip dolomite
horizons distal to the Federal-Bassett Fault.
Post-Devonian D4 reverse-sinistral displacements o f less than a
few metres overprint earlier fnult striations and mineralisation.
The stress tensors for this went indicate that 0 1 was near
horizontal (088'). ond 03 vertical. The reverse-sinistral event has
not been previously reported. Finally. minor Tertiary normal-
sinistral reactivations (Ds) :ire the last recognised brittle
deformation event at Renison and occurred with a near vertical
(J 1 , and horizontal (33 trending 158".
33
P A KITTO. D A EVANS and C R MROCZEK

a Mine Sequence Lower Cnrnson Creek Formation .

1 Upper Success Creek Group . . .
csc] Success Creek Group . ,I .
. . > .
I

FIG3 - Geological interpretation of the Renison district, compiled from mapping by Kcnisoii Ltd geologists and from dct:ulcd I:2000 cross-sectional
interpretation by the senior author.

34 Launceston, 10 - 14 November 1997 Mining Geology Conference


DEVONIAN D1
d
A
DEVONIAN D3 (Normal Dextral)
C STRESS FIELD
FIG4 - Schematic diagram suinrnarising the main structural events associated with Devonian deform:ition in the Kenison area
Pine Hill Granite
T h e Pine Hill Granite forms a buried 'spine' that connects the
Heemskirk and Granite Tor Batholiths. The morphology of the
Pine Hill Granite has been defined by a residual gravity survey
(Lcaman, 1990 and 1994) in conjunction with deep drilling. The
intrusion is approximately IO km long x 8 km wide and has been
modelled to I O kni below the present topographic surface. The
Pine Hill Granite outcrops 2.5 k m south of the Renison Mine at
Pine Hill. Two zones of intense tourmaline alteration are thought
to represent cupolas associated with separate hydrothermal
systems; one outcropping at Pine Hill and the other at the base of
the Federal-Bassett Fault (Bajwah et nl. 1995). Rb-Sr dating of a
greisenised dyke sample with a high initial X7Sr/86Sr ratio,
collected 500 m west of the mine on the Murchison Highway.
gave an age of 355 -e 4 Ma (Brooks, 1966).
Mining Geology Conference Launceston. 10
KENISON - NEW ADVANCES
DEVONIAN 0 2
DEVONIAN D3 (Dextral Wrench)
D STRESS FIELD
The Pine Hill intrusion I S classified a s an ilmenite-series
granite, and is reduced (Fc3+/Fe2+ + Fe3+ ratio of 0.14).
peraluminous and has corundum normative values between 0.8
and 1.5. Plots of major, trace and REE analyses of the unaltered
Pine Hill Granite show well-developed fractionation trends
which indicate approximately 60 per cent Rayleigh fractionation
during crystallisation (Kitto. 1994). Beneath Renison, an
apophysis of Iatc-stage quartz-feldspar porphyry granite
generated a high temperature boron and fluorine-rich fluid,
which caused in situ xricitisation, albitisation and
tourmalinisation.
Alteration
Three principle overlapping inineralising events weIe associated
with granite emplacement: (0 a thermal metamorphic aureole
~ 14 November 1997 35
 I P A KITTO, D A E V A N S and C R MROCZEK
1 assemblage, (ii) a metasomatic replacement assemblage, and (iii)
a spatially and temporally varied vein assemblage. Thermal
metamorphism resulted in the development of spotted cordierite
hornfels in pelitic units within 100 m of the intrusive contact,
grading outward to biotite hornfels for upto XOO m (Patterson el
(11, 1981). Metasomatic zones overprint the contact metamorphic
hornfels, and the outer limit of biotite hornfels coincides with the
change from amphibole to chlorite metasomatism. These zones
are also recognised to be attenuated in the mine area along the
Federal-Bassett Fault away from a dilational jog in the fault and
above an apophysis in the Pine Hill Granite. In the mine area,
the chloriteftalc zone is best developed in and around the
carbonate replacement orebodies. When present in the dolomite
units of the North-Dassett Fault, the chloritehlc zone grades into
the amphibole zone at depth (Rcndeep orcbodies), and gives way
to a carbonate zone (siderite, ankerite and/or calcite) near
surface, distal to the Federal-Bassett Fault.
Mineralisation
Renison-Dundas district
Intimately associated with the metasomatic replacement fronts,
and more systematic in nature, are several generations of veins
spatially related to apophyses in the Pine Hill Granite.
Mineralisation in the Renison-Dundas district exhibits a broad
telescoped zonation pattern centred upon the Pine Hill Granite
that passes from a tin-rich centre, to copper mineralisation, and
out distally to a silver-lead-zinc halo (Kitto, 1094; Figure 5). A
comparison of tin zones with granite contours clearly
demonstrates an association between proximity to the Pine Hill
Granite and apophyses within the roof of the intrusion. Three
distinct stages of telescoped vein mineralisation have been
rccognised within the mineral paragenesis of the Rcnison-
Dundas district and similar stages are well developed in
association with the Federal-Dassett Fault at Renison:
(i) Oxide-Silicate Stage (quartz - arsenopyrite - tourmaline f
cassiterite + wolframite+pyrrhotite).
(ii) Main Sulphide Stage (pyrrhotite-pyrite-quartz-cassiterite
arsenopyrite+chalcopyritertetrahedrite).
(iii) Carbonate-Base Metal Stage (siderite-sphalerite-galena-
pyrite).
A detailed paragenetic sequence has been determined for each
~
assemblage, together with a history of related deformation and
reactivation. In the Renison-Dundas district the early
hydrothermal Oxide-Silicate Stage occurs within the skarn and'
amphibole zones and overlaps with the biotite metasomatic
assemblages. The Main Sulphide Stage is the dominant
carbonate replacement stage in the 'distal skarn' assemblage at
Renison (Kwak, 1987). but can be recognised in the vein
paragenesis throughout the mines and prospects of the Renison-
Dundas district. l h i s Sulphide Stage overprints the earlier
Oxide-Silicate vein assemblages and is associated with the
metasomatic biotite and talclchlorite zones. The final vein stage
is a Carbonate-Base Metal Stage, characterised by siderite and
base metals, and a Late Vug-till Carbonate assemblage. This
stage, unlike the first two vein stages are uneconomic at Renison
but have been mined in the Renison-Dundas district for Ag-Pb-
Zn .
Renison ore genesis
At Renison deposition of a high temperature Stage 1 Oxide-
Silicate vein assemblage (qz-asp-cass-tour) was associated with
initial faulting (Kitto, 1994). Fluid inclusion homogenisation
temperatures for this stage range from >400°C at the base of the
Federal-Bassett Fault (3000 m beneath the Devonian
36 Launcesfon, 10 - 14 November 1997
palaeosiirface). to 300'C near the top of the mine workings.
Mineralisation was associated with reduced (CH4-bearing).
moderately saline (8 :ind 12 eq wt per cent NaCI), inaginatic
(61ROti,ll~~ =9 %o; &34Sn,ll,i= S%), h"aCI-KCI-H20 brines with
fluid prcssures of 2.50 bars (hydrostatic). C02 vapour was only
detected i n CIi4-bearing tluid inclusions (COJCH4 = 0.5) in the
upper sections of the l.kleral-Bassett Fault associated with
dolomite dissolution.
Dextral wrench reactivation and dilation of the Federal-Dassctt
Fault was associated with ;I Stage 2 Sulphide vein assemblage
(pyrrhotite - cassiterite - quartz - fluorire - stannite - chalcopyrite
+arsenopyrite plus minor base metuls) which produced
stratabound carbonate replacement orebodies that charactcrise
the Renison deposit. Mineral deposition in the Federal-Dassett
Fault occurred over ii temperature range from c3.50°C,
immediately above the Pine Hill Granite, to -20O'C at the top of
the mine workings Irom ;I magmatic hydrothermal tluid similar
in composition to Stage I . The deep-lcvel NaCI-KCI-HzO-rich
brines however evolved to CaC1~-M~C1~-NaCI-H~O-rich tltiids
during fluid-rock reactions with carbonates in the upper mine
levels. Contoured tin values and homogenisation teniperatures
from tluid inclusions clearly outline two high temperature tin-
rich dilational jogs (Federal and Rentleep) on the Federal-Bassett
~ a u ~ast do, variations i n 634~n,ineralvalues.
Minor uneconomic Stage 3 Base Metal veins (rhodochrosite-
galena-sphalerite-quartz), associated with minor fault
reactivations, overprint the earlier vein stages, as do Stage 4 Vug-
f i l l Carbonate-quartz veins (quartz-carbonate+lluorite+pyrite).
Stage 3 and 4 veins were associated with reduced (CH4-bearing),
low temperature (150' to 2(x)"C), bimodal salinity ( c2 and - I O
eq wt per cent NaCI), NaCI-KCI-HzO brines formed via mixing
of contemporary meteoric groundwators derived from N-bearing
sediments with (CI14-bearing) magmatic-hydrothermal fluicls.
634Sn,llciv;ilues (-S%U) remained constant within the Fetlcr;il-
Bassett Fault during Base Metal mineralisation.
Thermodynamic models for cassiterite-rich pyrrhotite ore
deposition predict that dolomite dissolution was most cffectivc in
precipitating >90 per cent of the Sn in solution and that processes
such ;IS cooling, boiling or mixing with contemporary
groundwater were ineffective mechanisms for cassiterite
deposition (Kitto e/ nl. 1997).
EXPLORATION POTENTIAL
Exploration within the mine area is ongoing with signitic;int
programs ciirrently underway in [he Rendeep area and future
programs envisaged for the Deep Fetlcral region (Figure 2). In
the Rendeep area adjacent to the North Bassett Fault the Mine
Sequence has been dragged into and rotated subparallel to the
strike and dip of the fault (McQuitty et al. in press; Figure 6). A
series of subvertical faults splay off the North Bassett Fault and
truncate the Mine Sequence iaa a series of downfaulted blocks
which have been selectively mineraliscd adjacent to a major
dilational jog. Stratabound mineralisation occurs on both the
hangingwall and footwall of the North Bassett,Fault, a structure
which hosts Fault-style mineralisation. Rendeep ore has higher
grade and coarser cassiterite,. relative to the Upper Mine. which
makes metallurgical processing more amenable (McQuitty ct uf,
in press). Current drilling programs are testing projected
extensions of the mineriIlised carbonate horizons to the north
using 21 combination of geological, geochemical (fluid inclusion
and isotope studies) and gcophysical techniques (gravity and
magnetics). Future exploration programs in the Rendeep area
have been proposed to test the southern extensions of
mineralisation adjacent to the Pine Hill Granite.
Mining Geology Conference
 RENISON - NEW ADVANCES

VJ
. . . . . . ..
. . .. .. .. .. .. .. Sn Zone
.. I ]
cu Zone ElAg-Pb-Zn Zone
FIG5 - Telescoped metal zonation in the Rcnison-Dundas district. centred around the uiiderlying Devonian Pine Hill Granite.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge the permission of
Renison Limited to publish this paper. The current level of
geological understanding of the deposit is in no small way
because of the dedication and contributions of a large number of
Renison geologists both past and present. Their assistance is
greatly appreciated. A large number of people at CODES
Special Research Centre, University of Tasmania contributed to
doctoral studies by the senior author on the Renison deposit. Drs
David Cooke, Ron Berry and Professor Ross Large deserve
special mention. Debbie Harding is thanked for her initial
drafiing of figures.
REFERENCES
Ra.iwah, Z U, White. A J R. Kwak. T A P and Price. R C, 1995. The
Kcnison Granite, northwestern Tuinania: a petrological,
geochemical and fluid inclusion study of hydrotherlnd alteration.
Econ Geol. YO: 1663-1675.
Banks. M R . 1962. The Cambrim System, in The Geology of 7irsmrmici
(Eds: A H Spry ;ind M R Banks) J Geol SocAus/, 9(2): 127-145.
Berry. R I: :ind Crawford, A J.1988. The tectonic significance of the
Catnbri:in allochthonous ~ii:ilic-ultainafic cornplexes i n Tasmania.
A w f J C i r f h S c i . 35:161-171
Blissett. A H. 1962 Zeehm. T i s Dcpt Mines Geol Surv Explan Rept.
One iiiile senes KISS-5-50.

Mining Geology Conference Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997 37

 ~

P A KITTO. D A EVANS and C R MROCZEK

I
0 1650 Hangingwall
I

h-
/ I
I

I
I
I
I
I 7 - I
N

FIG6 - Cross-section of the Rcndeep-North Bassett region at 668OU N

I 38 -
Launceston, 10 14 November 1997 Mining Geology Conference

Brooks, C. 1966. The Rb/Sr ages of some Tasmanian igneous rocks, J
Geol Soc. Ausf. 13:457-469.
Brown. A V. 1986. Geology of the Dundas-MI Lindsay-Mt Rainsay area,
Bull Gml Sirrv firsin. 62: 22 I pp.
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Corbett, K D and Lees, T C , 1987. Stratigraphic and structural
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margin of the Mount Kead Volcanics, Tasmania, Ausf .I E(irf/i S c i .
34:45-68.
Elliston, J N, 1954. Geology of the Dundas District. Tasmania, A l p Proc
Roy SICfirs. 88: 161-183.
Holyland, P. 1987. Structure and hydrodynamics of the Kenison Tin
Mine, PhD (unpubl). University of Queensland, 258 pp.
Kitto. P A, 1992. The geological and structural controls on mineralisation
at the Renison Tin Mine. Bull Geol Surv Ttis, 70:97-1 17.
Kitto. P A. 1994. Structural and geochemical controls on mineralisation
at Renison. Tasmania. Unpubl PhD thesis, University of Tasmania.
4R4pp.
Kitto. P A and Berry. R F. 1991. A history of brittle deformation and
related mineralisation at the Renison Tin Mine. Western Tasmania. in
SGEG Orc Fluids Corference in Ginberrci, Bur Miner Res Geol
Geophys Aust. 47-48.
Kitto, P A and K F. Berry, 1992. Structural controls on mineralisation at
the Renison Tin Mine, western Tumania, Geol Soc Airsr Absmtcrs,
32: 70-7 I .
Kitto. P A, Cooke. D R and Large, R R, 1997. Mechanisms for
cassiterite deposition at Renison, western Tmnania, Soc Econ Geol,
Denver. Colorado.
Kwak, T A P, 1987. W-Sn s k n m deposits find rcl~rfednref(rmorp/iic
sktrrns wid ,qrrmiroids. Developments in Economic Geology, Vol 24,
4 s I pp.
Mining Geology Conference Launceston. 1 0 - 14 November 1997
RENISON - NEW ADVANCES
Lea. J K , 1991. Kenison mine lease exploration: Models, concepts,
interpretations and future directions. Kenison Limited unpubl.
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Leainan, D E, 1990. Renison inine lease gravity survey. Renison
Limited unpubl report. Leaman Geophysics, 21 Ipp.
Leainan, I) E, 1994. Renison inine lease gravity survcy augment -
revised granite interpretation. Renison Limited uiipubl report.
Learnan Geophysics.
McQuirty. B M. 1095. Structural controls on ininer;ilis:ition in the
Rendecp area. Renison Tin Mine, Tasmania. Masters of Economic
Geology (Unpubl), University of Tasmania, 183pp.
McQuitty. B M, Roberts. R H, (:;innard, C and Kitto, P A, (in press).
Renison Bell Tin deposit, wcqtern Tasmania - recent developments.
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,~ Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy:
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western Tasmania. Econ Geol. 76393-438.
39
 Launceslon. 10 - 14 November 1997 Mining Geology Conference
40
1
A Review of Geomechanics Applied to Re-opening of the
Beaconsfield Gold Mine
P B Hills'

INTRODUCTION Structural geology

The Beaconsfield Gold Mine within the township of The Cabhage 'I'ree Formation hosting the Tasmania Reef at
Beaconsfield in northern Tasmania has been established in recent Reaconsficld has hcen extensively faulted. The faulting was
years to exploit a known resource in the Tasmania Reef which particularly related to deformation associated with the Devonian
was mincd to a depth of 450 m below surfiicc bctwecn 1877 and Tahberahheran Orogeny and largely occurred in a compressional
1914 yielding 850 000 ounces of gold. Activity at Beaconsfield regime. Particular features on the macro scale include imbricate
over the past 30 years has involved drilling to assess the resource thrusting giving rise t o a number of parallel strike ridges of the
and rehabilitation of the top 100 m of the Hart Shaft that had Cabbage Trcc Formation and associated stratigraphy (Gce and
collapscd sincc the original closure. More reccntly the mine has Lcggc, 1979; Elliott, Woodward and Gray, 1993) and transverse
been dewatered to the 375 m Levcl and work is well advanced shears parallel to the direction of thrusting. One-such transverse
establishing infrastrueturc aimed at recommencing production shear is the sitc of thc Tasmania Reef. Slickensided and striated
during 1998 - 99. This papcr revicws geotcchnical studies discontinuities, pug seams and shaley partings on bedding
undertaken to-date and provides a brief overvicw of some and brecciation, particularly criickle brccciation, associated with
practical methods of analysing ground conditions. I t pursues high pressure compressional tleformation of brittle rocks are
simple observation and analysis as a tool for assessing mine cornmonplxx Virtually orthogonal discontinuity sets have been
design and ground support options without recourse to extensive mapped cxtensivcly at depth throughout the mine and in shallow
monitoring and mcasuremcnt and avoids the use of elaborate abandoned workings and outcrop with the result that consistent
models before the basics are understood. discontinuity sets are readily recognisable. The primary
discontinuity scts are summariscd in Table I .
GEOLOGY
'I'AULE 1
Stratigraphy Siiininory of mijor discontinuities.
The geology of the Beaconsfield Gold Mine centrcd on the Feature Label Dip Dip Spacing
sediment-hosted mcsothermal Tasmania Reef gold deposit is Direction
described by Hicks and Sheppy (1990). The Cabbage Tree
Bcdtlinp RI f,U" 046" 0.1 - 13m
Formation host to the Tasmania Reef is a sequence ot'siliciclastic
scdimcnts including medium grained conglomeratc (Cabbage Inibricatiori 1) I 6.5" 047" 7 km
Tree Conglomeratc) overlain by sandstone with coarse grit Trxisversc Shears 1)2 60" 129" 3-5 111
interbcds (Lower Transition Beds), including ii porous clast (T;istnnnia Recf)
supported micro-conglomeratc with a carbonatc matrix ('Wet Conjugate Pair L)JN 72" 29 I" 0.I - 0.9111
Beds'), which grade to fine grained sandstone and siltstonc, Bisected by DZ D?, 64" 166" 0.1 - 2.0 in
variably calcareous, with stylolitie limestone intcrheds (Upper
Flat Riults D4 2(," 176" >4.0 111
Transition Beds). The sequence then grades conformably to the
Flowery Gully Formation including limestone (Flowery Gully Crosscourse Faults DY 77" 26s" Ihnrasured
Limestone) and shale (Gruhh Shale). Figure 1 illustrates the
stratigraphy.

Slratigraphic Unll Member Thickness The dominant discontinuities ;IS clcarly illustrated i n Figure 2
30 are B I , D ~ and
N D7s which give rise to an extremely blocky rock
I70 mass. Aside lroin the annealing effect of occasional quartz
c;irhonate veinlets, none of the discontinuities exhibit a high
40
20
degree of cohesion. Many discontinuity surfaces, particularly in
120 the Upper Transition Beds iii-e smooth and slickensides and
20 striations arc relatively common.
10
90
50
GEOMECHANICS

General nature of the rock mass

As already described, the rock mass at Bcaconsfield is
FIG1 - Schematic stratigraphy particularly blocky. Thrcc dominant, near orthogonal
discontinuities create an environment where the potential for
wedge failurc, particularly from the backs, is high. Dcspite this,
ground conditions to-date liavc proven to be generally
inanagcahle without recourse to excessive support or
I. Project Geologist, Reaconsfield Mine Joint Venture, PO Box 98. reinforcement. The potential for failure because of high stress
fleaconsfield Tns 7270. has been recognised in the 'lxmania Reef itself through disking

Mining Geology Conference Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997 41

P HILLS

Beaconsfield Mine Joint Uenture

NUH. OF POLES

, 1 pole
2 poles
’ 3 poles
‘La 4 poles
5 poles
* 6 poles
C. 7 poles

EQUhL hREh

LWR. H E M I S P H E R E
3 45 POLES
345 ENTRIES

w
C o n t o u r e d P o l e Plot 375nL P u m p Station

FIG2 - The influence of B I . Dpi and D7s illustrated in contoured stereographic projection

of diamond drill core. To-date however, the Reef has not been integrity. The crileria for selecting sample intervals along the
accessed with development and no formal investigations of this length of the drill core was to establish three 1 m true thickness
potential have been carried out. increments on both the hangingwall and footwall of the reef.
Recovery and RQD were measured on all intervals where the
Qualitative assessments of the rock mass available core was intact prior to met;illurgical sampling. l’liis
was the case for I I intersections. Table 2 shows average
Routine measurement of gcomechanical data from diamond drill
recovery, RQD and KMR for both thc liangingwall and footwall.
core has heen established with the recent underground diamond
drilling program as a tool for predicting ground conditions ahead
of mining in a general sense. The specific use of diamond drill
core for geotechnical assessment of the rock mass has been
restricted to assessing the nature of the hangingwall and footwall
of the Tasmania Reef for the purpose of determining likely waste
dilution in stoping. It has also been used at several locations lo
assess ground conditions for raisebored shafts. The application
of recognised rock mass classification tools to analyse the data
gathered is reviewed in the following discussion.

The Tasmania Reef

A study to establish parameters for determining waste rock
dilution in stoping was undertaken prior to selecting
representative core samples for metallurgical testwork.
Geotechnical information including rock quality designation
(RQD) was gathered in the vicinity of the Tasmania Reel by
relogging a limited quantity of core and analysed using an
established engineering rock mass classification tool lor
underground excavations. The Rock Mass Rating (RMR)
System (Rienjawski, 1973) was chosen for this purpose as the
aim was to characterise the nature of thc hangingwall and
footwall rather than design reinforcement to guarantee its

42 Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997 Mining Geology Conference


In the majority of c;iscs. the rock mass was rated as Class I l l
(fair) under the RMR system (40< RMR <60) which provided an
expectation that the material would Ixive an unsupported stand-
up time o f up to one week for a 5 m span. In better ground a
stand-up time of up to six months for an 8 m span would be
expected for Class II (good) (60 < RMT ~ 8 0 )although
. as values
were at the lower end of the class, a more cautious estimate of
one month was suggested. The results were quite encouraging
from a design point of view and suggested that mass failure of
either the hangingwall or the footwall was unlikely provided
adequate and timely reinforcement was installed. Dilution limits
were established at 0.5 m in the hangingwall and 0.25 m in the
footwall (Rosengren, 1996).
Geornechunical ussessnient for raisebored ventilution
shafts
Several diamond drill holes were drilled for the specilic purpose
of assessing ground conditions for raisebored shafts. The
modified Q-System of McCracken and Stacey ( I 989) was used
to assess ground conditions for the proposed surface fresh air and
exhaust raises. The technique applied nn adjustment to the
Tunnelling Quality Index. Q, as established by Barton, Lien and
Lunde (1974) which was determined from diamond drill core as
the original authors had intended. Brietly:
RQD .Jr .Iw
Q=- x-x-
- Jn Ju SRF
where, Jr =joint roughness,
Jn = joint number,
Ja = joint alteration.
Jw =joint water, and
SRF = stress reduction factor
as defined by Barton, Lien and Lunde (1974). McCracken and
Stacey (1990) apply adjustments to Q which attempt to recognise
that:
the shaft wall as opposed to the excavation back controls
linal stability.
the orientation of the shaft with respect to structural features,
and
the weatherability of the rock.
Determinations were made for both the advancing face of the
raisebored shaft and the ultimate wall to determine the maximum
stable diameter for a shaft in a given set of ground conditions.
Figure 3 is a histogram showing the maximum diameter for a
raisebored shaft at Beaconsfield a s determined by the
McCracken and Stacey method plotted against depth below
collar. It indicates that a shaft with a maximum diameter of 3.5
m as planned would be stable over much of its length but would
be severely compromised near the collar.
Spanwallvs Depth
25.0 -
20.0
FIG3 - Histogram of shaft diameter (Span,,ri) vs depth for a ruebored shaft at Beaconsfield
Mining Geology Conference Launceston. 10- 14 November 1997
GEOMECHANICS AT REACONSFIELD
The technique has yet t o he proven with the completion of a
shatt hut cxual observation of' the many historical mine shafts at
Beaconstield that though unsupported, have remained open for
nearly IOU years has suggcstcd that the method inipht be too
conscrvativc for the blocky rock mass. The primary short-
coming appears to be the reliance of the technique on RQD
measurcments which don't truly reflect the ability of the ground
to stand up.
Subjective assessments of the rock mass
Subjective assessments avoid tlie use of established chssification
systems ;ind their associated equations and 'fiddle factors' and
rely on simple observation. They are not an attempt to
downgrade the value of the classification systems. They do
however, recognise the limitations of those systems which after
all were horn of observations in different geological and
geornechiinical environments, often for very different purposes.
,.
I wo examples ;ire discussed where observation has been the key
t o making feotechnical judgements.
Ohservutions on the mechanical nuture of the country rock
As already observed, the l'asmania Reef is situated in a
transverse shear paralleling the direction of Devonian
compression. The shear itself has a dextral offset of 40 m and
extends well beyond the boundaries marked by the extent of the
Transition Reds. Its suitahility as a focus for economic
mineralisation is directly related to the relative ductility of the
host strata, with dilation in the direction of 03, perpendicular to
tlie shear axis, bcing greater i n less ductile rock. In the course of
resource modellin? and estimirtion it has been recognised that the
Tasmania Reef could be charxtcrised into domains on the basis
of relative ductility of the host rock. The Reef was found to be
thicker in the less ductile domains, averaging 3.5 - 4.0m whereas
the thickness 0 1 the Reef in the ductile domains averaged less
than 1.5 m. The recognition of the domains provided a useful
tool for constraining the influence of thicker and thinner resource
intercepts when modelling the volume of the deposit. The five
domains recognised were:
the Western Domain broadly equivalent to the Sandstone,
Grit and Pebble Conglomerate Member of the Lower
Transition Beds;
the Wet Reds Domain covering the Wet Beds Member of the
Lower Transition Beds;
the Central Domain combining the Sandstone and Pebble
Beds Member of the Lower Transition Beds and the
Siltstone, Sandstone and Stylolitic Limestone Member of the
Upper Transition Beds;
the Calcareous Domain covering the Calcareous Siltstone
Member of the Upper Transition Beds; and
L c
43
P HILLS

1 1 l T r u a :

. -3

. .
.
8
. .

1 .
I
!
I .
.. , . . . .... .... .... ..... .......... . . ...--
. .
.. .:
. .
: . .
.. ..

FIG4 - Longitudinal projection of the Txvnania Reef looking northwcst indicating the boundaries of geomcchanical dornaiiis and Reef intercept wldths
Scale approximately I .SO00

the Eastern Domain covering the Siltstone and Limestone
Member of the Upper Transition Beds.
T h e Western. Central and Eastern Domains were recognised as
being relatively less ductile than Wet Beds and Calcareous
Domains, Their location with respect to ,he Tasmania Reef is
illustrated in Figure 4.
A subjective look ut ruisebored shyfis
As stated previously, a limitation in the ;tbility of the rnodilied Q-
System of McCracken and Stacey (1990) to assess the suitability
of the rock inass for large diameter raisebored shafts was born of
casual observation of the many historical shafts still open around

44 Launceston. 1 0 . 14 November 1997 Mining Geology Conference

 GEOMECI-IANICS AT BEACONSFIELD

Beaconsfield. To this end. two shafts were investigated in detail
and geotechnical assessments made in an attempt to ascertain
what might be possible. The Bonanza Shaft measuring 3.6 m x
1.2 m was found to be open for 45 m and to continue below a
blockage of collapsed shaft timbers to a depth of 165 m. The
larger Phoenix shaft was found to be open to a depth of 28 m.
The geomechanics of this excavation arc described i n further
detail.
The size o f the original rectangular Phoenix Shaft was
estimated at 5.0 m NNW-SSE x 3.0 m ENE-WSW. Considerable
collapse has occurred on the ENE and WSW sides of the shaft,
principally as a result of wedge failure controlled by the bedding
which has a mean dip and dip direction of 45/044. I n fact the
orientation of the long axis of the shaft could not be much worse
from a purely geomechanical viewpoint. The exposed section of
the shaft is entirely within siltstones and sandstones of the lower
member of the Upper Transition Beds. Structural mapping of the
shaft is reproduced in stereographic projection in Figure 5 .
The principal discontinuities are
Bedding BI 45/044
Joint Set I JI 64127 0
Joint Set 2 J2 80/1 5 1
These discontinuities are essentially the same as those listed in
Table I . Few readings were possible in the Phoenix Shaft and it
is possible that other intermittent joints could be distinguished
from the noise with a larger data set. The lack of readings also
made the measurement of discontinuity spacing ditlicult, and
further analysis was undertaken assuming conservative
measurements from across the field. Those were, B I , 0.3 m, J I ,
0.2 m and J29 1.2 m.
A discontinuity wedge analysis of the Phoenix Shaft was
undertaken and is shown graphically in Figure 6.
Of particular concern are large wedges formed on the WSW
;ind ENE walls (wedges 3 and 6). In both cases, the wedges are
controlled by the orientation 01' the shaft with respect to bedding,
i n the former case sliding on the two intersecting joints beneath a
controlling bedding surface iind in the latter sliding on the
bedding surface itself. This is precisely what has occurred in
reall ty.
Discontinuity tlata from the Phocnix shaft was analysed to
ascertain the potential wedge geometry for a 4.5 m diameter
raisehored shaft. This situation is illustrated in Figure 7. The
wedges lormed were well within the size range capable of being
supported using conventional techniques. Rings ot 6 x 2.4 m
rockbolts on ii 1.5 m pattern would be more than adequate.
Alternatively, 50 mm of fibre reinlorced shotcrete would suffice
and would he far easier to apply.
Quantitative assessments of the rock mass
Gathering ofqu;intitative data on the nature of the rock mass has
bccn restricted to ;I program of uniaxial compressive strength and
inotlulus tests on diamond drill core. The results of tests
undertaken by Barrett, Fuller and Partners ( I 997) are
summarised in Table 3. Saniples were collected from the five
waste rock domains estahlishcd to explain consistent variations
in the thickness of the Tasmania Reef a s discussed in the
previous section. The ratio Young's Modulus (E) to uniaxial
compressive strength (UCS) bears out the assumption of relative
ductility previously ascribed to the domains for resource
estimation purposes. Samples were also tested from the
Tasmania Reef categorised iis quartz rich. carbonate rich and

r Benconsfield Mine Joint Uwitu.9 CONTOUR PLOT

IR FISHER
~ONCENTmrTX
POLE
ONS
A of t o t a l pep
1.8 X ace1

< 7.5 X

< re v.
< 18.5 x
< 1s X

< 11.5 X
EQUAL AREA
LUR. HEMISPHERE
37 POLES
37 ENTRIES
NO BIAS
CORRECI I ON

I s
I Phoenix S h a f t

FIG5 - Structural Mapping of the Phocnix Shaft.

Mining Geology Conference -

Launceston. 10 14 November 1997 45
 P HILLS

NO

WEDGE

FORMED

NO

WEDGE

FORMED

o aborl;>

FIG6 - Analysls of feasible wedges for each wall of the Phoenix Shaft. W~llsarc I , SSE. 3. WSW. 4. NNW mid 6. ENE.

r /-

.,,,'
---.

1'

- 4
'
c--
-.-
.- -I!
-.

> S e l e c t u i e r (CESCI to abort)

FIG 7 - Wedge analysis of the Phoenix Shaft data set on a 4.5 in diaineter raisebored shaft

Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997 Mining Geology Conference

46
~

'TAHLE 3
Suininary of'uriiuxial compressive strength ( UCS) und Modulus resting of drill core.
quartz carbonate reef. The results predictably demonstrated that
the quartz rich reef was the least ductile material followed by
quartz carbonate and carbonate rich reef. These results formed
the basis for comminution testwork carried out as a prelude to
mill design.
General ground support and reinforcement
The ground support and reinforcement of underground
development needs to be flexible to deal with local conditions.
However, the choice of ground support elements available to the
mining crew and the establishment of standard ground support
patterns utilising those elements is a geomcchanical exercise in
optimisation of resources aimed at ensuring that safe working
conditions iire established and can be practically maintained.
The following sections discuss the current standards in place at
Beaconsfield.
Hockbolts
Using the results of early geological mapping on the 375 mL
plat. the rock mass was classified according to the Rock Mass
Rating or Geomechanics Classification (RMR) (Bieniawski,
1973) to establish the general nature of the rock mass and
according to the Q-System (Barton et nl, 1974) to design
reinforcement specific to linal design width and purpose. On the
basis of this work systematic rock bolting of all permanent
development using 2.4 m resin anchored AVH posi-mix bolts
supplied by ANI Arnall on a I .4 m x 1.4 m pattern was adopted.
A philosophical decision was taken to bolt to a position not more
than 2.0 m above the sill. The installed bolts were tested to a
capacity in excess of 17 t at Beaconsfield. The rockbolt pattern
was analyscd using the programs DIPS and UNWEDGE as
outlined by Hock et a1 (1995) for various development
orientations relative to B1 and found to be satisfactory for spans
less than 4.5 m wide and 6.0 m high. Analysis using DIPS and
UNWEDGE has continued as different development scenarios
have arisen.
Wide spans and cable bolts
Owing to the blocky nature of the rock mass, standard rock bolts
arc incapable of providing satisfactory reinforcement of wide
spans. At spans in excess of 5.0 m the height of the largest
feasible wedge exceeds the length of the bolts. Such
development requires the use of cable bolts. The philosophy at
kaconsfield has been to use twin plain strand cables in areas of
civil works such as pump stations and single plain strand cables
in travelling ways. The length of cables and the installation
pattern is determined site specifically using the programs DIPS
and UNWEDGE with the sole purpose of stabilising the largest
Mining Geology Conference Launceston. 1 0 - 14 November 1997
GEOMECHANICS AT BEACONSFIELD
feasible wedge. Rockbolts are still required and are installed
between the cable bolts to reinforce the surface of the opening.
Splitset anchors
Splitset anchors have been used at Reaconsficld to provide
temporary reinforcement ahead of rockbolts and cable bolts in
permanent development, particularly where poor ground
conditions have been encountered. They have also been used to
provide reinforcement in temporary or short-term development
such as diamond drill cuddies and it is also intended that they be
used as the primary reinforcement element in cut and till stopcs.
A nominal I m x I m pattern has been selected for the use of
splitset anchors from Q-System analysis of the rock inass. The
limitation on splitset-anchors I i x been set at 12 months because
of their susceptibility to corrosion despite the use of galvanised
units exclusively.
Mesh und shotcrcte
As a general rule, any development which is anticiparcd to have a
active life of longer than 12 months, or is a long-term work site
or travelling way, or is planned as a civil installation will be
meshed or shotcrcted. Mesh will be the commonly used medium
in the decline, access drives. escape accesses, diamond drill
cuddics, ctc. It will be kept to a maximum of 20 m behind the
advancing face and generally installed over the pre-existing
rockbolts with push-on plates. Fibre reinforced shotcrete will be
used as necessary in the worst ground conditions. I t will also be
used regardless of apparent ground conditions in permanent civil
installations such a s pump starions where later remedial support
would be rendered difficult if not impossible or the activity
would compromise production.
CONCLUDING'REMARKS
The work described above has provided an abstract
understanding of the geomechanics of the Beaconsfield rock
inass. It serves as a framework from which detailed geotechnical
studies can be established as mine planning and mining
progresses. The discussion explores some of the techniques that
can be applied without the necessity for detailed data gathering
programs and complex analysis. These techniques will continue
to have relevance in the developing mine as no amount of
complex analysis will cover every scenario and at the end of the
day practical solutions and understanding will be required.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author acknowledges the permission of the Reaconsfield
Mine Joint Vcnturc to publish this paper.
47
P HILLS
REFERENCES
Barrett, Fuller and Partners, 1997. Beaconsfield Gold UCS and Modulus
Test Results. Unpuhlished.
Barton. N R, k i n . R and Lunde, J. 1974. Engineering classification of
rock iiiasses for the design of tunnel support. Rock Mechnnrc,s.
6 :189-239.
Bieniawski. Z T,1973. Engineering classification of jointed rock inasses.
Tr~in.suctiiinsof the S o u r h Africtrii lnstitufc i f Civil En,ciiieer.v.
15:335-344.
Elliott, C G, Woodward. N B and Gray, D R, 1993. Complex regional
fault history of the Ihdger Head region. northeni Tasniania,
Austrcrlicm Jouriitrl of Etrrth Science.v, 40: 1.55-168.
Gee. R D and Legge, P J, 1979. Rcaconslield. Geological Survey
48 Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997
explmiatory report - Zone 7 Sheer NI) 30 (821SN). Tasiiinnia
Dcpartincnt of Mines. Hobart.
Hicks. J I> mitt Slieppy. N R. 1990. Tasiiima gold deposit. Henconsfield.
in (;eolox:)’ of r l i e Minfji-cil Dq)o.xit.r of Austrtrlici trnd Ptrpir~i N m
Guirieti (Ed: F E Hughes) pp 1225 - 1228 (The Australasian Institute
of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne)
Hock, E. Kaiser P K ;itid Hawden W F, lW5. Supporr of i d c r g u w i d
c,wcrwfionx i n Iitiirl r ~ l (A
r A Ralkeiii:i: Rotterdam).
McCmckcn. A and S~aceyT R. 1989. Gcotechnical risk assessiiienr for
1ar~e-di;iiiieter-raise-boredshafts, Tnr~ivwtiiwi.rof the Inxririrrc t!f
Miiiinx l i d McrrilliriXy (Swtion A: M i ~ i i ~ /ndu.rtry)
ix 98: 145- I SO
Roscngren. K J , I996 Ikncoiisfield Mine Project Geotechnical Review -
July 1996. Kevin l h e n g r e n and Associates Ply Ltd. Unpublished
Mining Geology Conference
General Mining Geology

Session Chairperson

David Evans
Renfson Limited
Geology of the Esperanza Copper Deposit
S M Richardson' and A D Moy *
INTRODUCTION
The Esperanza deposit is located 120 km N of Mount Isa,
Queensland at approximately Lit 19"20'S, long I39'22'E on the
Camooweal (SE 54-13) 1:250 000 scale map sheet. I t is one of
*
several structurally controlled copper cobalt deposils developed
d o n g the Mount Gordon Fault zone and related faults. within the
Western Fold Belt of the Mount Isa Inlier (Figure I ) . Together
with the nearby Mammoth orebodies i t forms the basis of the
Gunpowder operation of Aberfoyle Limited.
Until recently ore was mined from the Mammoth orebodies by
open stoping with decline haulage to surfnce leach pads.
Leaching of ill situ broken ore (in place) and surface heaps,
followed by solvent extraction and electro-winning (SX-EW),
produced copper metal on-site. In March 1997, mining was
suspended ;it Mammoth and the focus of the Gunpowder
operation switched to development of the Esperanza orebody,
which is expected to begin open cut production i n mid 1998.
SX-EW methods will produce 44 000 tpa of copper from an
expanded plant.
The pre-mining mineral resource at Esperanza (measured,
indicated and inferred) is estimated at 4.6 Mt averaging 7.7 per
cent copper.

EXPLORATION HISTORY
Copper mineralisation was discovered near Gunpowder Creek in
1923 by the Shah brothers, two Afghan cameleers. They worked
a small open cut on the Mammoth No I orebody irom 1927.
Between 1948 and 1969 Mammoth was worked as a small
underground operation by Italo Foschi, who sank two shafts with
three sublevcls.
In 1969 Surveys and Mining Pty Ltd took control and
embarked on large-scale development. including an open cut,
330 m exploration decline and copper flotation plant. A joint
venture between Consolidated Goldfields Limited and Mitsubishi
took control in 1971 and further developed the operation to carry
out sublevel overhead bench mining, with decline access.
Operation was intermittent over the next ten years until mining
was terminated in 1982.
Exploration drilling in 1969 beneath gossanous outcrops, one
kilometre west of Mammoth mine, led to discovery of the
Esperanza deposit. A decline to investigate the mineralisation
was commenced in 1972, after completion of approximately 25
drill holes but was abandoned in 1974 after several months
battling poor ground conditions and high water inllows.
The Adelaide Brighton Limited Group, took control in 1989.
Production at Mammoth mine resumed from in place and heap
leaching using SX-EW methods. In 1996 Aberfoyle Limited
acquired the Gunpowder operation from Adelaide Brighton.
From August 1996 to April 1997 resource drilling was carried
out at Esperanza to infill the known deposit, within 150 m of
surface, to a nominal 25 x 25 m pattern. Together with earlier
I. Senior Geologist. Aberfoyle Limitcd. Exploration IXvision, PO Box
952. Burnie Tas 7320.
2. Mine Geologist. Aberfoyle Limited, Gunpowder Division. PO Box
2543. Mount Isa Qld 4829.
FIGI - Loc:uion of the Espc~iimadeposit. Tectonic units after
Blakc er d ( 1 9 9 0 ) .
exploration drilling, a total of 128 holes for 24 000 m were
completed. In early-1997, ;I footwall drive and cross-cut were
tlcveloped from the old exploration decline, 12 m into ore, to
obtain a 300 t bulk sample for an on-site pilot leach plant.
Following feasibility studies ii decision to proceed with open cut
mining of the deposit was made in July 1997. Pre-stripping is
currently i n progress with ore production expected to begin in
mid-1998. Mining was suspended at Mammoth in March 1997
after resource drilling at Esperanza indicated sufficient reserves
to establish an open cut oper;rtion. Mining is planned to resume
at Mammoth when Esperanza reserves are exhausted.
REGIONAL GEOLOGY
The Esperanza orebody occurs within the Western Fold Belt of
the Mount Isa Inlier (Figure I). It is associated with faults
related to the Mount Gordon Fault zone, which varies between a
single fault and a broad. braided fault array. In general, the
Mount Gordon Fault zone separates gently folded McNamara
Group of the Lawn Hill Platform in the west, from older, tightly
folded, Haslingden Group of the Leichhardt River Fault Trough
(LRFT) i n the east.
Mineralisation at Esperanza is hosted by Proterozoic units of
the McNamara Group.

Mining Geology Conference Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997 51

S M RICHARDSON ;itid A D MOY
Deformation is related to four phases (DI . D4) o f the 1620 -
1550 Myr Isan Orogeny (Blake et d,1990). I n the mine area, DI
is reflected in an E-W lineation. Regional and niesoscopic,
upright, N-S trending folds and greenschist Iacies
metamorphism. relate to deformation during D2. Major faulting
occurred during Ds, although overprinting relationships suggest
many faults were active during the later stages of N-S folding
during D2. D4 is expressed iis a number of mutually overprinting
fracture cleavages. Primary copper mineralisation is associated
with faulting during D? (van Dijk. 1991).
Regional faults associated with the Mount Gordon Fault zone
trend dominantly NNE-SSW, eg the Esperanza fault (EF). These
are associated with ENE-WSW trending cross faults, such ;IS the
Mammoth and Mammoth Extended faults (MF and MEF). The
EF, MF and MEF all intersect near the southern termination of
the Esperanza orebody (Figure 2). Recent structural studies
indic:ite the cross fiiults formed, or were reactivated, ;is a
consequence of movement on the regional faults and that all were
active at essentially the same time (DJ) (Askew, 1002; Connors,
1992).
Various models have been proposed for the observed fault
geometry. A north to south directed thrust duplex system ( D I )
was proposed by Bell (1983) in which the EF was thought to be a
roof thrust, folded into its current orientation during D2. The M F
and MEF were interpreted as subordinate duplex structures.
Thickness changes of some units in the LRFT, across E-W
structures, led Derrick (1982) to propose that these structures
represent reactivated growth faults. The original syndepositional
FIG2 - Simplified geology ofthr Guiipowder area
52 Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997
r e ~interpreted to relate to rlevelopment of thc Mount
~ t r ~ c t u :ire
Gordon Arch; a N-S palxogeogr:iphic element within the LRFT.
Various scquenccs are c1iaracteristic;illy thinner on top o f the
Mount Gordon Arch than to the east o r west. Major thickness
changes of some post Myally Subgroup units. across the MF ;ind
MEF, indicate that these structures have formed by reactivation
of syndepositional fiiults.
Askew ( 1902) proposed the MOUIM Gordon Fault zone 21s the
main structure within a D; NNE-SSW dextral strike slip system
in which the MF and MEF form a trailing extensional imbricate
fan splaying off tlie EF.
Flat ridge tops i n the Gunpowder ;irc:i are the remnants o f a
Mesozoic land surface. This surfxc has been lateritised;
presumably during tlie Tertiary.
LOCAL GEOLOGY
Stratigraphy
The oltlest stratigraphic units in the Esperanza area are the Lcna
Quartzite and intervals of metabasalt, part of the Eastern Creek
Volcanics which outcrop on the western side of the EF (Figure
2).
East of the EF, str;itigr:iphically ;it least two kilometres higher,
is the Paradise Creek Formation. This comprises grey to creim,
laminated, dolomitic siltstone around I SO in thick which
outcrops GISI and south of tlie orebody. Dips are consistently
west at ahout 50 - 60".
Mining Geology Conference

Conformably overlying tlie Paradise Creek Formation is a
sequence of well bedded to locally massive. black carbonaceous,
to locally grey or grey green weakly dolomitic, siltstone and
shale. Interpreted to be around 200 m thick and corre1;ited with
the Esperanza Formation, this unit is liost to the Esperanza
orebody. Carbonaceous rocks are dominant. especially in the
vicinity of mineralisation.
Included within the Esperanza Formation are bands. upwards
of ;I few metres thick, of laminated chert and bodies of chert
breccia. The largest chert body (Esperanza chert) immediately
overlies ore and locally hosts ore grade supergene mineralisation.
At surhice north of the MF, this unit of light grey to pink
laminated chert and chert breccia is ai least 100 i n thick and
apparently conformably overlies the siltstone - shale sequence.
The chert abuts tlie MEF along its entire length but south of 3475
N (Esperiinza mine grid) the chert is bounded by the MEF, the
top of the orebody and possibly the MF (Figure 3).
ESPEWNZA
FORMATION
Chertbrecua GUNPOWDER
CHEEK
Undifferenllated Chert FORMATION
and laminated chert
a Sillstone and
dobmific s~Itsto118
Black carbonaceous EASTERN Lena Quartzite
sinstone and shale ( melabasalt )
PUUDISE
CREEK oolorntic sinstone
:ORMATION
0 Mount Oxide chert
ferrug8n8satv.m
FIG3 - Geological plan of the Esperanm a m .
Faulting has resulted in extensive brecciation within the chert.
Brecciation is clearly dilational as there is a large amount of void
space visible on surface and intersected by drilling. Introduction
*
of silica and iron followed brecciation as silica iron oxides line
voids and cement the breccia. Brecciation and recementing
appear 10 be most intense for 20 - 30 m above the ore.
Mining Geology Conference
GEOLOGY OF THE ESPERANZA COPPIX DEPOSIT
The Espcranza chert is part of a relatively continuous,
contormablc unit with a strike length of at least 15 km.
However, i t I i x ;i close associ;ition with the MEF and EF and is
mapped ;is breccixtcd along its entire length. I n xldition, iit
Ilsperanza the chert is not continuous at depth but generally
terminates iihruptly. usually with a flat contact, on top of the
orebody, at around 5200 RL (Figure 4). Exceptions to this arc
north of 3575 N. where supergene ore is hosted by chert and
xound 342.5 N where chert extends down the eastern side of the
orebody to S I25 RL.
As clicrt is ncvcr seen below [lie orebody supergene zone, it is
teriipting to reliitc siliciticatioii resulting in the Esperanza chert,
to Icacliing iind silicification of a variably mincriilised fault
breccia. ;IS part of the secondary enrichment process. However,
this would rcquirc an unusually thick, laterally well confined
zone of silicification extending 100 in down from the Mesozoic
land surface t o tlie top of the orebody. As the base of the chert
extends down into the orebody supergene zone in the north, i t is
felt that tlie base ot' tlic Espermza chert may represent some form
of primary cont;ict. This would most likely be a flat f:iult linking
[lie MEF ;ind MF or a preserved segment of an earlier fault.
Ftrrther work is required to resolve this problem.
Leaching of surface outcrop is common and related to
lateritisation. Ferruginisation is common adjacent to faults and
mincralisation, extcnding for ;it least 300 m down permeable
structures. The most intense fcrruginisation occurs along and on
tlie soutlicrn side of the M F where haematite and limonite are
well developed. At surface, ;I broad halo of ferruginisation, north
of the MEF and south of thc MF, is thought to relate to recent
we;ithering and erosion of g~iss~inous outcrops ('Taylor. 1997).
Striicture
'The major faults present in the Esperanza area are:
Mammoth Extcntled Fault ( M E F )
The NE-ENE, stcep south dipping MEF is the main structure
controlling miner;ilisation ;it Esperanza. Map Ielationships
suggcst ii dextral offsct but intcrprctation suggests the MEF is a
reverse fault with a lesser component of sinistral movement.
At s u r f x c the MEF is cxpressed by strong shearing of
ferruginous siltstones sever;il metres out from the Esperanza
chert bountlary. Below surface the northern edge of the chert,
where diamond drilled, is a l s o seen to be a fault, interpreted as
the MEF. Often [lie edge of tlie orebody is apparently unfaulted.
presumably because the sulpliides themselves represent fissure
tilling of the fault zone. Drilling beneath the orebody indicates a
zone, 10 - 30 in across, of fracturing, quartz nnd pyrite *
chalcopyrite veining which is interpreted to represent the MEF at
tlepth.
Murnrnoth Fuuft ( M F )
Intense
'l'hc ENE trending MF is mapped at surface striking into the
Esperanza area at uround 3475 N but its location and the nature
of its termination west of this point are poorly constrained. A
subvertical dip to the north is inferred in the Esperanza area,
contrasting with the 70" southerly dip on this fault in the
Mammoth mine area. South of 3475 N the MF is interpreted to
mark the southern margin o f tlie Esperanza chert; although the
area between the MF and MEF effectively represents a single
broad zone of fault breccia. At depth it is interpreted to merge
with the MEF beneath the main sulphide body. At surface the
MEF and MF are interpreted to merge at around 3275 N ;
altliough outcrop is very poor. The M F is interprcted as a
sinistral reverse fault.
Launceston, 10 - 14 November 1997 53
 S M RICHARDSON and A D MOY

aQ o Laminated chert;
breccia (Esperan
- - Blackcarbonacec
- siltsbne and sha
F j DolomiCc sittsbi

I.... .. ... .............. Mount Oxide Ct

Siltstone am
U dolomitic silt&
>1% Cu minera
(grade conbun
Massive sulphic

Intense ferrugii

Base of super!
mineralisatic

FIG4 - Cross-section through the Esperanza orebody on line 34.50 N. looking grid north.

I
Esperunza Fault the west dipping EF within the regional dextral strike slip system
associatcd with the Mount Gordon Fault Zone (Askcw.1992).
The Esperanza Fault is a NNE trending regional structure
dipping around 55 - 70" west. Wcst sidc u p apparcnt
displacement of greater than two kilometres is evident. The
MINERALIS ATION
MEF and MF splay off from the Esperanza fault i n the poorly
understood area just south of the orebody. Introduction
Movement along the fault during D3 is interpreted to have ~1~~ E~~~~~~~~ orebody is a s l r u c t u i - a ~ ~ y copper -
been reverse. Haslingden Group rocks form Pop cobalt orebody, hosted by carbonaccouS shales and chert breccia,
structure between the east dipping Mount Gordon Fault Zone and near of ~~~~~~l~ and Mammoth ~ ~ t ~ ~ , d ~ d

54 Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1907 Mining Geology Conference


faults. The orebody trends NE-SW with a strike of 450 m and is
subvertical. I t comprises a primary zone of pyrite (FeS2) -
chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) - cobaltite (CoAsS) mineralisation in the
form of veins, disseminations and minor massive sulphide.
Primary mineralisation is enveloped above, below and to the NE
by supergene mineralisation of variable style and considerably
enhanced grade. Supergene copper minerals include digenitc
(CUI.RS).djurleyte (Cui.g6S), covellite (CuS), anilite (Cu1.36S)
and yarrowite (CUI13s) with minor enargite (CuyAsS4).
chalcocite (CuzS), spionkopite (Cu1.4S) and gcerite (Cu I 6s).
In overall setting, Espcranza displays characteristics similar to
the nearby Mammoth orebodies but differs in being ;I more iron
rich system containing abundant massive sulphide. Esperanza
also features higher copper grade, higher porosity and primary
mineralisation closer to the surface than at Mammoth.
Primary mineralisation
Syngenetic or diagenetic pyrite
Fine grained framboidal pyrite, locally forming conformable
bands of bedded pyrite, occurs throughout the carbonaceous
shales but is especially well developed within shales associated
with and adjacent to copper mineralisation. This style of
mineralisation is most noticeable on the western side of the
orebody where supergene enrichment has not obscured primary
textures. Bedding to core axis angles show that bedded pyrite in
these shales cannot be west dipping as is generally seen at
surface but is consistent with a SE dip parallel to the western
orebody boundary.
Bedded pyrite is often disrupted by soft sediment deformation
to the point of forming pyrite clasts in a contorted shale matrix.
At depth and on the eastern side of the orebody, deformed
'ptygmatic' pyrite veins, at low angle to bedding, arc often
associated with bedded pyrite.
The abundance of syngenetic pyrite associated with the
Espermza orebody indicates copper mincralisation may
overprint the remnants of a sediment hosted exhalative pyrite
body.
Collojorm pjrite in in e ru lisa t ion
Pre-dating the introduction of copper but post-dating syngenetic
pyrite is a second phase of pyrite mineralisation. This phase is
inferred from relict colloform pyrite fragments within the
supergene zone. Cot loform textures clearly indicate open space
filling whilst intense brecciation and veining by a later phase
containing relict chalcopyrite is evidence of the overprinting
nature of copper mineralisation.
In the primary zone colloform textures are not seen and a
correlate of this phase is uncertain but is presumably an as yet
unrecognised early generation of pyrite veining.
Priniu ry copper mine ralisut ion
Primary copper mineralisation occurs as a kernel within the
surrounding supergene zone. Mineralisation is hosted by
carbonaceous shale and occurs as:
I. chalcopyrite - pyrite veinlets and disseminations
overprinting and apparently replacing bedded syngenetic
pyrite;
2. veins to I - 2 m of chalcopyrite/pyrite * chlorite; and
3. massive sulphides to several metres thick containing up to
60 per cent chalcopyrite.
Mining Geology Conference Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997
GEOLOGY OF THE ESPERANZA COPPER DEPOSIT
Green chlorite is often assoc~atedwith chalcopyrite veining.
Carbonaceous Irapnents, with an uncertain origin, generally 1 -
3 rnm in diameter, occur within veins and massive sulphides.
Cobalt mineralisation
The nature of cobalt mineralisation at Espcranza is presently not
well understood. Elevated cobalt values arc only associated with
the primary zone and the transition to supergene mineralisation.
The supergene zone is depleted in cobalt.
Within the orebody, cobaltite (CoAsS) and siegenitc
(ICoNi17S4) have k e n obscrvcd associated with chlorite.
Peripheral to the orebody, zones o f cobalt, typically to 0.2 per
cent over several metres, occur associated with pyrite veins in
carbonaceous sh;ile.
Supergene mineralisation
The upper, northern and les5 well defined lower parts of the
orebody comprise supergenc mineralisation.
The base of supergene mineralisation, is consistently S E
dipping at around 20" in the north to about 60" in the south
(Figure 4). In long projection (Figure 5 ) this boundary closely
parallels the base o f the chert, until 3600 N where it plunges
steeply to the north. This surface can be modelled using ferric-
soluble copper assays, as the frequency distribution of the
soluble copper to total copper ratio defines two populations
corresponding to primary and secondary mineralisation.
Supergene mineralisation is characterised by having more than
SO per cent of the total copper content available as ferric-soluble
copper.
,000 RL
~
Orebody
Outline
--.. r c-
\
Primary I Supergene
-
at 1% Copper
C2u1-oTI
' Mineralisation Boundaw B
Orebody Centreline-
FIGS - Longitudinal projection of the Esperanza orebody, looking grid
W'C'SI.
Helow around 5000 RL a second zone of poorly drilled
supergene minerillisation is present where groundwater has
penetrated down the MEF.
The character of secondary mineralisation is variable, from
massive to vein and disseminated. In general. the upper and
central parts of the orebody, from the southern end to 3600 N,
comprise a core of massive sulphide. This grades west, over a
few metres. into semi massive and disseminated mineralisation
containing primary chalcopyrite, where bedding within pyritic
mudstones becomes very prominent. The eastern margin is more
variable, sometimes gradational as on the western side but often
showing a very sharp contact. North of 3600 N mineralisation is
dominantly vein and disseminated in style, hosted by a broad
hiult zone (MEF). A very sharp top to the orebody occurs
iiround 5200 RI,, presumably reflecting the water table during
secondary enricliincnl.
55
 S M RICHARDSON and A L) MOY
A pipe like kernel of unmineralised intensely hacmatitic
siltstone, up to 20 m across, occurs near the top of the massive
sulphide from 3350 N - 3400 N. The origin of this kernel is
uncertain. Opaline silica, which unlike the Espcranza Chert is
clearly related to supergene processes, is locally found as bands
up to a metre across on the top edges of the orebody in the same
area.
Mineralogy is variable but dominated by digenite (Cul.xS),
djurle'ite (Cui .94S) and covellite (CuS). Microprobe analyses
from the central part of the orebody indicate an overall vertical
zonation from digenite (Cu1.8S) + covellite (CuS) + anilite
( C U I36s) at the base to digenite (CUI.RS) + djurlc'ite (cul.96s)+
covcllite (CuS) and minor chalcocite (Cu2S) toward the top.
Minor enargite (CujAsS4) occurs throughout. Pyrite and
marcasite (FeS2) are the dominant gangue minerals with minor
quartz, chlorite, hacinatite, carbonaceous matter and opaline
silica.
The main ore types are:
Brecciated massive ore - The bulk of massive sulphide is
typified by a fragmental texture of intensely fractured, matrix
supportcd. subangular pyrite fragments to 1 - 2 cm, set i n a
matrix rich in digenite - djurlei'te. Marcasite often rims pyrite
fragments indicating conversion of pyrite during the supergene
process. Relict bedded pyritic siltstone and colloform banded
pyrite are evident. The rock is porous, containing up to 25 per
cent voids, ranging in size from less than one micron up to I - 2
em.
In thin section, minor amorphous carbonaceous or bituminous
material occurs as discrete fragments, up to approximately 2 mm
in diameter. These exhibit conchoidal fracture and are
themselves occasionally fractured and veined by supergene
mineralisation. Their origin is unclear but they pre-date
I supergene mineralisation and may correspond to the fine grained
black carbonaceous fragments observed in the primary zone.
High-grade massive ore - This style of mineralisation is
distinguished in hand specimen by the lack of pyrite and is
comprised almost entirely of massive often sooty digenite -
djurleite - chalcocite. Assays up to 50 per cent copper are
rkturncd. I t occurs at the top or eastern edge of the orebody and
is generally very porous, with cavities up to several metres
intersected by drilling. It presumably results from leaching of
brecciated massive ore.
Fault zone ore - This style of mineralisation is typical of the
northern end of the orebody. It occurs within the MEF,
especially where the fault marks the contact between the
Esperanza chert and carbonaceous shale. With the appearance of
broken graphitic shale, occasionally with minor visible sooty
chalcocite, this style of mineralisation returns a much higher
copper assay than expected from visual inspection. Extremely
bad ground conditions, poor core recovery and low SG arc
features.
Shale hosted ore - At the very top and on the margins of the
massive sulphide ore, carbonaceous pyritic shales host veins of
.
secondary copper minerals with economic grade.
I Native copper ore - Native copper is known from several holes
at depth and on the eastern margin of the orebody. Copper
occurs as joint plane coatings in intensely oxidised siltstones.
Gossan
Although it is uncertain to what extent primary mineralisation
occurred within the Esperanza chert, gossanous chert breccia,
locally containing massive haematite, outcrops south of around
3450 N. Copper values associated with this material and
throughout the Esperanza chert, are generally less than 1000
PPm.
56 Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997
ORE GENESIS
Although the signilicance of some aspects of Espcrariza geology
remain unclear, inlormation to-datc points to the following
model.
Thrcc periods 01. mincralisation arc inferred. The first is
represented by syngenctic pyrite disseminations and bedded
pyrite within and adjacent to the orebody. Thc rcstricted
distribution of semi massive to massive bedded pyrite indicates
later mineralisation may overprint the structurally preserved
remnants of an ex1i;il;itive pyrite accuniiilation.
The second and third mineralisin? cvents are interpreted to
relate to faulting during D3 of the Isaii Orogeny. Compression iit
this time is interpreted to be ENE-WSW, allowing dilation ;ind
focussing of hydrothernxil solutions into the arc:) near the
intersection of the MEF and M E At Ihe orebody scale, fluids
have primarily been channelled along the MEF.
Initially, these solutions appear to deposit pyrite only (second
phase). This is evidenced by the liirgc body of massive, loc;illy
colloform pyrite (now brecciated) in the supergene zone. As ;I
source, rcinobilisation ol' nearby syngenetic pyrite cannot be
ruled out.
Copper mineralisation is related to ;i h e r event (third phase) in
which continued faulting has extcnsivcly shattered pre-existing
massive pyrite and allowed influx o f copper rich solutions.
These are interpreted to originate froin nearby Eastern Creek
Volcanics (Scott and Taylor, 1982). Precipitation occurred when
oxidised lluids cncountercd reducing conditions in the
carbonaceous and pyrite rich Esperanza Formation.
Secondary enrichment processes during the Tertiary('!) h;ive
considerably modified primary mineralisation and increased
copper grade in the upper part of the orebody.
The origin of the Esperanza chert and its relationship to
mineralisation is presently uncertain. Although its base would
appear to largely coincide with the w;itcr table during secondary
enrichment, it is tliflicult to attribute niiijor changes seen across
this boundary only to supergene processes. Primary
mineralisation within what is now the Esperanza chert. was
presumably the rriatrix component ol ii siltstone fragment rich
breccia. Below the boundary there is very little evidence of
siltstone or chcrt Iragments; only inassive sulphide, much 0 1
which appears to prcdatc the supergene event. It is suggested the
basc of the chert m;iy he :I primary geological boundary whilst
the top of supergene mineralisation marks the water table during
secondary enrichment. The two positions coincide over much
but not all of the orebody.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The aurhors would likc t o thank Aberfoyle Limited for
permission to publish this paper. They would also like t o thank
G J McArthur, chief mine geologist. tor his contributions and
review of the paper.
REFERENCES
Askew. R L. 1992. Structural Setting of El' 8297 M, Gunpowder. Qld
antl Iiiiplications for further work. Victorian Institute of Ennh and
Planetary Sciences. Australian Crust;il Research Centre, Tcchriical
Publication No 4.
Bell, T 11, 19x3. Thrusting and duplex foririation at MI. Isa. Queensland.
Australia. Ncirurc. 304:403-497.
Blake, D H. Erhcridge, M A , Page R W. Slewart A J, Williams P R and
Wyhorn L A, 1990. Mount lsa lnlicr - regional geology :ind
inineralisntion, i n Geedoxy of'flieMiw/-ci/Deposifs of Ausrnilici mid
f q ' u e i N e w Guitirci (Ed: F E Hughes). pp 915-925 (The Australnsian
Instilure of Mining antl Metallurgy: Melbourne).
Mining Geology Conference

Conciors, K, 1992. Structural Controls on Mineralisation in the
Gunpowder area. Hunter Resources Liniited EPM 831 5 ;
Unpublished report by Etheridge and Henly Geoscience Consultanrs.
37 pp.
Derrick. G, IOX2. A Proterozoic rift zone at Mt Isa. Qld and iinplications
for inineralisation, BMR J o u r d o/ Aitsrrirlrtrii Giwloxy mid
C;etr/’/lysrc.s. 7:x 1-92,
Scott. K M . 198s. Sulphide geochemistry and wall rock alteration as a
guide to inineralisalion. niaininoth area. NW Queenslaiid. Australia.
Jounuil o/ (;coc./remcol EqJlonrriotr. 25:283-308.
Mining Geology Conference Launeeston. IO. 14 November 1997
GEOLOGY OF TIIE ESPEKANZA COPPER DEPOSIT
Scott. K M xnd Taylor, C F, 1981- Eastern Creek Volcanics :ts the source
of copper a1 the Mainmoth ininc, Northwest Queensland. BMR
./ounicil o/ Aus!i.idi(i)i C;colo,yv (rird Geo/diy,yiix, 7:93-98
Taylor. G F. 1097. Mapping of gossan ;it the Esperanza deposit. field
ohserv;itions. Unpiiblished report by Graham F Taylor Geosciences,
I2 pp.
V;LII Dijk. P M. I90 I . Regional syiidcfornmtional copper inineralisation
in the wcstcrn Mount Isa Block, Australia. Ei:oriomic: C h l o g y .
X6:27X-301
57
58 Launceston, 10 - 14 November 1997 Mining Geology Conference
The Geology of the Browns Creek Gold-Copper Skarn Deposit,
Blayney, NSW
G Smart' and C Wilkins2

INTRODUCTION
The Browns Creek deposit is located 8 km west ot 13layney and
220 kin west of Sydney (Figure I ) . at lat 33"32'S, long 149"IO'E
on thc Hathurst (SI 5 5 - 8 ) 1:250 000 scale map sheet. The total
measured, indicatcd and inferred resource at 30 J u n e 1997 was
1.29 Mt at 6.39 g/t gold and 0.45 per cent copper. During the
I996 - 97 year 263 557 t of ore at 6.30 g/t gold and 0.48 pcr cent
copper was treated, to produce 47 496 oz of gold, and I I69 t of
contained copper in concentrate. As the result of an increase in
the resources and reserves, because of underground exploration
drilling and accelerated mine devclopmcnt, 1997 production at
Browns Creek I S predicted to expand from 240 000 to 390 000
tpa. to yield morc than 70 0 0 oz of gold per year.

EXPLORATION AND MINING HISTORY

The Browns Creek mine was first worked in 1871 and was
subsequently operated by M J Hickey from 1979 to I986 a s a
minor open cut and underground operation. Incomplete
production records indicate that 28 233 0% of gold were
recovered from treatment of 501 905 t of ore between 1982 and
1986. Fourteen diamond drill holes were also completed during
this period. In 1986 a short but intensive exploration campaign
by Western Mining Corporation, involving the drilling of 63
diamond and percussion drill holes, delined a rcsourcc of 593
810 t at 5.9 g/t gold.
BHP Minerals Limited acquired the Browns Creek niinc and
nTertiary basalt
U
Ordovician
Cabonne Group
associated mining leases from M J Hickey in September 1986 Carboniferous
and completed a major expansion of mining antl treatment Bathurst Batholith F( Links Volcanics
operations (Creelinan, Lipton and Stagg, 1990). Open cut
mining by RHP Gold and subsequently Ncwcrest Mining nDevonian Li-3
Forest Reef Volcanics
between I986 and early- 1993 recovered 175 394 01 of gold from
1 569 191 t of orc grading 3.48 g/t gold. Mining by BHP and
Newcrest developed the open cut mine to a depth of 140 m.
- Silurian
Mumbil Group
Silurian intrusions
Blayney Volcanics
Cowriga Limestome Mbi
Kenilworth Group
Towards the cnd of the pit life, four deep holes were drilled well Sbg - Barry Granodiorite Coombing Fm
below the pit to test for ore potentially accessiblc from Scg - Carcoar Granodiorite Adaminaby Group
underground operations. Intercepts from this drilling gave Seg - Neville Granodiorite
reasonable confidence that thc skarn body continued for 150 m
bcneath the pit floor and an inferred rcsourcc of 248 000 t at 8.2 Ordovician intrusions
g/t gold was estimated. Otm - Tallwood Monzonite
Hargraves Resources NL acquired the Browns Creek mine and Ogs - Glen Ayr Syenite
leases from Newcrcst Mining in Septembcr I993 and completed
12 deep diamond drill holes that delincd a total measured.
indicated and inferred resource of 5 I O 000 t at 8.2 g/t gold. On
the basis of this resource and the high prospectivity of the area,
Hargraves Resources decided to construct an underground mine
based on annual production of 150 000 t of orc and recovery of
33 000 oz of gold. Underground devclopmcnt commenced in
FIGI - Loc;ition map and Siinplilied geological map of the Carcoar.
November 1904 and first production was in May 1095. As at
Rlnyney area (after Wyborn er til. 1994).
June 1997, total production was 357 575 oz of gold recovered
from 2 935 549 t of ore at a gradc of 3.79 g/t gold. The current
Hargraves Resources underground operation has yielded 94 628
Undcrground mining is undertaken by way of a spiral decline
oz of gold from 529 363 t of ore at a grade of 6.06 g/t gold.
from a portal above the base of the open pit (680 mRL) using an
tiphole retreat benching method with sublevcls located at 15 m
I. Chief Mine Geologist. llargraves Resources NL. Browns Creek intervals. Developmcnt from OS2 mRL down to 532 mRL mined
Mine. Locked Bag 7, Blayney NSW 2799. ore from a northern skarn orcbody. The underground resource
2 . Lecturer. I>epartmcntof Geology antl Geophysics. Uiiivcrsiry of continues to the south and ;it depth, resulting in the prcsent
Sydney NSW 2006. construction of a new internill south decline. Orc is treated in a

Mining Geology Conference Launceston, 10 - 14 November 1997 59

G SMART and C WlLKlNS
conventional plant consisting of three-stage crushing, single-
stage closed circuit grinding, simple gravity circuit, single
product flotation circuit and product filtration.
MINE GEOLOGICAL METHODS
The skarn mineralisation has the overall form o f a tabular steeply
dipping body lying close to the Carcoar Granodiorite contxt.
Resource definition is undertaken by BQ diamond drilling from
positions in the granodiorite to yield an approximate 25 m by 25
m grid of orebody intersections. Additional drilling may he
required in more complex areas. Development levels are driven
at 15 m vertical intervals to facilitate ring drilling and ore
extraction for the up-hole retreat mining method used. Typically
a footwall drive (4 m by 4 m cross-section) is developed ;it the
contact between granodiorite and mineralised skarn, nnd
additional closely spaced diamond core holes using small
pneumatic drill rigs arc used to test for the hangingwall marble
contact position and grade variability through the ore zone. The
typical width of skarn ore (15 - 30 m) requires development of a
second 4 m by 4 m drive on the ore hangingwall. All excavations
within the ore zone are geologically mapped and sampled during
development. The final design of the long-hole slopes i s based
on all available drilling, mapping and grade data.
REGIONAL GEOLOGY
The ore deposit has previously been described:
I. prior to open pit mining by Stanton (l948), McManiis and
Mortimore (1974). Burnham (1976), Bowman, Richardson
and Hobhs (1977) and Taylor ( I 983);
2. during open pit mining by Newcrest Mining Ltd by
Creelman, Lipton and Stagg (1990); and
3. at an early stage of the Hargraves Resources underground
mining operation by Meldrum (1995).
The Browns Creek deposit is in the eastern Lachlan Fold Belt
within the Early Ordovician to Early Silurian volcano-
sedimentary sequences of the Molong Volcanic Rise, which
comprise the Adaminaby Group, Kcnilworth Group. Bowan Park
Group and Cabonnc Group (Figure 1). To the west of the mine
the Forest Reefs Volcanics are interpreted to represent a major
eruptive centre within the Cabonne Group whereas the Blayney
Volcanics (including the Cowriga Limestone Member) represent
extensive outpourings of basaltic lavas and volcaniclastics to the
east, in deeper water away from eruptive centres. The Rlayney
Volcanics range in composition from calc-alkaline, through high
potassium calc-alkaline, to shoshonitic (Wyhorn. 1992).
Following cessation of volcanic activity along the Molong
Volcanic Rise, sediment and volcanic rocks were laid down in the
newly opened Cowra and Hill End troughs (Early Silurian to
Early Devonian) and form extensive sequences in the
surrounding area. The Browns Creek area was intruded by the
Late Silurian Carcoar Granodiorite and related intrusive phases
such as the Long Hill Diorite, which arc separated from the
Forest Reefs caldera structure to the west by the Carcoar Fault.
Low-grade regional metamorphism is characterised by
widespread prehnite-pumpellyite assembages and albitisation of
calcic plagioclase in volcanics, with upper greenschist facies
rocks to the south. Metamorphism in these upper crustal rocks
was caused by extensive melting of the lower crust that gave rise
to the Silurian-Early Devonian granites and felsic volcanics. The
region was deformed initially during NNE-SSW dextral
transprcssion related to the closure of the Hill End Trough to the
east, followed by the Carboniferous Kanimblan Orogeny (Glen,
1992; Pogson and Wyhorn, 1994).
60
Launceston. 10 14 November 1997
LOCAL GEOLOGY
The Cowriga Limestonc lMembcr of llie Rlayney Volcanics W I S
recrystnllisctl to a medium to coai-sc grained marhle by tlie
intrusion o f the Ciircoar Granodiorite. The limestone cont;iiiis
minor interbeddcd basaltic volcaniclastic units, and is at least
150 - 200 m thick, with tlic lower C O I I I ; I C ~not yct encountered in
deep exploration drilling because of. hld-related thickening of
the unit. The Cowriga Limestone Member is conformably
overlain hy u p to I90 m of Blayney Volcanics. The basal unit
consists of basaltic sandstone and conglomerate with rare
limestone, all ch;ir:icterised hy rapid I;iteral facies vari;itions. It is
followed by up to IO0 m of clinopyroxene phcnocryst-rich, ;ind
plagioclase phenocryst-poor, porpliyritic basalt including
horizons of hyaloclastite. pillow biisAt and interpillow chert.
Porphyritic basalt is overlain by 130 m o f domin;intly
plagiochse-rich volcaniclastic rocks. The depositional
environment for tlic Rlayney Volcanics is consistent with a
marine setting with shallow to modcr;itc water depth on the
flanks of an emergent volcanic island, rclated to a volcanic centre
represented by the Forest Reefs volcanic complex 8 km west of
Browns Creek (I Cooper. unpublishetl data, 1996).
The deposit is near the NW corner o f tlie Carcoar Granodiorite
(Figure I ) . The bulk of the intrusion is granodiorite in
composition, averaging 4.5pcr ccnt plagioclase feldspar, ten per
ccnt alkali fcldspx, 25 per cent quartz, ten per cent biotite ;ind
ten per ccnt hornblcndc, with accessory apatite, zircon, pyroxene.
sphene. ilmenite and local alteration products chlorite,
clinozoisite. epidote, sericite, actinolite and calcite. The full
spectruin ol' intrusives from diorite to pegmatite and aplite are
present in the mine area. The intrusive contact with the Rlayncy
Volcanics is characteristically steeply dipping and IiiFhly
irregular (Figure 2). The Long Hill diorite is a local name lor the
intermediate intrusive within the Browns Creek open pit. Aplite
and feldspar-rich inonzonirc sills and dykes with hornblendc and
biotite arc common in the underground workings. the bulk of
which post-date mineralised skarns (Meldrum, 199.5; 1 Cooper,
unpublished data, 1006). Basaltic dykes trending NE-SW, 10 cni
to 2 m thick, occur within the open pit and underground mine
and cut gr;inodioritc, Blayncy Volcanics and Cowriga Limestone.
They c x i be unaltered or variably skarned (cpidotised) ;ind
mineralised and are olicn dcformcd ;IS they were the locus for
kiult initiation during stri kc-slip movciiients.
Contact metamorphism by the Carcoar Granodiorite has
obliterated much of the bedding and produced coarse grained
marble ;ind pyroxene - hornblende hornfels facies rocks in poorly
bedded volcanic units, hcnce structural information is sparse.
The Blayney Volcanics have untlergone two phases of
deformation, which formed the domal outcrop pattern of
Cowriga Limestonc near the mine (Figure 2). FI folds hwe
hinge lines plunging moderately NNE which swing into a SSE
orientation to the east o f the mine. FI folds havc steep cast-
dipping axial planes i n the north and become reclined with
easterly dipping axial planes to the south. They are overprinted
by uprighi open F2 folds gcntly plunying to the WNW and ESE.
Fold interference and intrusion-related deformation has produced
steep t o ovcrturned betlding with o n l y ;I thin veneer of m;itic
volcanics present between granodiorite and marble (I Cooper,
unpublished data, 1996). The mine area is further complicated
by steep north- and NNW-trending dextral faults. The most
important fault is the 'Mount David Fault zone' which traverses
the open pit (Figure 2) and forms the '4000E Fault zone' in the
underground mine. This fault system controls the location of the
gold-copper skarn-hosted mineralisahn at Drowns Creek. At
higher levels the hiult system has the l'orm of a horsetail splay lo
the west of the Mount David Fault zone
-
Mining Geology Conference
 TlIE GEOLOGY OF THE BROWNS CREEK GOLD-COPPER S K A K N DEPOSIT

A.................
. . A * A,.......,
. . . . . . A * . . * A
A A A A A A A A d

. . . . . . . . * * A *

/ / / / / / /
\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \
/ / / / / / /

**............***
A * . . * * ...*....A
A A A A A A A A A A

++++++
A A A A A A A
. . A * . . + . *
**........**

. . * . . A *

* . . . . A *

++++++
+b Antifom Mafic volcaniclastlcs
Mafic VO~CPNCS

Limestone OT marble

'Clay ore' at surface

FIG 2 - Surface geological map of the Browns Creek iniiic area (after I Coolm. unpubllshetl data. 1996)

ORE DEPOSIT FEATURES to IS m width form north-trending- subvertical alteration zones

wociated with faults or dyke margins.
The following description brietly reviews the findings of
Skarn xsociated mineralisation consists of early veins of
Creelman, Lipton and Stagg (1990) and concentrates on data
pyrrhotite-arsenopyrite-pyrite followed by later veins and clots of
from underground mapping. Gold-copper mineralisation occurs
bornite-chalcopyrite. The association gold-hessite-hedleyite
within skarned marble and mafic volcanic rocks at their western
forms the final stage of mineralisation filling fine fractures in the
contact with a major granodlorite intrusion. Massive garnet,
copper ore. A signiticant p ~ o if the gold-rich mineralisation
pyroxene and wollastonite dominated skarns contain
( + I O glt gold) is associated wiih chalcedonic silica ('jasper') in
disseminated chalcopyrite, bornite and gold. From surface at 820
three types of retrograde clay lodes:
m RL to the base of the open pit at 680 m RL skarn ore was
described as having a stratabound or vein character (Creelman, I. nontronite (montmorillorlltic clay) zones at the margins of
Lipton and Stagg, 1990). Stratabound. redacive skarn. wollnsionite skarns:
developed along-;he east trending marble-voicanic contact
2. massive clay zones due to in sifu weathering of skarns; and
adjacent to the pluton, consists of the assemblage calcite-earnet
u

(grossuIar-andradite)-wolIastonite-vesuvianite-hedenbcrgite-
- 3. clay breccia zones due io karst collapse in areas of intense
quartz-epidote. Vertically continuous vein skarns of ccniimetres retrograde skarning.

Mining Geology Conference Launcesion. 1 0 - 14 November 1997 61

G SMART and C WILKINS
P
4s
L*
%\ C0mpl.l.d 0p.n CUl
/" J
FIG 3 - Longitudinal projection of the Browns Creek orebody looking
west, showing stoped out areas (solid fill) and outline of the resource.
Mineralisation in the underground mine
In the open pit the orebody had an east trend and thinned towards
the base of the pit as it swung into a southerly orientation
adjacent to the Mount David Fault zone which marked the
eastern margin of the mineralisation. As the orebody thinned
with depth, open pit mining ceased. The newly defined south-
trending Cowriga Lode has the overall form of a tabular body
about 250 m long and locally up to 50 m wide, with a steep but
variable dip and a moderate southerly plunge (Figures 3 and 4).
The Cowriga Lode consists of structurally controlled copper-gold
bearing skarns and gold-rich retrograde skarns located between
multiple strands of the 4000 E Fault zone which propagated at
the contact between granodiorite and the country rocks (Figure
5). The structural complexity of the orebody became apparent
when continuous exposures were available for mapping in
underground openings. It was found that banding within marble,
in the hanging wall to mineralised skarns. was not relict bedding
but an intense foliation in calcite mylonite developed within the
4000 E Fault zone.
Dextral transcurrent motion on the 4000 E Fault zone
produced vertical anastomosing fault duplex systems that
controlled the location and formation of metasomatic prograde
wollastonite-garnet-pyroxene-plagioclase cxoskarn in both
marble and hornfelsed basaltic volcanic rocks (Figure 5).
Previously described fault controlled, marble-derived and basalt-
derived skarns were the locus for the first stage of copper
gold mineralisation (pyrite-pyrrhotite-arsenopyrite-chalcopyrite-
bornite-chalcocite-gold-tellurides) and retrograde gangue
(chlorite- sericitc- quartz- calcite- epidote- biotite- hornblende)
shortly after prograde skarn formation. as temperatures began to
fall.
Movement on the 4000 E Fault zone, produced gently
plunging slickenside lineations on fault surfaces, and controlled
the prograde and copper-gold skarns. The sense of movement
then later changed to dextral transtensional dip-slip. with steep
slickenside lineations on fault surfaces, forming extensional
duplexes at offscts and overlaps of fault strands. Transtensional
movement along duplex fault slices caused brittle failure and the
formation of large volumes of extensional vein arrays
preferrentially hosted in pyroxene-garnet basalt-derived skarn
62 Launceston. 10 -
W..l
v;
m. , . .. .
. . - ..
FIG4 - Sectional projection (on 24 775 i t 1 N ) of the Hrowiis Creek
orebody looking north, showing the location of skarn rnincralisatioii
units. Thcse structurally controlled sheeted quartz vein arrays
host lower tcmperature rctrogradc ore skarn assemblages (quartz-
calcite- epidote- prehnite- chlorite- scricite- gold- chalcopyrite-
bornite) characteriscd by high, and locally bonanza, gold grades
to 40 g/t. Post-mineralisation retrogression (calcite-quartz-
chlorite-sericite), and monzonite sills and dykes are ubiquitous.
Prominent east- and west-dipping low angle conjugate fault sets
arc the linal phase of deformation and substantially increase the
structural complexity of the deposit.
Hydrothermal tluid flow was guided by the pernieability of
fault networks and caused heterogeneous skarn formation and
mineralisation in alteration zones up to SO m in width (Figure 5 ) .
Skarn reaction fronts, for example those affecting marble, are
clearly l'ault controlled. The disposition of Blayney Volcanics,
Cowriga Limestone and their skarn derivatives on the 577 Icvel
are controlled by dextral strike-slip duplexes at a major bend in
the irregular granodiorite contact thal imposed a fundamental
boundary constraint during the propapation of fault strands. The
extensional form of the fault duplex ;iIso controlled the intrusion
of post-ore monzonite bodies that cut and invade sheeted quartz
vein ore a n d contain rotated blocks of ore.
ORE GENESIS
Skarn formation ;it the contact between the basaltic Blayney
Volcanics and the Cowriga Limestone involved nictamorphic
reactions between calcium, aluminium, iron and magnesium
bearing minerals, forming prograde garnet-pyroxcne-
wollastonite-anorthite-calcite assemblages in the temperature
range SO0 - 650°C: (Taylor, 1083; Crcelman, Lipton and Stagg,
1990). The peak temperature of skarn formation at I kbar would
have been 475 - 535°C (with reference to isobaric T-Xc02
diagrams lor reactions producing the above minerals with low
Xco2 skiirn-forming tluids), and the pi-csence of minor anorthite
suggests teinperatures greater than S40°C at some locations
(Meldrum. 1995). Gold-copper mineralisation clearly post-dates
and replaces peak metamorphic garnet-pyroxene-wollastonite
skarn assemblages and is associated with retrogrirde gangue
assemblages overprinting the original skarn. In the underground
mine (Meldrum, 199s). the following xsemblages are prominent
and formed from infiltrating hydrothermal fluids as temperatures
waned:
14 November 1997 Mining Geology Conference
 THE GEOLOGY OF I'IIE BROWNS CREEK GOLD-COPPER SKAKN DEPOSIT

Granodiorite

Monzonite

Skamed Blayney Volcanics

(Px-Ga dominated)

Skamed Blayney Volcanics

(Wo-Px-Ga dominated)

Sheeted quartz vein skam

Marble

Wo-Ga dominated
marble skam

Px-dominated
marble skarn
Ga garnet
Px pyroxene
Wo wollastonite

I +I I

FIG5 - Geological map o f the northern part of 577 levrl, showing the fanlt-coiitrolletI forin of thc t<rowns Creek orcbody.

I. Retrograde calcite - quartz - scricite - chlorite - epidote-
amphibole -biotite are intcgrown with the disseminated
copper-gold ore association of pyrrhotite-pyrite-
chalcopyrite - bornite - gold - tcllurides (hessite - altaite).
Bornite is the most abundant sulphide and forms
disseminations. replacements and vein fillings in all skarn
types.
2. Sheeted quartz veins containing calcite-quartz-sericte-
chlorite-epidote-prehnite and gold-rich chalcopyritc-
bornitc-gold ore.
Orc genesis is currently being rc-evaluated in thc light of the
strong structural control ol' the mincralised skarns in the
underground mine. Kjollc ef t i l ( 1 994) previously concluded that
deformation of the skarn and granitoids was minor. relative to
[hat in the Ordovician Volcanics, and indicated that the major
deformation along the Fault zone occurred prior to the intrusion
o l the Long Hill diorite. However, underground mapping
indicates tliat fault-relatcd deformation was long lived and
controlled skarn lormation and mineralisation along the 4000 E
fault zone.

Mining Geology Conference Launceston, 10 - 14 November 1997 63

 G SMART and C WILKINS
I The Long Hill Diorite has been dated as Silurian, at 425 4.5*
Myr from alteration minerals and 418.9 *
1.4 Myr from the
magmatic rocks (Perkins, Walshe and Morrison, 1995) and hence
skarn formation and mineralisation closely approximate thcsc
ages. The lead isotope ratios of the gold-coppcr mineralisation
indicate significant mixing o f crustal and mantle derived lead
(Carr et a / , 199s). Possible sources of lead were thought to be
the Ordovician Blayney Volcanics and the Silurian intrusive
Carcoar Granodiorite and Long Hill Diorite, whereby intrusive-
related hydrothermal solutions leached copper, gold and some
lead from the Blayney Volcanics to form the skarn
mineralisation. Kjolle et a1 (1994) used neodymium, strontium
and lead radiogenic isotopes to assess the source of ore fluids
and metals and concluded also that their source was not solely
the adjacent granitoid. They thought that gold and copper were
leached to ;I significant degree from the Blayney Volcanics
during fluid flow around the cooling of the mid Silurian intrusion
and subsequently deposited after prograde skarn formation.
An alternative, more plausible, model involves a primary latc-
stage intrusive-related hydrothermal fluid focussed into
permeable fault zones that propagated adjacent to pluton
margins, with fluid mixing and himetasomatism during skarn
formation tending to obscurc a purely magmatic signature for the
mineralisation. It is important to note that the Carcoar
Granodiorite is barren of both skarns and mineralisation at the
structural level of the present underground mine workings.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This paper is published with the permission of Hargravcs
Resources NL. The manuscript was improved by reviews and
extensive discussions with B Cotton and A Border. P Van Lynt, I
I
Cooper and E Meldrum have all contributed greatly to
understanding the local and mine geological framework. P
Ogdcn is thanked for his help producing some of the ligurcs. C
W is supported by a Sydney University Research Grant and by
Hargraves Resources NL.
REFERENCES
Bowman, H N, Richardson. S J and Hobbs, J J. 1977. Browns Creek
disseminated gold-copper mine - a volcanogenlc deposit, New Snrtrh
I W d e s Geo/ogicu/ Survey Report 1977/086.
Burnhain, P, 1976. The geology of the Browns Creek Gold Mlne and
area. BSc Honours thesis (unpublished), University of Sydney.
I
I 64 Launeeston. 10 -
Carr. G. I)e;in. J A. Suppel, 1) W and Hcil1iers:iy. P S, 199.5. Precise Ie:id
isotope lingerprinting o f hydrotheriiial activity associated with
0rdovici:in to C:irhoniferous inetallogeiiic events in the Lachlan Fold
Helt of New South Wales. E ~ ~ J ~ I O U I ~ C 90: 1467- 1505.
(;co/ogy,
Creelinan. K A. Lipton. I T : i d Stagg, K N. 1090. f3rowns Creek gold
deposit. i n Geology of f / i c Mirrenrl llcpii.vir,y of Ausrrdicr titid I’tilrritr
N c n Grfr~re~r (Ed: I’ E Hughes), pp 1309- 1401 (Thc A u s t r i i l a h i
Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).
Glen. R A, 1992. Thrust. extensional mid strike slip tecronics i n ;in
evolving Palaeozoie orogen - a stnicriiral synthesis of the L:iclilan
orogen of southextern Australia, 7tc.r~i,if’phy,vic.s , 2 l4:341-380.
K j o k . I. Wilshe, J I., SiiiIixin. J A a i d Whitford, I1 J, 1994. (;old
recycled from 0rdovici:ui shoshonitcs iii the Browns Creek sk:ii-n
deposit. NSW. Gtwlofircd Sociery of Ai, vrrdrtr Ab.crrtrrtr,s , 37:22 I
McManiis. J H and Mortiniore. I R, 1974 Browns Creek copper-goltl-
liiiiestoiie-inarhle prospect, Tcxiiis Development Pty I.td
(unpuhlished conipany Ieport lo New South Wnles Geological
Survey, Open File GS 1074/462).
Meldruiii, E A. 199.5. Multisl:ige gold iniiicl.altsing events ;it the Rrowns
Creek gold-copper mine. HSc Hoiioiirs thesis (unpublished).
University of Sydney.
Perkins, C, Walshe, J L and Morrison, G , 1005. Metallogenic episodes of
the Tasinnn Fold Belt Systein, eastern Australia. .Et::co/iornic Geo/o,c,v.
90: 1443-1466.
I’ogson. D and Wyhorii. D, 1994. Excursion guide: Bathurst 1:2.50 000
gcolog~calsheet. N h S o u l l ~ W d e s ( ; ~ ~ / o f i i cSurvey d Reporr GS
I994/ I 3 0 .
Stanton. K L. 1948. Geological report - Browns Creek, BI:lyncy, NSW.
Broken Hill Soiith Ltd (unpublished conipnny report t o New Soilrh
Wiles Geologic;il Survey. Open File G S I948/O2O).
Taylor, G R , 1983. Copper iind gold in sk:irn at Browns Creek, Bhyney,
NSW. , / o r ~ r ~6 ‘fcdw / o f i I c ~ r /.%~irt)’oJfArr.vIrcf/Icf.30:431 - 4 2 ,
Walshe. J L. Heithersay, P S : i d Morrison, G W, 199s. Tow;iItl ;in
understanding o l the Tasiiian Fold Belt System, Economic C ; c w l o ~ , v .
90: 13x2- 1401.
Wyborn. 11, 1992. The tectonic significance of Ordovician niaginatisin in
the eastern Lachlan Fold Belt. 7ecirono/i/r,vsic~s. 2 14: 177- 192.
Wyborn. I>. Sttian-Smith. P G . Henderson. G A M, Willace. I> A.
Rayinond, 0, Kryncn. J, ,Moffitt, 13. Wntkins, J , 1Iawley. S, Pogson.
D. Meakin, S, Spacknian, 1. Scott, M , Warren, A and Morgan. E.
I904 Btrrhrrrsr Geology 1:250 000 .sctrle mtrp sheet SI 55-8.
preliiiiinary 2nd edition (New South Wiles Depnrtment of Mineral
Resources: Sydney, and Australian Geological Survey Or&anisation:
Canhcrra).
14 November 1997 Mining Geology Conference
Exploration on a Mature Mine - A Case History From Broken Hill
R Morland’
INTRODUCTION
Broken Hill has a long history of mining and i t i s without doubt a
world-class deposit. I t has seen production since 1885,
notwithstanding the strikes that made the city infamous in days
gone by and has given rise to three of the nation’s leading mining
companies; BHP, North and CRA.
Prior to the formation of Pasminco in 1988, the mining and
exploration activities were undertaken by separate companies
who were business competitors and tended to operate in relative
isolation. There were a few notable exceptions such as the
Central Geological Survey of 1936 - 38 (Gustafson. 1939;
Gustafson et al, 1950) and the Mine Managers’ Association. The
latter sponsored many university based research projects. At a
local level there was good communication and cross fertilisation
within this remote outback centre through personal contacts and
professional bodies such iis The AuslMM.
Pasminco was formed by the merging of the lead-zinc interests
of CRA Ltd and North Broken Hill Ltd. In Broken Hill this
incant the joining together of North Mine and ZC Mines, the two
largest mines then operating on the Line of Lode, to form
Pasminco Mining Broken Hill Operations. The exception was the
central part of the orebody, the original BHP, South Mine and
I. Principal. Ron Morland Consulting Ply Ltd. 1 Hartwcll Hill Koad.
Cainberwrll Vic 3 124.
I
PASMlNCO
BROKEN HILL
MINE
Rlrlng Sun .)
WhltrLradr .)
FIG 1 - The Miiir Ic:rscs
Mining Geology Conference Launceston. 10- 14 November 1997
other early pioneer companies leases, largely mined out, which
continued to be operated by Minerals Mining and Metallurgy Ltd
until it ceased major production in 1992.
This papcr attempts to document how Pasminco Mining has
explored its leases (Figure I ) . the methods used and the results
achieved. It does not cover tlic geology in detail as this has been
well docuinented (Haydon and McConachie, 1987; Maekenzie
and Davies, 1990; Leyh mid Hinde, 1990; Webster, 1996;
Morland and Wehster, 1997, in press; and Morland and Leevers,
1997, in press).
THE SITUATION PRE-PASMINCO
The orehody was tirst identified i n 1883 by the group that was to
become BHP and which it mined until they left the city in 1939.
‘l’he ground to the north was pegged by what was to become
North Broken Hill Ltd and to tlie south by the precursors of ZC
Mines Ply Ltd. ‘I‘he ground holdings of these two companies
along the 1,ine of Lode ultimately became the Northern and
Southern Leases of Pasminco Mining.
Exploration was undertaken by each company within its mine
and leases. In tlie early-1980s North ceased surtiace lease
exploration in its own right tor linancial reasons. ’The ground
covered by the two leases furthest from the mine was the subject
01’ a joint venture with CRAE. The near mine lease, considered to
he the most prospective, was retained but went unexplored in
recent times until Pasminco was formed.
EKjuRE1
THE MINE LEASES
65
R MORLAND

On its leases North had identified mineralisation at the Flying EXPLORATION IN PASMINCO TIMES
Doctor Prospect (0.4 Mt grading 5.5 per cent lead, 3.5 per cent
zinc and 50 g/t silver) but this was uneconomic. They had With the lormation of Pasminco tlicrc was a rationalisation
identified significant high-grade mineralisation at Silver Peak, across the merged opcriition and opportunities for expanding
which was further tested by an exploration shaft and production were considered. Optimism tor the location of more
underground development. Diamond drilling from underground ore was high, indccd the only limiting factors seen were to the
did not locate sufficicnt ore t o keep it operational (0.1 Mt grading ;ivail:ibility of drill sites underground ;ind the time taken t o bring
13.4 per cent lead, 4.7 per cent zinc and 90 g/t silver). the results u p to rcscrve status. The niost attractive targets to lind
Within the North Mine exploration had been successful in more ore were considcrcd to be within the existing mines and
identifying the Fitzpatrick, a fault offset block of Lead Lode which could be reached Irom the currcitt or planned openings.
mineralisation (Widdop, 1983). While still not having fully Explor;ition drilling from underground was the most effective
drilled out the lower levels of the Fitzpatrick, i t wiis recognised
way of exploring, given the geometry of the orebodies and the
that the mineralisation could extend even deeper on the other side
of another fault. An underground diamond drill program looking location of the most promising targets (Figures 2 and 3). lust
for this downfaulted extension was developed. Initial prior to tlic formation of Pnsminco the underground rigs ;it the
intersections in the 2K zone (named because it was 2 kms below south had heen upgraded to state-of-the-;irt equipment. unlike the
surface) yielded spectacular grades and drilling continued. surface rigs which were old and i n i~eedof replacement. All
At ZC Mines exploration away from the immediate mine was drilling was done by tlic Mine's drill crews and allocation 0 1 men
undertaken by CRAE. A few prospects had been developed. to stopc detinition drillin2 underground was a priority.
Within the mine itself the mine geologists had been especially
successful in locating additional ore. The emphasis was on the
downplunge continuations of known mineralisation and in the
definition of lower-grade zones. The strategy was successful in 60 0 RC EXPLORATION
detining ore in Lower Lead Lode, and highlighting the economic B STOPE DEFINITION
potential of Zinc Lodes. A limiting factor was diamond drills,
both in availability and in sites. Production took emphasis and 50
purpose built drill sites were not ii priority in an environment
which was placing pressure on the mine to increase production.
However an underground diamond drill program was initiated
from a specially developed exploration drive on the 20 level to
test for the extension of the orebody to the south of its known
limits. This was deemed to he more cost-effective than drilling
from surface and i t was felt that the directional control of such
long drill holes would not be accurate enough. The program
encountered problems with equipment choice and high costs and
in conjunction with ;I major industrial dispute and lack of any
significant mineralisation in the initial drill holes, the program
was stopped in 1986.
A major pre-Pasminco initiative was exploration below the city
itself. The aim of this work was to test the northwestern
continuation of the prospective mine sequence and in particular
1
-1-
to follow up on the exploration work initiated by Broken Hill
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 * 96
South Ltd in the 1960s (Gentle, 1968). The drilling was costly
and difficult, failing to locate any major mineralisation worthy of
follow up work. The mineralisation was quantified as about IS
Mt grading at two per cent lead, three per cent zinc and 30&/t
silver (Haydon and McConachie, 1987). I t was believed that with 1089 - 1996
Fit.; z . Drilling metres,

a greater geological insight and with future technology changes it
may become the host of economic mineralisation and so the lease
was retained (the Central Lease).
The exploration thrust of both parent companies was similar in
that they recognised the economic benefits of linding additional
ore within the contines of the existing operations. Both were
looking for extensions at either end of the 200 Mt orebody. North
had the 2K but had technical problems in the data collection
whereas at the south i t appeared from drilling that the orebody
terminated stratigraphically just south of the Southern Cross
Shaft. The lease exploration target was a 10 Mt plus orebody.
The search for open pits that could be used to supplement or
substitute the ore being mined from underground did not have a
high priority.
At the formation of Pasminco Ltd the ore reserves for the
merged Broken Hill operation were as follows (Pasminco
Prospectus, 1988):
Zinc Mine, also called the Southern Operations (to avoid
confusion with the then still operating South Mine); 41. I MI
grading at 7.0 per cent lead and 10.5 per cent zinc. Mining
was at a rate of 1.8 Mtpa.
0 North Mine; 5.4 Mt grading at I 1.7 per cent lead and 9.3 per
cent zinc. Mining was a rate of 0.5 Mtpa.
(89 =July 1988 - Jirly 1089).
PASMINCO MINING EXPLORATION
Following the formation of Pasminco for the lirst time one
company had access to the bulk of the geological data that h;id
been collected. Tlie lirst task was the consolidation of the
geological, geochemical and geophysical databases.
With the lithology and geochemistry these reviews were
undertaken in conjunction with Pasminco Exploration. A series
of regional sections were established on the mine leases along a
strike length of 25 kms. Given the dilticulties o f the Broken Hill
geology and the multitude of geologists who had taken part, it
was not surprising that there were problems in some of the
interpretations. Once completed, however, it provided a valuable
insight into the geological setting of the orebody and emphasised
the stratigraphic setting as compared to the structural. Several
useful geochemical indicators of mineralisation were highlighted
which have since been used to search lor new orehodies.
The geophysical study was undertaken by Dr John Bishop of
Mitre Geophysics. His brief was to collect and collate every
geophysical survey that had been undertaken on the leases.
Reprocessing and reinterpretation of the data was undertaken in
some cases. Many anomalies were found that had not been

66 Launceston. 10 14 November 1997

~
Mining Geology Conference

4 ,
3
2.5
2 (For comp;irison [lie i n i l l feed for I3roken H i l l for the year 199.5 - 96 was
$M
I.5
I developed exploration drive on the 36 level in the bottom of the
0.5
0 intersection and the drilling continued. The diflieulties
1989 1991 1993 1995
Financial Year
OSouth Mine El Southern Leases
0 North Mine P Northern Leases
FIG3 - Exploration expenditure. 1989 - 1996
(Dollars ofthe day) (X9 = J u l y X X 10 July 8 9 )
previously identified or followed up. The internal report also
commented on the efficacy of the different techniques that had
been used to explore for Broken Hill style mineralisation. What
came as a surprise in this study was the poor quality of recording
and storage o f seine of the original data. Surveys were i n some
cases not reported, in others key parameters such :is loop size and
position were not documented. Given the high cost of data
acquisition it was disappointing to discover this.
North Mine and Leases
North Mitie
The ore reserve situation of Broken Hill had been the subject of
an internal review and i t was concluded that at North it was
probable that :is mining proceeded i t was likely that some ore
blocks would not be economically mined late in its life. Given
the reduced mine life, a detailed examination of the exploration
potential was initiated.
Emphasis had rightly been placed by North Broken Hill Ltd on
defining the Fitzpatrick mineralisation and upgrading i t to
reserve status and the acquisition of data from the 2K zone. The
former continued unabated after the merger, however the 2K was
subject to a critical review. As a result of this i t was concluded
that the high-cost of drilling and the relatively slow advance
could not be justified. Over a period of seven years $6.75 M ($ of
the day) had been spent on 698 I m of drilling, at a cost o f $967
per metre. An average o f 1.9 rigs were in use per year, mostly
Mining Geology Conference
EXPLORATION ON A MATURE MINE
1
Downhole '5 Lead lo Zinc g/tSilver
lliicknfss
SO
I0.X 10.2
I S.4 13.7 289
0.0 25.x 21.7 565
5.5 per cent 7.7 I r r cent zinc and 56 g/t silver).
A new strategy was put in place. The old rigs were removed
and replaced by a modified Warman 750 rig which had been
operating succcssfully at the Elura Mine. The site was ii specially
mine and tlie target was between what would have been the 42
and 47 levels. The initial drill hole achieved a good rate o f
advance, with costs of the order of$100/metre, and an ore grade
intersection (plus ii keg for the drillers!). It was 9.6 in downhole
thickness grading at 54 per cent combined lead plus zinc.
Nothing stimulates an exploration program more than a good
continued. The holes had to traverse some very poor ground
conditions. the sites had ventilation and high temperature
problems which restricted tlie hours of operation ;ind limited
drilling to one rig.
In order to speed up the data collection, downhole geophysics
was undertaken on the drill holes. Because of the ground
conditions the holes were cased with PVC, a time-consuming
and logistically difficult task. The loops on surface were 1 km
square. Technical problems abounded, with the first probe failing
to operate ;it the high temperatures i t encountered (rock
tcinpcraturcs in excess of 60 degrees Centigrade) and the poly
pipc splitting from both cemented and riveted joints. Ultimately
good geophysical responses were obtained, including one higher
u p the hole that was not expected. The possibility of an
intertnediate fault block or an upthrown block from below the 2K
were proposed. The area was drill tested with no sign of
niineralisation and no geophysical response. A detailed review o l
the diita led to tlie conclusion that this was a false anomaly
Iiirgely caused by the drill hole and loop geometry (Bishop and
Morland, 1094; Bishop. 1997. in press). Recause the target was
higher in the mine it was more attractive and diverted resources
trom the 2K. A combination of geological and geophysical
modelling led to the 2K being quantified as conservatively
containing ;I resource of 0.6 Mt, grading at about 18 per cent
lead, 17 per cent zinc and 350glt silver down to 47 level and i t
was open :it depth. Drilling was stopped prior t o the mine's
closure in 1993 ;is i t was believed that it could not be brought on
i n time and that i t would bc uneconomic given its location,
ground conditions. ventilation. gas and water problems.
Elsewhere on North Minc ii review of the potential for
extending the depth of the number 1 open pit was undertaken
using old records and with a limited amount of extra drilling. The
targets were remnants of ore left in the upper levels of the mine,
and zinc-rich sand fill which had been placed in the stopes in the
very early days. Estimates of tlie potential were:
Rock - 0.4 Mt grading 7.3 per cent lead, 7.9 per cent zinc and
103g/t silver; and
Sand - 0.3 MI grading 3.9 per cent lead, 9.4 per cent zinc and
XO g/t silver.
Geology iind mining studies cleclared them to he uneconomic.
Launceston. 10- 14 November 1997 67
R MORLAND
Attention was also turned to the possibility of locating Zinc
Lodes within North Mine. They had been the mainstay of
production at the south and although not as high a grade as the
Lead Lodes, they were an attractive target. A few intersections
had been made in the middle levels of the mine and i t was
decided 10 undertake a major surface drilling program using
drilling contractors, complemented by downhole geophysics, to
test the Zinc Lode position adjacent to the North Mine main
orebody down to the Fitzpatrick Area. The program was
completed but failed to identify any mineralisation or
geophysical responses that were worth following up.
The search for the Zinc Lodes associated with the Fitzpatrick
Area Lead Lodes was more successful. Targets defined by
geological reasoning were drill tested and reserves defined. A
resource of 0.2 Mt was defined and of this 80 000 t grading at S.5
per cent lead, 9.5 per cent zinc and 100 g/t silver was mined
between 1991 and 1993. Although low in tonnage and grade it
was important to North Mine as i t was close to other operating
faces and it helped supplement the shortfall of ore from the Lead
Lode stopes which were mining in diflicult ground conditions. It
is unclear which, if any, of the southern Zinc Lodes it related to.
Following a final review North Mine closed in February, 1993.
During its life it had mined 34.3 Mt of ore with 0.7 Mt coming
from the Number I open pit. The remaining ore reserve of 3.5 MI
grading at 13.5 per cent lead, 1 1 .O per cent zinc and 210 g/t silver
was downgraded to the local classilication of additional
mineralisation.
After an unsuccessful attempt to sell the North Mine, all
salvageable equipment was removed and the mine was allowed
to flood.
Northern Leases
On the Northern Leases. Pasminco placed emphasis on exploring
all possibilities for locating economic mineralisation. Reviews of
the mineralisation at Silver Peak and Flying Doctor Prospects
were made and a better understanding of each was obtained. In
the former some diamond drilling was undertaken and the pod-
like nature of the mineralisation idcntitied. Its economic potential
(in its own right) was not thought to be great and resources were
diverted to the newly identified Potosi Prospect. Potential was
seen at the Flying Doctor Prospect but again the Potosi Prospect
was favoured for more work because of its perceived
prospectivity.
Part of the exploration strategy had been to review all the
previously discovered mineralisation. The second prospect. after
the Round Hill mine area, was around the old Potosi mine which
had been developed and operated until 1927, mining about 4000
tonnes. On review it was concluded that the ore was not in lenses
but was instead in blocks that were caught up in a shear zone.
Thc search for any unfaulted mineralisation was undertaken, The
third drill hole intersected high-grade mineralisation (5.2 m
downhole thickness grading 15.1 per cent lead, 20.6 per cent zinc
and 130dt silver) and provided the impetus for more work which
ultimately resulted in the development of the Potosi Mine.
Potosi Mine. The Potosi orebody is significant to Broken Hill
because it is the first major new orebody to be found on the line
of lode this century. The near-surface mineralisation occurs
within sight of the city (indeed the Pit is right on the city
boundary), is zinc dominant and sits stratigraphically below the
other Broken Hill orebodics and mineralisation (IJnit 4.5 as
against Unit 4.7). Details on the Potosi orebody has been
published in Larsen, 1994, and Morland and Leevers, 1997, in
press.
The history of the development of the Potosi from prospect to
operating mine is given in Table 1.
A total of 1 1 9 10 m was diamond drilled from 9 I drill holes
and 9726 m of RC infill drilling from 306 drillholes. Mining is
planned at a rate of 0.2 Mtpa, this being limited by the capacity
of the concentrator.
68 Launcesfon, 10 -
~~~
1990 I’otcntial rccopnised for 0 5 Mt orebody i n tup 70 111
May I W I Fir\[ diainontl drill hole iiiio target.
1993 InfcIred resource of 1 .O MI i n fop 200 in rep!,nrd. -
1993-1995 lnfill diamond drilling 011 4 0 i n spacing.
Mining. metallurgy, finaiici:il and general feasibility
studies undertaken.
July 1995 Ore reserve: 1 . 1 MI, 2.1%lead, 8.9% zinc, 26 g/t
silver i n top 00 in (Pasiniiico Ltd, 1995).
1995- I096 Loc;d coiniiiiinity and govcriiinenf consultation.
EIS and siippleinentary reports produced.
I996 Appi-oval to mine receivcd.
RC iiifill dItlling at I O 111 .spacing.
April I990 First orc to i n i l l .
July 1996 Ore reserves: I .O MI, 2.3%le;id, 9.1‘5~zinc, ‘28 g/f
silver in pit 400 in x 220 111 x 90 in deep (I’a~.iiiinco
Lftl, 1996)
Following its discovery, the Potosi mineralisation has been
subjected to modern geophysical kchniques, especially given
that it is zinc dominant (Hughes (’t (:I, 1997). Downhole
electromagnctics was found to be riscful in defining lead-rich
mineralisation which was electrically connected. It was not
particularly useful i n situations where zinc was the main sulphide
species or where the lead was coarse and not connected. Tests
with drill hole magnetometric resistivity appear to indicate that
this method is better able to detect this type of mineralisation
(Bishop et d,1997). Mise-a-la-masse has also given spect;icular
results. After all drilling was completed it was found to have
identified the pit mineralisation and the downplunging shoot up
to Morland’s Fault, a normal fault which truncated the response.
Exploration at Ihe Potosi has continucd and the mineralisation
can be traced downplungc. at a grade of about one in seven, for 21
distance of over 1 .S kms m d is open downplunge. A Mise-a-la-
masse survey undertaken on a mincr;ilised intersection to the
north of Morland’s Fault has identified its continuation and (his
is currently being drilled out. ’rhc niiiieralisafion was quantified
a s 0.6 MI grading at 5.3 per cent leatl, 13.1 per cent zinc and
57g/t silver (measured and indicated) with an inferred resource of
1.2 Mt grading at 2.8 per cent lead, 14.0 per cent zinc and 39 glt
silver and it passes close to Silver Peak. A prefeasibility study is
underway on the underground mining options.
With the success of the Potosi came the realisation that both
Unit 4.5 and 4.7 were prospective. ’The push on the northern
leases continues and a plan to RC drill all the prospective ncar-
surface areas was started. This program will be spread over three
years and is almost complete.
Central Leases
No active work has been undertaken on this mineralisation. The
area could benelit from modern downhole geophysical testing
but most of the sites are no longer accessible and surface access
would be very diflicult.
Some experimental work was undertaken on automatic ore
sorting as ;I means of upgrading the tenor of mineralisation from
low-grade areas. The philosophy behind the work was that if i t is
visually possible to discriminate between ore and waste then i t
should be possible to dcvclop a technological process to do the
same. Unfortunately, it has not been H S easy as this and aller
using a variety of different parameters the exercise was shelved.
Again one of the major problems was the difficulty in
discriminating zinc mineralisation.
14 November 1997 Mining Geology Conference

Southern Operations and Leases
Southern Operations
Exploration within the mine has continued at a high level ever
since Pasminco was formed. Each of the mine geologists has a
responsibility not only for the production function but also for
developing exploration programs within their own areas of
responsibility. This has bccn cxtremcly successful and on
average about 0.8 Mt o f additional ore has been located each
year. Given thc production lcvcl of 2.5 Mtpa the ore rcscrve has
stcadily declined (Figures 4 and 5 ) . except for the last few years.
45
40
35
30
MT
25
20
15
IO
5 Fic; 5 - Southern Operations - Ore reserves, 1987 - 1996.
87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96
FIG4 - Southern Operations - Orc reservesltotitiesmined, 1987 - 1996.
(87 = J u l y 1986 - J u l y 1987).
Apart from locating ore as extensions of existing orcbodics
there havc bccn some major succcsscs hoth in incrcasing the
gcological understanding and in the discovcry of new orcbodies.
Notable successes have been with Wcstcrn A Lode and C Lode
which arc now hcing mincd (Morland and Webstcr, 1997, in
prcss). One of the key factors for success is as a result of
allowing mine gcologists time to do non-production activities
and bcing prepared to dedicate diamond drill resources to test thc
conccptual models that arc developed.
The exploration thrust at the Southern Extensions is worthy of
mention as until rcccntly i t offered the greatest potential for the
discovery of large blocks of mineralisation. As indicated earlier,
the drilling program from a specially developcd exploration drive
on the 2 0 Level was stopped in ZC Mine days. On the Southern
Leases an exploration target was generated on a regional section
a kilometre south of the end of the orebody. Surface drilling
intersected what was identified as B Lode style mineralisation
with a downhole thickness of 2.5 m, grading at 2.5 per cent lead
and 9.7 per cent zinc. Downhole EM gave a good geophysical
response but not an unequivocal target position. This led the
mine team to consider the relationship between this intersection
and the B Lode ore position in the mine. Since 1988 B Lode had
hecn cxtensivcly mined and its plunge flattened to the south. The
Mining Geology Conference Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997
EXPLORATION O N A MATURE MINE
45 I
MT 35 i‘\
30 .
25 _ .
+Reserve Tonnes (Ant)
20 *Zinc Grade (%)
15
10
(87 = July 1986 - July 1987).
earlier work had tested too deep a target and thc strike length of
over a kilometre of potential ground was totally untested.
Pasminco was faccd with thc same dilemma as i t s predecessors
i n that the area now required drill testing and they optcd to rc-
equip the exploration drive, purchasing an LM 75 rig for the
work. The drive had bccn optimiscd in its location for the
original program but was not idcal for the revised target, with
some drill holes going up to a kilometre in Icngth and others
being drilled at llat angles. Drilling in fans on sections spaced
approximatcly 200 m apart was undertaken. A consistent
gcological picture was drawn up for the area, some significant
mineralisation was intersected in thc Zinc Lode position
(including C Lode), but inlill drilling appears to indicate the
lensy nature of the mineralisation, none of which seem capable
of being mined as an orebody. The program had high profile and
visibility and was a worthy target but i t has not identified any
ore. Given its depth, the relative abundance of mineralisation. the
density o l drilling and the logistical problems that it would have
crcatcd it was dccided not to (lo downholc geophysical surveys.
The reason that the program carried on for so long was the need
to adequately test thc ground and the sniffs of mineralisation
proved to be too tantalising t o stop. It was also testing the end of
a 200 Mt orebody and provided a valuable insight into the
stratigraphic termination of a wyld-class deposit.
I t has bccn estiinatcd that some 9 2 million tonnes of ore had
been mined from underground at the Southern Opcrations up to
1996. The proved plus probable ore rcserve as at July 1996 was
2X.O Mt grading ;it 5.9 per cciit lead, 8.5 pcr cent zinc and 55g/t
silver (Pasininco Ltd Annual Report, 1996). Mining is currcntly
;it ;I rate of 2.5 Mtpa.
69 I
 R MORLAND
Southerti Leases
Exploration priorities for the Broken Hill Mines were dictated by
budgets, prospectivity and non-geological factors such as the life
expectancy of North Mine. In the early days of Pasminco
emphasis was placed on the North Mine, the Potosi Prospect and
the in-mine exploration at the Southern Operations. The
development of active exploration programs on the Southern
Leases was ii low priority (Figure 3).
Work on the Southern Leases included reviews of the potential
at the old workings at White Leads and Rising Sun but their
prospectivity was seen to be much less than the Northern Leases.
A major thrust was the infill drilling of some o f the prospective
positions within the regional cross-sections. It is encouraging that
the results validated the conclusions of the major regional study
, which was used in targeting the drill holes. Mineralisation has
been intersected but no ore to-date. A major new section has
been drilled with emphasis on the prospective depth for
mineralisation. Interesting mineralisation and lithologies have
been intersected and geophysical responses obtained which are
being followed up. Intersections of ore and subgrade
mineralisation u p to 2 m thick are common on the Southern
Leases. None has yet had the continuity to be considered for
mining.
The bulk of the exploration budget at thc south is spent on
diamond drilling. In the mine itself the drill holes are typically up
to 200 m long and drilled by the mine's crew whcreas the surface
drill holes tend to be over a kilometre long (and a lot fewer!) and
drilled by contractors.
The search on the Southern Leases is aimed at finding remakes
of the Broken Hill orebody. In both mine and leases the search
has extended throughout the sequence and not just the Unit 4.7,
given the success of the Potosi.
Given the high costs associated with diamond drilling both in
orebody definition and exploration, trials were undertaken using
radio imaging (RIM). Potentially a tool which could help
geologists 'see through rocks', RIM in its current state was not
found to be particularly helpful in dealing with Broken Hill
styles of mineralisation. It produced good tomograms which
were correlateable with lead distributions from previously drilled
fans of holes but not with zinc. The turnaround time and its black
box nature counted against it too. It is an interesting concept in
its infancy in metalliferous mining and it may become an
extremcly useful definition and exploration tool if developcd.
THE WAY AHEAD
The ore reserve at the Southern Operations is steadily declining.
The mine has theoretically enough ore to operate at its current
level until 2007. The situation is probably worse than this as
many of the historical pillar reserves will never be mined. As the
mine's end approaches, some of the more remote ore blocks may
not be economically extracted. The potential lor a situation akin
to what happened at North Mine is present.
Pasminco is actively seeking more ore discoveries from within
the mine, the mine leases and in the district. Given the long lead
time from discovery to definition, through feasibility to
production, time is of the essence if there is not to he a hiatus in
production and if existing infrastructure is to be used.
Unfortunately, with every passing generation of geologists the
chances of success are diminishing. Broken Hill may soon have
to acknowledge that its orebody is finite and plan accordingly.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
All the references in this paper are to published papers with one
exception. This does not give due credit to all the geologists who
have contributed to the increase in knowledge of the geology be
70 Launceston, 10 - 14 November 1997
i t through unpublished research, internal reports, logging corc o r
simply underground mapping. They rcprescnt the building blocks
for the more prominent published works. The author willingly
acknowledges a11 their contributions iind looks forward to tl~e
jigsaw bcing completed sorneday.
Tony Wehster and John Bishop are thanked for their editorial
comments and improving the manuscript. Pisminco Limited ;ire
acknowlcdged for permission to publish.
REFERENCES
Bishop. J R. ;ind Morlnnd. R. 1994. Rccognising false aiioina11cs 111
drillhole EM. 7 h AirslMM Proceedi/ix.v. 299( I ) ; pp 21-27.
Bishop, J K. Carroll, N. llatch. M, Maciniics. S, and Asten. MW, 1907.
Finding Sphalerite at Rrokell llill With UIIMMR, in Preview, 66:66
(ASEG 12 th Coiiferencc and Exhihitioil).
Bishop, J R, 1997. ( i i i press). DHEM sur
Broken Hill. in E.tp/or(i/iofi C;eop/iy.vi, i
' cif the 2K arm. North Mine.
Gentle, L V. I9OX. Geology of the wester~i limb and Wesicrn
Mineralisation at Broke11 Hill South Liiiiited, i n Urokoi Hill Ml,ir.v -
/Y6R (Eds: M R:idnianovich and J T Woodcock). pp 179-183 (The
Austr;il;isian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).
Gustafson. J K, 1939. Central Geological Survey. Geoloycal
Investigntions i n 13rokcn llill. Final Rel)ort. Unpublished Report 10
the Directors of North Broken Hill Limited. Broken Hill South
Limited and the Zinc Corporation Limited, 2 Volumes.
Gustafson. J K. Burrell, H C. and Gnrretty. M D, 19.50. The Geology of
the Broken Hill Ore Deposit. Drokcii Hill. New South Wiles,
~ i /lie G'eologicwl Society cfAmc.riccr, G I : 1360-
Australia. in E i i / / e ~ / io/
1438.
Haydon. R C. and McConachy, G W, 10x7 The stratigraphic setting of
Ph-Zn-Ag mineralisation at Broken Hill, in Enmomic C;colopy.
X2:X26-856.
Hughes. N. Carroll, N F, Leevers. P I<. and Bishop, J K, 1097.
Geophysic:il Signature of the Potosi Zinc-Lead-Silver Orebody,
Broken Hill, i i i Prc.vicw, 66, pS7 (ASEG 12th Conference and
Exhibition).
Larsen, D F, 1994. The Potosi Orebody - A Newly Discovered Base
Metal Delmit ai Broken Hill, NSW. 111 GSA Absrrcrtrrs N o 37. 12th
AGC, Pcrth, 199.4, p 238.
Leyh, W K. ;ind Hiiide, J S. 1990. Fitzpntrick Orebody North Mine.
Brokeii Hill -;I c;ise history, in Pniwedings Mitie Geo/o,qi.vt.v'
c , 147-I54 (The Austr;il;isi~in Institute of Mining and
C o t i / e ~ ~ e ~ i cpp
Metallurgy: Melbourne).
Mackenzie, L) II.:iiid Davits. RH, 1990. Broken Hill lead-silver-zinc
deposit at ZC Mines. i n Geoloxy o/ rhe Miwrcrl 1)elw.vir.v (!f
Aic.vrrtiltisrtr mid I'crpuci Ntw G'itineti. (Ed. F E Hughes). pp 1079-
10x4 (The Auslralasi;in Institute of Mining and Metallurgy:
Melbourne).
Morland. K. and Leevers, PI<. 1997 (in press). Potosi Zinc-Lead- Silver
Dcposiit. Broken Hill. i n C;~ology01 rlic Arrstrtrlim wid P~pucrN e w
Guinem Mincrtrl Depi,vit,v, (The Australasian Institute of Mining
and Metallurgy: Melbourne).
Morlaiid, K. ;ind Webster, A E. I997 (in press). Broken Hill Lead-Zinc-
Silver Deposit. in 7%e (;eology of Air.trrctltrsititi ond I'cipu~i NCIU
Giritretiri Mitierir/ deposit,^, (The Australasian Institute of Mining
and Melallurgy: Mclboiirne).
Pasrninco Liiriited, I O X X . Prospectus (Pasiiiinco Limited. Melbourne).
Pasminco Limited. 1995. Annual I<eport (Pasinineo Liinitetl;
Melbourne).
Pasminco Liinited. 1996. Annual Repoil (Pasmineo Limited;
Melbourne).
Webster. A E. 1996. A detailed description 0 1 the Broken Hill deposit -
lessons from the ore fabrics, in N e w Develripmenrs in Brokeii Hill
7 j p e /kpo.virs. (Els: Pograntz and Ihvidson), pp 95- 104. CODES
Special Publication 1 (University of Hohart; Tasmania).
Widdop, W G. 1983. The geology of the Fitzpatriek Area, North Broken
Hill Limited. Rroken Hill, NSW, ill Proceedings Broketi Hill
G m / e r e w r . /98.<,pp 177- 182 (The Australasian Institute of Mining
and Melallurgy: Melbourne).
Mining Geology Conference
Resource Estimation, Grade and
Quality Control

Session Chairpersons

Peter Benjamin
Copper Mines of Tasmania

Chris Davies
-
Aberfoyle Resources Hellyer Division

Scott Dunham
Goldfields (Tasmania) Limited Henty Gold Mine
Discovering New Orebodies Creation of an Exploration -
Database, Morning Star Gold Mine, Victoria
M D Goodz', F E L Harvey-Kelly1, C J Cusak2 and D J Kentwel13

ABSTRACT Geological overview

The Morning Star Gold Mine presents an example of a prolific operation The Woods Point goldfield is related lo a series of mafic to
with considerable historical records. mine workings. drill hole logs and intermediate Middle-Devonian dykes which intruded the Siluro-
countless plans from greater than 20 atljncent mines which have now
1)cvoni;in stratigraphy of the Melbourne Trough i n the eastern
been consolidated to form the current pmject.
portion of the Lachlan Fold Belt (Figure I ) .
Implcinentntion of 3D computer modelling in the planning stages has
provided an additional tool to integrate and refine geological inodels as 3
guide to sonic exploration strategies. I t has allowcd for a Ie-
interpretation of the host rock units, diinensional coiistraints. new
exploration extensions and provisional resource ~iiodelling.
'rhe initial consideration of this project was to integrate 13.5 years of
mining history into a single database. FAch historic mining area had an
unrelated mine grid. often established par:illel to the long axis of their
main stopes; soinc were based on niagnetic or true north. Survey plans
were in chain. imperial or metric units.
Through the manipulation and rotation of old grids. previously
unrelated mine workings began to form continuous inineralised zones,
with unniincd portions still remaining in between the existing
development. Furthermore the current drillhole database of >433 holes
showed nunierous confirmatory intersections of new minerdisation.
A series of tiered tables were created within a relational database to
derive guidelines for assessing data to attribute a Mineral Prospectivity
Value [MPV] based on key indicators of inineralisation. Indicator
logging now forins the basis of geological descriptions. Laic Uevonitn Marysvillc Complex

hlid.Lxc lkronian W w d r Pain1 D y k swarm

INTRODUCTION
0 H'allnlla Syni.l,nonum
T h e Morning Star gold mine operated from 1861 to 1963 and
produced 27.5 tonnes of gold (883 000 ounces) at an average
0 Undilcrmusted SilumDevonian Scdjmenu

grade of 24.5 g/t (Goodz and Wright, 1993). Recent exploration 0 Cambrian MI U'ell~ng~an
Reit

began in 1984 and underground refurbishment commenced in

I993 (Figure I ).
In 1995 i t was resolved that the most efficient and productive
method to compile archival information into 21 single useable
database was to implement a 3D modelling software system.
Geincom was selected hecause it was a PC-based platform, that
would operate o n the existing mine system hardware. The
software consisted of modules which made it economically
available to small users and had solids modelling capabilities
suitable for cavity modelling of historic workings. T h e system
w;is implemented in early- 1996.
T h e media available was -
4 5 0 AO-size plans and vertical
sections, based on eight different mine grids, 284 drill holes (now
:it 433 drill holes), 3 2 mine levels -20 kilometres of tunnels and
> 4 0 000 pages of Technical Reports (nine reels of archival films).
T h e manipulation and transformation of the historical mine
workings to the new AMGlAHD standard grid, provided the first
insight that there were a multiplicity of reef systems where
previously only o n e was believed to exist. Conversely, where ii
series of minor stopes were previously described, it became
apparent that they were part of a larger shear zone.
1. Goodz CG Associates GMC Pty Ltd, PO Box 700. Mansfield Vic
3722.
2. GEMCOM Australia Pty Ltd, PO Box 668. West Perth WA 6872
3. DJK Mapping and Modelling, 130 Sevcntli Avenue, lnglewood WA
60.52.
l k I - Moiiiing SIX Mine loc;itctl 100 km east - northeast of Melbourne,
i n the Walhalla synclinorium.
During the late-Devonian, the dykes underwent brittle
deformation which resulted i n the formation of both extensional
and shear vein systems.
At the Morning Star mine. the 'diorite' dyke is a complex
multistage intrusive rock havitig more than I O separate phases of
which the hornblende diorite and hornblende-biotite diorite
phases arc said to comprise >XO per cent of the total body.
The Morning Star dyke is approximately 600 m long by 100 m
in width ;it surface and varies to 750 m long by 80 ni wide on No
I6 Level. It has ;I known depth of > I 100 metres.
At its strike extremities, the dyke pinches down t o between 3
and I O m wide dykelets. T h e dyke dips 60 to 80" west and has
been sinistrally rotated to form a series of reverse fault steps with
up to 2 0 in displacements on each step. This gives an overall
apparent dip of 78"W. T h e major historic production stopes are
based on quartz-gold-sulphide veins within the 'flat-conjugate'
reverse faults on an average spacing of 30 metres.
Recent modelling of drill hole intercepts show vein spacing of
S . 0 to 27.5 m with substantial auriferous-stockwork
developments iit inflection points in the fault systems. Gold
gr;idcs are proportional to fracture density, intensity and sulphide
content.

Mining Geology Conference Launceston, 10 - 14 November 1997 73

 Objectives
The purpose of implementing the Mine Computer System (IMCS)
was to compile all geological parameters on a single mine survey
grid. The goals were to document any repetitive features across
the mining district. Key indicators nominated were:
I. The host rock unit - diorite dykes;
2. structural controls - shear zones, displacement faults;
3. planar orientations - conjugate joints and density, S- ;ind Z-
fault systems;
4. mineralogical associations - hydrothermal alteration;
5. sulphide/stockwork occurrences; and
6. cavity details - both stope and development headings
The latter item being of considerable importance in that
significant portions of the development were on gold-bearing
structures. The archival records contained detailed daily, weekly.
fortnightly, monthly and independent consultants' reports. These
provided:
1. dates and dimensions of headings and the quantity of
development carried out;
2. width and orientation of the gold-hearing structure: the
characteristics of its HW and FW;
3. mineralogy of the reef zone, including presence of visible
gold & sulphides;
4. diagnostic features of the hydrothermal alteration
peripheral to the reef;
5. geotechnical characteristics and ground support; and
6. subsequent mill processing reports with recovered grade
Resource analysis
A review of the data above led to the derivation of ;I new
mineralisation model referred to as the Layered Mineralisation
Model (LMM). This was based on the stacking nature of the flat
ladder veins which were formed during brittle deformation of the
dyke. The intensity of the mineralisation is proportional to the
deformation, shearing and displacement of the dyke. The
spacings of the shears range from 5.0 to 27.5 metres; between
these zones is unmineralised diorite, hence the Inyeririg. The
closer the frequency of fractures and shearing - the higher the
gold - sulphide enrichment. This relationship with fracture
density (Bischoff and Morley. 1993; Gleeson, 1993) is controlled
by the rheology of the host diorite lithology.
Establishing a new model required verification. This was
undertaken by prqjecting the underground model up to surtace
where no mining had occurred since 1868. The result was highly
successful, with delineation of an outcropping orebody validating
the model.
Computer Modelled Dyke Extensions and Fault
Displacement
Consolidation of old mine plans of underground workings of the
Alps, United, Hope and Morning Star Mines showed that there
was a distinct offset or rotation of the host dyke body at its
northern extremity. Although the exact reason has not yet been
fully resolved the important issue is that 3D modelling has shown
that an extension exists through an offset, (Cusack et 01, 1996;
Porter, 1993).
This explained some of the earlier exploration failures which
concluded that the dyke body was terminated. This underground
feature was then prqiccted to the surface with :I follow up drilling
programme extending the known size of the outcropping dyke by
76 per cent since 1984.
I 74 Launceston, 10 - 14 November 1997
Target Point-Value System MPV -
To derive xi applicable system of asxssing historical data. di-ill
hole intersections and development c l . i t a . 14 characteristics were
nominated under the heading 'Ob,iccrives' and entered into the
database. For each category a point v;ilue is attributed to the
feature with respect t o its likely ccoiiomic affinity to the gold
mineralisat ion.
Each entry then ii total point score on its Miiier:iI
Prospcctivity V;iluc (MF'V). Total point scores WCI-etiscd to
prioritise each intersection a s a tarset for follow-up drilling or
development. I t i s considered that the sum of the values o t the
key indic;itors can be more informative than assay data iiloiie
(Goodz arid D'Astoli; 1997; McCarthy. IO9S).
In the case of assessing historic data where the assays do not
exist, the rniner;il prospectivity value is the only numeric v;iIue
attributuhle. With current exploration both data sets are availhlc
and key indicator logging now foriiis the basis of geological
sample descriptions. I l r i l l logs arc compiled in the required
format to he entcrcd directly into the IT-XPLOR database. An
assignctl MPV is attributed to evcry sample interval by the
logging feologist.
Treatment of cavities in structural and geological loss is
critically important in modelling orebody and grude distrihution
in old mines. For grade modelling 01 drill hole intercepts. the
cavity must have ii zero grade effect during compositing
calculations; however for structural distribution analysis it must
be given the highest recognition factor it it is an old stope.
This designation (stope versus development) is based on the
hydrothermal alteration and mineralisation facies of the intervals
immediately before and after the cavity. Therefore an explicit
missing sample vnlue is created which is assigned :I set colour
(cyan) to identify i t ;IS;I mine constructed object.
The gcologist logging should he ;iware of priority indicators
(ie sti-uctui-e. alteration iind mineralisation). Where n o indicators
are present. the significiince of the vein and its structural
orient;ition should he reviewed prior to modelling.
CAVITY MODELLING OF HISTORIC DATA
Existing data
The existing dat:i consisted o f approxiin;itcly 450 AO-Size plms
;ind sections of the mine workings on ;I variety of scales. grid
orient;itions and units of measure. Some RL information w a s
nvailiiblc from assay 'floor' plans and from drill hole collar
reports (historically 'floor' was the term used to describe any reef
on which stoping w;is carried out; eg lloor refers t o the plane of
the orebody not the horizontal). Whci-e survey information was
missing ;ill IiL's were calculated by following ;I constant gradient
from the plat upwards ;it either 1 in 5 0 for the upper Levels and I
in 100 tor the lower Levels. In general these calculations fitted
well with isolated R L information obtained froin the drill collxs
nnd assay plans.
Data preparation - upper workings
The pre- I890 development outlines (surface to 2 Level) were
nssigncd RL's at their respective pcirtnls/collars/plats from the
best ;iv;iilnble soul-ce. Some RL's C;IIIIC from current survey data
and others came either directly or were inferred from old plans.
A grade of I :SO w;is then pro,jected Aong drives where no other
survey data was ;ivailable. Once all of the development was
fixed i n clcv;ition. the stope cavity modelling was done. Owing
to the absence o f survey data ; i n d sparse amount of detail
;ivailablc on these upper Icvels. stopes were created by tying
drive sections tosether where reets of the same name were
marked on the old plans. A single floor surface was then created
fhr each stope section ; i d copied 111) 2. I in vertically to form a
Mining Geology Conference

back surface. These were then stitched together to form the
individual solids. This created some 27 stope solids from the
nine principal reel's i n the upper workings. The upper workings
developinent outlines were then broken down into drives on
reefs. cross-cuts, rises and winzcs and input as closed polylincs.
The individual closed polylines were then extriitled 2. I in
vertically to form the development solids (Figures 2 4 h).
+N
-..
PI(; 2a - Polyline tile of trace Main Shalt mine workings i n 2D. View
facing east: length of section is -7.50 111 :ind depth -300 in.
FK;2b - Solids constructed froin the same polylines coiiihined with KL
survey data and presented in rendered AD view. Stopes constructed froin
tying together drive detail on reef structures. Same position mid view as
above.
-
Data preparation lower workings
All Level plans were examined thoroughly and where survey
data was insufficient new survey points were interpolated or
extrapolated such that all development and stoping had enough
detail to enable centrelines and surfaces to be created to fix them
in elevation. This had the eflect of requiring an interpretation of
the location and orientation of the stopcs. Stoping was partially
shown on development, assay, floor and ore reserve plans, cross
and long sections. All portions of this detail was trnnsferred to
the most updated relevant Level plan. Where stoping spanned
several Levels the rule of thumb was to only show the overhead
stopes, ie those above the Level of the drive and leave the detail
below for the next Level down. This process became quite
complex where multiple stoping on dilferent structures occurred
simultaneously over several floors. The aim of the exercise was
to show all detail and survey data on the single Level plan.
Mining Geology Conference Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997
DISCOVERING NEW OKEBODIES
Hec;iusc of the large ;imouiit of good detail lor both floors and
Ixicks i n I.cvcls 2 to 9, i t w ; i x decided to attempt to model the
;ictual stope ;ind clevelopmcnt heights rather than assume a
constant height throughout. Although this made the entire
process iiiiich more complic;itcd, i t produced ;I inorc detailed
(11' rcality. 'l'hcrcforc ;ill survey points, whether
;ii)i~roxiiii~itioii
rc;iI or c;iIci~I;itcd, required both a Iloor and back RL.
C;ilculations show that vcrtic;iI height of stopes rcinain fairly
constant ;it 2.1 in, even if triic stope width niirrows ;is the dip
steepens.
The idea was then to create ;I survey point database to act as a
skeleton to hang the entire workings from. The outlines of the
workings would then be tligitised flat and pressed onto either
centrelines or surf:ices created from the survey poinrs. Typically
ccntrelincs werc used for the development antl surfaces
constructcd tor the stopcs. h irig database managcinent options,
survey poilit d;itii was digiti\ctl to obtain northing. casting. and
[tic knowii or calculated RLs tor both the floor and back; one lile
l.or each niiiie Lcvcl.
Development modelling
The next stage w;is to digitisc i n the outlines of the tlevelopment
;IS 'flat' closed polylines at the RL of the plat for each Level.
One closed polyline for each distinct feature (ie drives, cross-
cuts, rises, winzes and ore p;isscs). Where verticnl or unknown
riseslwinzcs were shown only ;I simple rectangle for the opening
w;is digitiscd. Again these were digitised, one file for each mine
I.cvcl. All joins and abutments of polylines were carefully edited
aftcr digitising so ;is to conform to exactly the siime points.
'l'liesc filcs woultl form the Imis of future computer generated
Lcvcl phiis ;is well as being the outline structure for 3D
model I i ng .
Solid iiiotlcllinp for the tlc\,clopment required that centrelines
he created from survey ~ ~ ( i i n t along s each development
(separately for both floors and backs). Each section is then
pressed onto that centreline to obtain the correct gradient and RL
v;iIuc. These were saved a s iicw separate files and then stitched
together into a solid from two closed polylines. If ;ill digitising
xid editing has been done correctly as outlined above. all stope.
drive antl cross-cut solids should fit together nicely. The area
where problems arose was i n matching rises/winzcs into these
solids. Each c x c had t o be treated individually. The
rises/win7es had to be editedlnianipulnied to conform to the drive
solids. ;is each oiie intersected at a different angle arid had its
own set ot complications.
Stope Modelling
Stope outlines wcrc digitisctl only when they did n o t coincide
with drive edges. The decision was made to model stopes
between development drivcs ;IS i t would give a truer
rcpresentation of the stope vcrsus drive volumes. This breaks
down the stope sections into their respective Levels and makes it
visually easier to see how the workings evolved. A slightly
lengthier cditinglmerging process was then needed to marry the
stope outline segments onto the edges of existing development
workings to once again ensure that all joins and abutrnents met at
exactly the same points horirontally nnd that all stope outlines
were closcd polylines. Stope widths were controlled by their dip
;ingle rather than the actual width of quartz (which varied in
thickness from ;I few centinictres to several metres). However
the dip angle was not consixtent over any one :irc;i of stoping
( ~ i n g e dfrom I O to 65 degrees) and a totally uniform plane
c m i o t he ;issumed for the whole of a stope. Therefore to sort
out the best approximation to the true shape of the stope, all
iivailable survey data along with necessary interpolntions had to
enable a valid triangulated surface to be created for both floors
;ind hacks. Some stopes plunge through several Levels and
75
M D GOODZ er OI
intersect with others. making i t difficult to sort out rclev;int
survey points. To overcome this a series of inclined planes were
created from three carefully selected points at the extremities of
each structure and then using colour coding, i t was possible to
show only those points within a limited range of each inclined
plane.
A separate surface was created for both the floor and back.
These surfaces were then cut with the stope outlines and then
stitched together to form a solid. The pillars that were shown on
the plans were digitiscd as part of the stope outlines ond a
separate operation wiis c:irried out to 'punch' these out of the
stope, so iis to obtain their volumes for any future scavenging
operations.
Solids Modelling - Hostrock
Historical documentation supports that >95 per cent of the gold
production came from diorite dyke-hosted mineralisation.
Preliminary modelling supports the idea that prospectivity and
periodicity of mineralisation may be related to the outer dyke
morphology (in turn itself related to structural and intrusional
controls). With all development and drill hole contacts, a new
host solid can be generated which must take into consideration
fault displacements, changes in strike direction and bifurcation
(Figure 3). The contact zone between the host dyke and
sedimentary country rocks is a complex cross-faulted and
undulating feature (hole MS107 intersected the contact 14
times). To model this contact zone of uncertain exit, re-entry,
and final re-exit, a new rock type is defined as 'DCO'. DCO
defines a structural feature which would have a minimum of two
fault zones (one sub-parallel to the contact [shear] and the second
is an extensional ladder-vein associated feature). The DCO
generally represents a reverse fault block with up to 20m
displacements.
Section Length -750 m -100 m
*--*
A B
FIG3 - 3D rendered view of the host dyke solid. h c h inflexion point
(shadow) in the surface represents a zone which has been a focus of
stress and subsequent mineralisation. View (a) is looking wast; view ( H )
is looking south.
This is a two-stage process involving the stitching together of
footwall and hanging wall contacts and then offsetting these
features along structural centrelines. The generation of new
vertical sections and the validation with existing sections is the
final check. In preparation for this modelling, the contacts were
76 Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997
digifisctl ;IS 31) rings and tied togcthcr to form the solid. This
solid i s then sliced vertically with coiitinuous segments hetween
stopes/lhults/veins being assigned individual block attributes.
Each block c m then he displaced iilong the plane of the
intersecting structure
Altliouyh it is ;I major task to cre;ite mid validate a large solid
such iis the dyke hcidy, i t is necessary to continually inodil'y the
solid ;is new drill hole intercepts hecome available. The
advantqe of constructing such 'suh-solids' is that each caii be
indcpcndently modified.
Vein modelling
Modcllinf of cavities from previously inincd o r developed
mincr~ilisctlzones was tlone to document structural controls of
the ore zones ;ind t o prci,ject their cii-cchelon extensions. The
extensivc detail of the survey data hiyhlighted the irregularity in
HW/FW orientations antl supported the model of multiplicity of
vein splits and en-echelon steps. I t is the projections of these
irregularities i n the surfrices of thc solids that provides iicw
insight on the extensions of known sold-bearing structures.
The full picture
The next step i n spatial correlation is using the Connelly-style
approach. The intersection of host structure^ is a control on
rninera1is;ition / stopc width. Where there is an increase i n the
mineable width, there exists ;I potential zone of higher gradc and
tonnage. Analysing this correlation with grade (or maybe better.
the prospectivity factor) hecomes very iisefiil. The simplest way
to do this is to rake the reef stope hanging wall and footwall
surfaces and create froin them ;I TIN (contour plan) of the
separation distance (in the true width vector not vertical KL).
Contours of the stope thickness can thcii be created and plotted
with other objects (stopcs. development, grades, DDHs) antl any
correlatioii noted. Examination of any periodicity in the vertical
interval between veins merging/intcrsccting/widening, can then
he carried out (Cris;ick C I t i l . 1996; Murphy and Ward, 1997).
CURRENT EXPLORATION PROGRAMMES
Database ni;inapncnt is an evolving task and must flow with the
demands ; i d queries of the exploration and development
progr:ims (Taylor. 1003: Williams. 1093). Subsequent h t a
gathering is depcntlcnt upon the availability, time and personnel
to acquirc. sort, enter. validate and analyse the inlorm:ition.
Geological coding was tlcsigned to gather data in a form that
could he exported iind manipulated by a number of propriims.
Drillcore sample logging sheets welt tlcsigned for direct coded
data collection of key indicator features. The formulation 01' the
MPV coding was a co-opcrative elf'ort between archival data
processors nnd the exploration drilling geologists. Figure 4
illustrates the use of MPV in 311 modelling to highlight drill
hole intercepthesource tarsets.
Data Collection
To inect the nerds o f the entire workfroup, an assessment of
what data is beins accumulated and ii suitable list of codes for
each tield must he formatted. It is recommended that coclch he
alphanuincric, grouping similar suhiccts with some initial letter
and then using additional letters to define subsets. An example:
quartz z,ones are coded Q = quartz, QVN = quartz vein, Q S S =
quartz stockwork (sediment-hosted). QDS = (dyke-hosted).
Numbers are used to tleline relative or quantitative amounts
such ;is
I = 0 - 25%,
2 = 2S-S0%
3 = .50-7.50/(,
4 = 7s- I O O % I
Mining Geology Conference

FKi 4n - 3D rendered view of the 900 EF (east facing) long section
showing MPV projections and continuity of minernlisetl zones between
drill holes and stopes. being depiscted by shaded disks along the drill
-
holc. View is the same as in Figures 2 and 3A. Section length 750 In
-
and depth is 600 ni.
Ftci 4b - Coding of MPV used to assess historical drillholes which
provided detailed descriptive logs but no assay data. The disks on the
traces represent sulphiddstockwork mineralisation and niultiplicity o f
A second series of numbers could detine distribution, eg X =
irregular 9 = pervasive. In this manner, the total code (string) can
then be filtered either alphabetically or sequentially. A series of
coding sheets is then designed for both logging and database
entry. Before the computer is even turned on, time must be
allotted for planning and checking. Once data is validated it is
useful to group, analyse statistically, and identify populations.
For example, high assays might be irregularly distributed, but
always associated with quartz-arsenopyrite mineralisation, mica-
carbonate alteration or shear zones. The identification of
secondary indicators and associations (MPV) can be used as an
excellent aid to exploration (Goodz and Harvey-Kelly, 1997).
Mining Geology Conference Launceston. 10
DISCOVERING NEW OKEBODIES
'li) sort data with filters. i t must be subdivided into discrete
..
groups. 1 his means creating a list of unique sub,iects. The
following ;ire a list of the key indicators that should be logged:
rock type. rock state, weai tiering, alteration, mineralisation,
kibric. grain size. structure and core state (each project will
specitic key indicators). It is important to decide the end goals of
your project and analyse the resources available to achieve them.
The manner that data is ;icclttired and entered in ;I relational
database is ;I two edge sword. I f data entry is t o he quick.
grouping of similar data sets such ;IS mineralisation as a
continuous string (PY3. AS2. QZl) is suitable, hut requires much
time to write tiltcrs to analyse the components of the string. On
[he other hand it' e x h mineral description is treated separately, ;I
hoole;in operator may be used to filter and sort (no = 0. yes = I ).
The downside is that individual descriptions require massive
iimounts of time to log and enter.
A funtlamental debate is whether to log on paper first or
directly into the computer. Direct computer logging requires less
time but has ii number of dcttxtors: i t requires abbreviation of
the visu;il observations, limits supportive artwork and
cotnmentxy, and provides n o original hard copy to reference and
revise. There is also the possibility of hardware failure and data
loss. For these rexons we t'iivour initial logging onto paper or
matt lilm (during inclement wcather). Although time-intensive,
i t forms ;in essential part of ensuring a complete and validated
database.
As ;I glide i t is suggested that for a drill hole database.
subordinate tables to the header table include: a survey table
(distance, azimuth and dip); ;I geology table (from. to. length,
rock type, state. weathering, alteration, mineralisation, grain size,
kihric, colour and comments): a structures table (distance,
structure. core-angle, tilling. thickness and comments); a core
state tahle (core state); ii core recovery table (per cent recovery,
number of lengths per interval, RQD); and an assays table
(sample ID, from. to, length. grades and comments). All of the
tables list from, to and rock type - this allows the computer to do
internal vnlidations to ensure correct logging.
The advnntage of having data in separate tables is that there is
a n additional responsibility on the user to cross check. When all
of [he data is in one table. i t is apparent to the user should
conflicts occur; however it is not obvious when an intersection is
ove rl oo ked.
I t is important to retain the intervals as they were originally
losgcd, use alphiinumeric codes that make sense to the user and
to distinguish between no data sampled (a blank) versus a 0.00
entry. Zeros arc true data and must be treated as such.
Back-up
With all the time and effort the user puts into acquiring and
processing data. i t is necessary to implement a backup routine.
Users should save on a regular basis and exit out of the software
periodically. This minimises data loss in the case hardware or
power failure, lightning strikes to overhead telephone or
networking cables, or the freeze up of software (this happens to
everyone). This can be set up by running a batchfile. At the
click of ;in icon. integral data files may be directly copied to a
backup directory. Weekly o r as required, the entire system
should bc hacked up on to tape or CD-Rom with one copy being
stored off-site.
Validation
Data needs to be validated by both internal computer checks and
through hard copy cross-referencing, to ensure a secure and
confident work base (Larkin. 1993). As minimum, maximum
and default values are predefined, any value that is out of range
becomes automatically rejected by the computer. It may be
~ 14 November 1997 77
 M D GOODZ e f o l
prudent to mention that for numeric fields i t is hest to set the
default value to NE (No Entry = blank) versus 0.00 which should
be reserved for a real measured value. Unfortunately this does
not work for fields where strings are entered, such as rock codes.
These must be checked manually.
The second check is to run software validation for each field of
each table. This will not pick up typographical errors or
miscoded string fields, but i t will pick up errors such as intervnls
not defined, negative length intervals, out of sequence interviils.
values greater than hole depth and duplicate intervals.
A list of errors should be printed out and crossed off by hand
upon correction 10 the database. Signing o f f and dating of
correction sheets is ii critical part of ensuring that multiple users
do not omit procedures.
The most important validation is to print out a hard copy of the
entire database and to manually check it. This is best done by
the data collector. This validation will pick up typographical
errors, misclassified data and discontinuities between such
items as grade and rock type. Most importantly. i t will give the
geologist and engineer another opportunity to consider their
observations and interpretation.
Where data entry is by digitising or scanning of images plans,
the first validation must use a printout. By overlaying on the
original to validate the data entry, scale and grid manipulations,
this method quickly identifies omission or duplication of data.
MINERAL PROSPECTIVITY VALUE (MPV) AND
ASSAYS
Assigning an MPV allows the logging geologist another
opportunity to validate sample assay data. By comparing the
MPV with grades, two variations become apparent; first is the
return of a high result from a low MPV priority, and conversely a
low result from a high MPV priority.
From our studies, i t is recommended that the bottom and top
ten per cent of each category be reassayed as ;I check. This
provides for a re-assessment of the original logs, review of grade
distribution and allows for the identification of new key
indicators which may need to be incorporated into future MPV
coding. The relationship between key indicators of
mineralisation, structure, alteration, and economic grade
distribution, can be complex. We know from the existing
database that some intersections which lack most of the accepted
indicators, returned assay values of significance (eg MS 32.5 at
350 m, - 20 m beyond the contact).
I This procedure has also highlighted the 'nugget' effect. It has
been shown that mineralised quartz shears +/- visible gold will
yield either very high or very low assays (250 g/t to zero). In
contrast, high MPV mineralised wallrock ALWAYS yield
anomalous background gold grades of 1 to I O g/t.
HINDSIGHT
In pure archival review it is best to work in original grid system
and units of measurement, and then upon completion of data
entry, to manipulate and translate to metric Local Mine- or
AMG-type grid systems. This is difficult when there are current
work programs underway and there is a need for both.
Furthermore, it now appears that the AMG system will he
replaced by the Geocentric Datum in the year 2000 (Midge,
1997).
There is no doubt of the multiple advantages to data validation
when archival maps and historical documentation are maintained
in their original format. This reduces data inanipulation to an
'once-off' procedure, thereby reducing error risks and time
delays.
7a Launcesron. 10 - 14 November 1997
~
Vertical Sections on Old Mine Grid
Vertical cross-sectio~ipl;incs are best selected perpc1idicul:ir to
the long axis of the ore host body. This faciliiates optimum niine
planning :ind resource modelling WIIC~II the Local Mine Grid
projection i s pmllel to [lie long axis (11' the feature. 11 was iiot a
good idea to change to x i AMG-type grid orientation. a s this
made i t tliflicult to relate to old cross-sectional d m . In
retrospect i t wiis tliflicult to produce a new set of stantl;lrd
referencing sections, when iill workings were approximotcly 17"
to the AMC; grid. Furthermore, because a phenomenal quantity
of plans existed for local mine projection. data manipulation and
validation would have been simpler iii the original grid.
REV I EW
Utilisatioii of archival data with a Icl:itional datahase is cost-
effective when compared to commencing new field l w e d
exploration programs. I t i s ;in invalu;ihle irddition to database for
reserve. grade and tonnage calculations. I t is also an inexpensive
method of locatirig new drillhole taigcts. A relational datah;ise
provides new ;ind alternative w;iys o f viewing existing
information which may act as ;I guide to exploration ;ind
interpretation. I t is i i n asset i o mine engineering in
understanding predefined conditions in ihc rock and open spice
left by previous operations.
The creation o f ;I tlatahase aids statistical an;ilysis and
xilitates CIS interpretation. The cieation of ;I scaled, located
f. "
and fully rotational 3D inodel is a n invaluable visualisation tool
to aid hoth tcchnical and corpoi-ate personnel to fully
comprehend physicill reliltionships i i i the third-dimension. The
integration of sevcr.al data sets accumulated over many years,
~illows for ;I pooling of knowledye. This provides the
opportunity to identify continuous features, structural anom;ilics.
and unconnected workings that arc proximal enough to utilisc for
access mtl vcntil;ition. I n using I'C-l~scd systems. a risk exists
that database validity may be inadvci-tently altered. Therefore
one database m;inager must he responsible for updating all
workstations.
By uridcrst;indirig the vast mosaic of information that has been
accumulated, one sets the scene for planning and documenting
all material to he iicquired froiii future exploration ;ind
dcvclopment programmes. The benefit is maximum utilisation
for minimum cost.
Pitf'rills to be wary of arc grid manipulations, northings,
relative levels. survey data inaccuracich. and the understandins of
commitments of material nnd labor Certain challenges arise
when ii project undertakes to eiitei into the same datahase
ongoing exploration dat;~with archival information, whilst hoth
arc referenced i n two separate grids. Grid transformations d o not
take much time hut considerable c:ire must be taken to ensure
that it is done correctly.
Retort embarking on the course 01' computer modelling of a
deposit, it is essential that users consider the hidden costs of time
and software maintenance. Thesc include time allotted tnr
training and for thc user to become prolicient. Downtime in the
form o f undocumented sofrwarc bugh. the length of time i t takes
to get lixes from the supplier, updating of software, periodic
hacking up of system, hardware prohlems and computer-printer
incompatibilities. These tire all cxacci hated by the fact that most
mining systems ;ire operated in remote locations with little or no
ready ~icccssto service technicians.
. .....
I n 'issusing the rate of return t h ; i t an on-site computer 3D
modelling system provides the user. one cannot forget that there
is a considerable lag time in implementing the system, loading
Mining Geology Conference

the data and producing :I final model. Management has to
appreciate re;ilistic schedules in achieving poals. The
implementation of such a system should aid with pre-leasibility
studies, he an cxploration tool, and provide in1orm;ition that in
the long run will reduce costs and increase productivity.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Project data and computer processing facilities were provided by
clients Mount Conqueror Minerals N L and Nickelseekers Mining
Services Pty. Ltd.
REFERENCES
Rischoff. K and Morley. C. 1993. Geology, resource definition and
reserve estiination at Mount Charlotte. Kalgoorlie. Western
Australia. i n P riiceedinxs ltifcrn~iiiotwlM i i i i i i ~GeokiX:!.Con/ereiic.e.
pp 1-18. (The Auskilasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy:
Me1bourne).
Cusack. C J, Goodz, M I) and H;irvcy-Kelly. F E L. 1096. Planning for
Profit: Prefea.ibility Studies and Considerations i n Priiceedrnxs
DiiILir D r i i w Mine P l t r n i ~ i n ~pp
. 1-4.5 (Institute of Internation;il
Research: Sydney).
Gleeson. 1'. 1093 Resource estimation and tliree-diinensioii;11 iiiodelling
of gold mineralisation at MI. Leyshon Gold Mine. N E Queensland,
i n Priic~ecrlit~~:.r
Inferntrrionrrl Mininx (;ro/iJ,qy Con/errirc.r. pp 47-57,
(The Australasinn Institute of Mining nnd Metallurgy: Melbourne).
Goodz. M D and II'Astoli. D J, 1997. 1)iainond drill core versus RC
chips: The real sample chapter 2 in P r i ~ t e r d ~ n Third~ : . c Inferntrfiond
Miitinx C;co/iigy Confrrewe, This volume. (The Australasian
Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).
Mining Geology Conference Launeeston. 10 - 14 November 1997
DISCOVERING NEW OREBODIES
Gootlz. M 1). antl Harvey-Kelly. F E L. 1907. Man:iging the Mine
Coniputtng System, Mount Conqueror Minerals Nl. (unpublished)
coinpxiy report No. 122 IS.
C;ocitlz. M D. :itid Wright R I-. 1993. Morning Star Gold Mine
I<ecovei.:ihle Ore Reserves = .Mining Geology + Pr;ic~ic;iICents in
/ ' n i t wilrirps lrr/crirtrnrintr/ Mrririi~G r r h x y Ciitrferrircc. pp 143- 148.
(The Akistral:isi;in Institute 01' Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).
L;irkin. I3 I . I903 Checking :iiid preserving the integriry of computer
stored geologic:il (lata, i n P I O 1 c w l i n p . ~A p p / i ( , k i v t . r iJfCompufcr.c it1
rlrr Mrirc,rtr/ / r i i / r i . v i y pp 1-5. (University of Wollongong Press).
McCat-thy. F L, IOOS. The mc:iiiing of exploration drilling results in
Victori:in reef deposits presented :it Bnllarat University Syinpsiuni
Series: Ikillmt.
Midge. S. 1097. The Geocentric h t u n i of Australia - Australia's new
iiiapping systein. i n The A u s l M M Bu//rliii, 2:21-26, ( The
Austr:il:isian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).
Murphy, M P, antl Ward. C W. 1007. Coinputer assisted inodelling of
narrow. elongate gold deposits for resource estimation and mine
plnnning. in /'roc.rrdii,rx.r A'c\r,unin,q fhr 2/"' Criiiirn: pp 16.5-170
(The Austrnl;isi;in Institute ot Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).
Pot tcr. S I . 1093. .l'liree-tlitneiisional inodelling of the Cenitxl Extended
Gold Ikposit - Analysis 0 1 \triictural controls on mineralisation, in
Priic~rrr/rn~.r ~ ~ i i r C;cri/ii,yy
Iir~rrntrfro~ici/ r n ~ Ciin/rrc.nr.c~.pp 77-80,
(The Austral:isi:in Institute ot Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).
Tiylor. L. lcl93. The graphic;il integration of technical spatial data
within Western Mining Corporation (An Overview). in Proceedinxs
A p p l i i i r / i i r i i . r I ) / Covtpfri:v iir flte M i n e r d Imfusrr\: pp R7-92.
(University of Wollongong I'icss).
Willims, S. 1993 Some consit1cr:itions for the selection of geological
inodelling and iiiine planning software. in Proctreifin,q.r App/icufiimc
o/ Girrrpurfrr iii the M ~ I I c J[ ~ i i (h/ w y , pp 273-282. (University of
Wollongong Press).
79
80 Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997 Mining Geology Conference
Draw Parameters and Reserve Estimation using PC-BC at the
E26 Block Cave Mine, Northparkes NSW
M House' and R Secis2

ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION
Noithparkes Mines is located 27 k i n northwest of P;irkes i n cellti-al west -.I lieNorthparkcs copper-gold deposits are located in the
New South W:iles. The E26 deposit is the largest of a11 defined to-date i n Goonumhla district approxini;ircly 27 kni northwest of the town
the iirea. cont;iining over SO per cent of Northpnrkcs' rcwurces and 01' Parkeh in central west h e w South Wales (Figure 1).
reserves. The combination of orehotly geometry ;ind geotechnical
characteristics provide ideal conditions for thc block c;ivc method of
Northparkcs Mines is a joint venture between North Limited (80
mining of the lirst lift of the E26 deposit. Although t l ~ smethod of per cent) ;ind tlic Sumitorno group of companies (20 per cent),
underground mining has been used for dcc:rdcs in other countries. E26 is cst;ihlislierl to exploit three oi clmlies. Endeavour (E)22, E27 and
the first example of its use in Australia. E X A fourth deposit, E48, IS tinder evaluation for incorporation
Copper-gold ~iiiner;ilis;ition at Northp:irkcs is re1:itt.d to quaill into the i n h e plan and will contribute t o a total mine life of 20
iiionzonite porphyries that have intruded coeval 0rdovici;in volcanics. y e m . Mining at E22 and E27 is by open cut, while tlic first lift
Sulphide mineralisation (dominantly bornite mid chalcopyrite) occurs of E20 is hcing tlcveloped ;IS Australia's first block cave mine.
principally within quartz veins associated with the porphyry intrusions. E26 contailis over 50 per cent of the total reserve at Northparkes
Veining and inineralisation occurs within both the porphyries and (Table I ). Annual production Irorn thc deposits i s planned at 5.2
volcanics. U t o l which 4. I Mt is sourced Irom the E26 block c;ivc.
To optirnise the recovery of :I resource within a block cavc mine. ii
good understanding of the rock mass and ore flow charxtcristics is
essential. These have ;I significant effect on the fragmcnt:itioii size and
range and on parameters such a s the drawzone sp:iciug, height of
interaction zone and dilution entry. As ore within ;I C;IK coluinn moves
and mixes whcn inaterial is extracted from below and beside it. the total
reserve extracted is uiiique for a particular draw str;ite:'y/l)roductioii
history.
Until recently. reserve estimates and production schedules were based
on the application of a uniform dilution frictor to the tabu1;ited resource.
However. given the complicated flow and inixing within the cavc
column, such a simplistic approach can produce erroneous icsults.
Northparkes Mines purchased and spoiisored the uppr:iiling of ;I
coinmercially nvailahle softwnre package specifically tlevelopcd for
inodelling removal of resource blocks under caving conditions. This
Geincom softw:ire package, PC-BC. has been used for mine pl;inning,
reserve reporting and production scheduling. Blocks within :I resource
block niodel are couvened into a mineable rescrve taking Into
inixing and dilution during depletion of dciwcoluinns (by horizontal and
vertical redistribution of insitu tonnage and metal). As I'C-BC gives
individual driiwpoint reserves. it can be used during the pl:ii~ningstage to
determine whether or not a drawpoint is econoniic.
For E26 Lift 1 an optimnl layout containing 130 drawpoints h:rs been
developed based on a nominal 14 in x 14 ni drawpoint spaciug and a 0.8
per ccnt equivalent copper (eCu) cut-off grade. A I I I I I Iproduction
~I~
schedules for the depletion of material above this layout arc hxetl on: I

I. higher tonnage reinoval from higher grade drawpoints in the early

years of production; and
2. drawpoint production rates proportional to the total tonnage of ore
Fiti 1 - Northparkcs Mmes location diagram
remaining in the drawcolumn up to the optiinal height of draw for
subsequent years.
The reserve is 1:ihulated from the comhined annu;il production
schedules over the life of the lift. The pre-mining reserve for Lift I of
E26 is 26.6 Mt at 1.43 per cent copper and 0.39 g/t gold. of which
approximately 23.4 Mt will he extracted under caving coutlitions. By
scaling down the annual production schedule. weekly drawpoint tonnage
calls can be given for short-term production scheduling.

I. Technical Services Team Leader, Northparkes Mines. PO Box OOS.

Parkes NSW 2870.
2. Mine Geologist. Northparkes Mines. PO Box 90.5. Parkes NSW
2x70. 1 2 'A eCu cut-of1;ipplies to E20 Lift 2.

Mining Geology Conference Launceston, 10 - 14 November 1997 81

 M HOUSE and R SECIS
PROJECT DEVELOPMENT
Copper-gold mineralisation at Northparkes was first discovered
in 1976 when scout drilling along roadsides intersected oxide
I mineralisation in what was later to be known a s the E22 deposit.
Further exploration ovcr a period of 20 ycars has identified up to
12 centres of mineralisation in thc Goonumbla district.
Following project approval in Novembcr 1992, mining of tlie
E27 opcn cut commenced in November 1993. CIP treatment of
oxide gold ore from E22 and E27 commenccd in April I994 iind
continued to Augusi 1995. With depletion of the oxide gold
reserves and mining of oxide copper-gold and sulphide copper-
gold ore, processing through a flotation plant began in September
1995.
The first lift of E26 is being developed as a block cave. While
block caving has bcen used for decades in Africa. Asin and the
Americas, this is the first use of this method of minins in
Australia. Block caving involves the initial undercutting o f an
orehody through drilling and blasting methods. Given ;I
sufficiently large span of undercut and weakness of rock mass.
the rock above the undercut fails and caves into the area below it.
With extraction of material through drawpoints. caving o f tlie
rockmass abovc continues and propagates upwards.
A comprehcnsivc description of the mine design is given by
Dawson (1995). Briefly, the extraction level for Lift 1 is located
approximately 480 in below surfacc ;it 9800 mRL (Figure 2).
The undercut is 45 m high and has been advanced on two levels
FIG2 - E26 iniiie
82 Launceston. 1 0 . 14 November 1997
at 98 I8 mRL and 9830 mKL. The tipper undercut has been
advanced ~ihe~id of' drawpoint and drawhcll development to ;ivoid
damage 1.1-om high iibutincnt stressch. The lower undercut is
being cxcav;ited iilter completion of the upper undercut ;iiid
opening ol drawhclls below. Developinent of the E26 decline
comnicnced in October 1993, with tlic lirst undercut ore k i n g
produced i n Januaiy I 990. Extraction ot' cave inaterial started in
l'ebruary I997 lrom the wuthwcst corner drawpoints. Lift 1 of
E26 will he one o l the highest block C';IVC lifts developed to date
i n the world (400 in), more than douhlc the height of tnost otlier
operations. A sniall open cut was mined above the Liit I cave to
extract ;I small oxide resource and higher-grade sulphide
resource.
GEOLOGY
The Laic Ordovicixi Goonumbla ;ind Wombin Volcanics that
host thc Korthparkes deposits occiir within the Goonumbla
Volcanic Complex (GVC), which 1 5 part of the Early-Late
Ordoviciari Parkes-Narrornine belt of volcanics. These volcanics
wcre erupted from shallow water t t r partly emergent volcanic
centres xid show ;I mngc in composition from latite i o
trachy;indesite, ;ind vary from flows i o volcanic breccias. The
copper-gold deposits occur witliiii a pronounced circular
magnetic feature approximately 22 kin i n diameter interpretcd by
Jones ( 198.5) to he ;I collapsed caltlcra formed by cxplosive
mechanisms. and later by Hall (1993) to be a caldera formed by
block subsidence ;iiid downsagging.
schematic section
Mining Geology Conference
 I)l<AW PARAMETERS A N D RESERVE ESTIMATION USING PC-BC

Coeval diorite to monzonite stocks have intruded the volcanics

within the GVC, and iirc interpreted by Jones(l98S) to form ;I
large trunciitcd ring dyke. The E3 I stock occurring i n the north
east of tlie GVC is ;I biotite monzonite and is surrounded to tlie
west and north by several porphyry related copper-gold deposits.
including E20. The deposits arc related to linger-like monzonite
and quartz monzonite porphyries which at E26 crosscut tlie
biotite monzonite at depth (Figure 3). and represent late-stape
focused release of magma and volatiles that had collected on tlie
shouldcrs of the stock (Heithersay and Walsh, 1996)

FIG4 - Sheeted qiiaiiz veins wiih bornite infill (field of view I m).
.. . .. . ..
G"P"",r.

Poppmllr
hotli the main northern and southern porphyry bodies resulting in
overlapping concentric grade zones producing a complex grade
distribution. In the northern cnd of E26, the porphyries are cut
hy narrow tabulor subverticnl barren felsic dykes (zero
porphyries).
Within each QMP body several monzonite phases have been
UPpmB
itlcntilied based on compositional. textural, alteration, veining
;ind mineralisation characteristics. Some stages can contain
sulphide and quartz vein clots and xenoliths. The contact
between pliascs can be Inarked by a narrow zone of
?ma~matic/liydrothermalbrecchtion. A detailed study needs to

= ..-
,.. .. .-
..-+ +

+
+ +
+
+ +
+
+ +
+
+ +
+
+ +
+
+ +
+
+ +
+

FIG3 - E26 Geological cross section . 933.50 rnN

K + +
+
+ +
+
+ +
Copper-gold mineralisation occurs principally i n stockwork +
and sheeted quartz veins (Figure 4) and lesser disseminations + +
associated with potassic alteration occurring both within the +
+ +
volcanics and quartz monzonite porphyries (QMP). At E26 +
several discrete. multi-phsse QMP bodies have been identified.
The main body of mineralisation is associated with the earlier + + + +I + +
+ + + + - + + + + *
+++l
and smaller southern porphyry (QMPI of Heithersay and Walsh, -.
. . . . . . . .J .....1 . . . . I
1996). The southern porphyry's maximum plan dimensions arc
40 m x 50 rn and it has a vertical extent of at least 700 ni (Figure
0
5). Quartz vein densities and copper-sulphide mineralisation 0
decreases away from the margins of the porphyry (House, 1994). 0
As a result, copper and gold grades are concentrically zoned
around the intrusive. To the north. the main body of
mineralisation has been stoped out by a later lower grade
porphyry - the northern porphyry (QMPZ of Heithersay and
Walsh, lYY6). It has maximum plan dimensions of 60 m x 160 m
and a vertical extent of at least 900 m. With depth there are Fm 5 - E26 geological plaii of 9800 rnRL extraction level
several more small porphyry intrusions with characteristics of

Mining Geology Conference Launceston. 1 0 - 14 November 1997 83

M HOUSE and R SECK

he completed to characterise and define timing relationships Rock strength tests undertaken on core samples show that the
between the phases; however as the morc mafic, poorly veined host rocks at E26 ;ire generally strong, with an intact rock
and mineralised monzonite porphyries truncate and stope out strength (IRS) ranging from I10 M p i i n the volcanics to 143
quartz veining and copper sulphide mineralisation, it appears that Mpa i n the biotite monzonite. The I")str-mineralisation gypsum
they post-date the more felsic. veined and mineralised porphyries cvent (stagcs IO and I I o f I-leithersay and Walsh. 1996) is unique
at E2A. to tlie E26 deposit and has pervaded to upper parts of the fracture
The monzonite porphyries intrude a shallowly southcast system contributing strongly to the geotechnical characteristics.
dipping sequence of trachytic lavas, hyalc Above IO OXO mRL (locally termed tlic 'gypsum linc', Figure 3)
A discrete marker unit that has a strong1 gypsum has been Iexhetl out leaving open fractures in the rock
texture is interpreted as a diorite sill emplaced prior to ,.
mass. I he intensity of gypsum veining decreases with depth,
mineralisation and alteration. The biotite monzonite to the east. decreasing I'rom two - three per cent of the rock volume above
with ii contact dipping steeply to thc west and under tlie main
body of E26, is interpreted as part of thc E3 1 stock (Figure 3). about 0950 niRL (Figure 0) to less th;ui 0.5 per cent below 9800
mRL. Approximately 20 in above the gypsum line, a 10 to 35 in
Copper sulphide mineralisation occurs mainly ;is bornite with thick one ot the highly I'ractured rock has been re-cemented by
lesser chalcopyrite and minor chalcocite. tetrahedrite and carbonate (Carbonate Iiiipregnated Zone, Figurc 3). Fracture
covellite (House, 1994). Gold occurs principally within bornite frequencies in general ;ire related to gypsum vein densities
as free gold and occasionally as tellurides. Sulpliides are zoned ranging from two per metre on the O X O 0 level to over five per
laterally from a bornite dominant core through to a chalcopyrite metre above the gypsum line. Four piiiicipal joint sets have been
dominated periphery. Pyrite increases outward at the expense of identitied (Figure 7) with spacings Ior each set averaging 0.4 m
bornite. to 0.8 in on the 9800 l e \ ~ and
l 4 . 2 in above the gypsum line.
Copper/gold ratios vary both vcrtically and laterally at E20 Two sets clip steeply (>75") to the west and northeast, a third also
(House 1994). Two distinct copper-gold ratio domains have been dips steeply (60" - 70") to the northwest, while the fourth
identified - an upper copper-rich/gold-poor domain and a lower- (dominantly gypsum veins) dip shallowly ( ~ 3 0 " to) the south.
middle copper-rich/gold-rich domain. The copper/gold ratio (as
defined by Cu per ccnt:Au g/t) increases systematically laterully
away from the southern porphyry within both domains from I : I
in the core to IO: 1 in the peripheries. This is in contrast to E27
and E22 where copper/gold ratios are close to I : I throughout.
Heithersay and Walsh (1996) document I I stages of alteration
ociatcd with the hydrothermal system that
produced the E26 orebody. Stages 1 - 3 represent veins and
alteration assemblages that wcrc precursors to the main
mineralising stages. Biotite and magnetite alteration occurred
during stage 3 associated with anhydrite and alkali feldspar, and
forms an annulus to the deposit. Stage 3 was overprinted hy
Stagc 4 veinlets (quartz-K-feldspar-albite) with associiitcd
sulphides and hematisation of magnetite. Stagc 5 is composed of
multi-stage stockwork quartz veins and sulphides. Stages A to X
are associated with the northern porphyry and are equivalents o f
stages I , 4 and 5 respcctivcly of the southern porphyry, although
sulphidc mineralisation occurs principally as chalcopyrite. Stage
9 is quartz-scricitc alteration and stages 10 and 1 I arc veins of
gypsum and anhydrite. The stage 9 alteration usually occurs ;IS
structurally and fracture controlled quartz-sericite-pyrite shears FIG0 - Gypsum vciiiing o i i 10 030 iriKL lcvcl (field of view 3 in)
that crosscut the mainbody of mineralisation and continue for :it
least a kilometre beyond it. These shears generally trend NW-SE
and dip stccply to the north and north cast.
Sulphur isotope and fluid inclusion studies by Heithersay iind
Walsh (1996) demonstrate high temperature and high salinity
fluid conditions during formation of stages 3 - 6 (pcak
hydrothermal conditions) related to thc emplacement of the
southern and northern porphyries. Most quartz vein development
and sulphide precipitation occurred over a temperature range of
500 to 800°C. Decreasing temperatures and :i waning of tlic
hydrothermal system is recorded by stages 7 to I 1.

GEOTECHNICAL
Until the recent excavation of underground development, all
gcotechnical assessment at E26 was based on diamond drill core.
Fracture frequencies were taken from counts of the number of
open fractures per 3 in of drilled core. These counts had to be
adjusted to account for geometric considerations to obtain the
true joint spacings. Oriented drill core helped identify ;ind
orientate joint sets, however as the majority of holes were drillcd
from cast to west, there was a large 'blind zone' (ie joint sets
running subparallel to the drill holes were under-represented)
(Rosengren, 1992). Recent mapping of underground exposures
using a 5 m cell mapping system has provided much needed FIG7 - Stcrcographic:il projection of joint WI poles from 9x30 and '98 1 X
suhlcvcl rnappiiig.
additional data. 1

84 Launceslon. 10 - 14 November 1997 Mining Geology Conference

 [)RAW PARAMETERS AND RESERVE ESTIMATION USING PC-BC

Based on the geological and geotechnical characteristics of the Secondly, what fmgmentation size and range can he expected.
orebody (principally gypsum vein density), Rosengren ( 1992) I’or hoth these questions an understanding of the rock mass
dividcd E26 lift I into nine geotechnical zones. The rock inass chmicteristics is essential.
rating (defined below) within each zone varies from 53 at the
9800 level to 40 or less above the gypsum line (Figure 8). Cavabihty
__
Surface
The cavability ot’;i rock mass i s a function ofthe hydraulic radius
and tlie qu;ility o f the rock I I I ~ S S . The hydraulic radius is ii
v’/+ ,CLAY,(removed) ’ /’/ //
10285rnRL,
10260mRL, nieiisurc o l [he area of undercutting divided by the perimeter.
Several rock mass schemes arc in use in mining and engineering.
F) B OXIDE 10240rnRL I
Northparkes h a s used the Lauhscher ( I 990) system of rock mass

(40) UPPER GYPSUM

1E1 LEACHED ZONE
classilication, ;IS i t was clcveloped specifically for caving
operiitions. The rockmass r.i[ing (RMR) is a function of the
intact rock strength. the fracture frequency per metre (ff/m), and
10130rnRL tlie joint condition. Ratings for each of these have been
(45)Carbonge IrnDregnated Zone 10110rnRL tlevcloped; the sun1 total ot the ratings is the RMR. When
(33) Lower Gypsum I (50) I Leached Zone 10080rnRL considering c;ivability the mining induced changes ;iIso need to
B he taken into account. The mining rock mass rating (MRMR) is
1
the RMR discounted by mining induced changes such as stress,
(48) I HEAVY we;ithering. water. blasting and orientation of the structures with
GYPSUM VEINING respect to tlie opening. Lmbscher (1990) has developed a
i stability diagram based on historical data sets. While this is an
9950rnRL empirically based diagram xid therefore needs to be applied
(50) i MEDIUM t
carefully, E26 Lift I with a range in MRMR from 53 to 33 (note
GYPSUM VEINING 9900rnRL no discount applied to the RMR) and hydraulic radius near 40
(53) LOWER sits clearly within the caving field (Figure 9).
GYPSUM VEINING
LIFT I
?
RMR EXTRACTION LEVEL 9800rnRL ---
‘
I
CIASS I
CUYOS “ClV

r-
Dool

-
cuss II
Coves PWI

Fic; 8 - Gcotcchnical zones at E26 (after Laubscher 1993)

If-
cws 111
cover lair

RESOURCE ESTIMATION ---I

CLASS N

C“,OS wuu
Resource modelling is based on 184 inclined diamond, rotary
and percussion drill holes. Most are NQ-sized diamond holes
drilled from surface and underground. Drill hole densities vary
-t
c m v
cover very
from 40 m x 40 m x 75 m in Lift 1 to 80 m x 100 in x 130 m XCil

below and to the north of Lift I. Holes were half core sampled
on I m intervals prior to I993 and 2 in intervals thereafter. Both
copper and gold show a log normal distribution; gold having a
pronounced positive skew, copper a slight negative skew.
Resource block models are constructed using DATAMINE
software with interpolation of grade into IO m x IO in x 20 m
blocks using the inverse distance squared method. Grade
interpolation is carried out within wireframes defined by plan
contours at intervals o f 0.5, 1.O and 2.0 per cent for copper and
0.25, 0.5 and Ig/t for gold. The contours are ‘snapped’ onto the
drill holes in GUIDE. Drill hole intercepts included within a
wireframe are extracted and given a 5 m up and down hole
‘dilution skin’. The diluted intercepts are merged with the
sample data and downhole composited to 5 in intervals
preparatory for grade interpolation. Each grade zone is
interpolated separately using search parameters based on
variography, orebody geometry and drill hole spacing.
CAVE THEORY
Much of the current cave theory is based upon experience and
sand model experiments. It is only recently that numerical
modelling has been used to predict such things as the critical
hydraulic radius, the zone of influence of draw. etc. In
considering a block cave operation two main concerns need to be
addressed. Firstly, at what point will the rockrnass cave.
D
HYDRAULIC RADIUS = AreqlPerirneler
FIG9 - Laubscher stability diagram (after Laubscher 1990).
Fragmentation
For caving operations, fragnentation is one of the most
important tactors controlling the drawpoint spacing, dilution
entry. draw control, productivity and secondary breakage
requirements (Laubscher, 1905). These in turn influence
strongly the production schedules and reserve estimate.
Primary fragmentation (ie what falls off the cave back) is
controlled by the orientation and strength of joints with respect to
the induced stresses within tlie cave back (Laubscher, 1993).
Secondary fragmentation is the reduction in primary block size
as it is drawn down the cave column (comminution), This occurs
when stresses within the cave column exceed the strength of
weaknesses (fracture planes o r intact rock) within the rock block.
Controlling factors on secondary fragmentation are therefore the

Mining Geology Conference Launceston, 10- 14 November 1997 05

 M HOUSE and R SECK

block shape. fractures or lower IRS zones within tlie block, draw
height, incidence of arching in the draw column, range in
fragmentation. draw scenario. and ratio of height to width o f cave
zone (Laubscher. 1993).
A computer program based on empirical and analytical models
has been developed by Esterhuizen (1993) for predicting both
primary and secondary fragmentation under caving conditions.
Although the primary fragmentation at E26 Lift 1 might be
coarse, the combination of increasing draw height and lower 3 0
2
RMR produces a fragmentation curve that initially shows
significant coarse material but lines rapidly, so that by 150 in E0
height of draw, more than 95 per cent of material reporting to the 4 2
drawpoints passes 2 m3 (Chen, 1996, Figure IO).

loo%, I 5

-E
N
V 6
C
.-
0
c)

"
0

&E
U

9BOOrnRL 9850mRL 9900rnRL 9950mRL

Cave Draw Location

Interactive Draw

PIC 10 - E26 Lift 1 fragmentation profile (Chen 19%)

1
Draw theory
To optimise the recovery of a block cave ore reserve one has to
ensure an overlap of drawzones and minimise dilution. Sand and 2
gravel model experiments (eg Marano. 1980; Peters, 1984) have
shown that a drawpoint drawn in isolation will draw a discrete
column of caved material above it. This column (termed the
isolated draw zone - IDZ) forms a cylindrical shape for higher 3 0
drawcolumns (Peters, 1984) and its diameter is dependent on the z
fragmentation size and range and the loading width at the
drawpoint. Fine material will have a smaller IDZ than coarse
?i0
4 '
material. Experiments have also shown that concurrent drawing
of adjacent drawpoints whose spacing is less than a critical
distance, creates interaction between the drawzones (Marano.
5
1980). This results in a different and wider draw zone than if
they had been drawn in isolation (Figure I I ) , thought to he
because of the creation of a low density zone encouraging
movement of material from outside the IDZ into the drawzone. 6
Based on these sand model experiments and experience from
operating mines, Laubscher (1995) has developed guidelines !or
determining the critical minimum spacing which ensure
interaction between drawzones for a given fragmentation profile
and loading width. This critical distance determines the
drawpoint spacing for a particular layout, measured as tlie
minimum spacing across the major apex (Figure 12).
For E26 Lift I the minimum IDZ (for material above the
gypsum line) is 8 in. Concurrent drawing of the two drawpoiiits
forming a drawbell and the drawing of adjacent drawbells is
expected to increase the drawzone diameter for each drawpoint Isolated Draw
to I6 m. The offset herringbone drawpoint layout of 14 m x 14
m spacing corresponds to a maximum and minimum drawzone
spacing of 19 m and I O m respectively (Figure 12). This spacing
has been selected as a compromise between the draw of early
coarse and later fine material, as well as pillar stability and FIGI I - Draw patterns for m i d inodcl cxpcriinents (Laubscher 1995).
loader operation reasons.

, 86 Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997 Mining Geology Conference

 I)I<AW PARAMETERS ANI) RESERVE ESTIMATION USING PC-BC

I'C-BC
Isolated Draw Zones The Lilt I reserves have bccn estimated using the GEMCOM
d t w a r e pxkkagc PC-BC vcrsion 3.0 developed by Diering
lnteiaclion between ( 1996). Thc program has been developed specifically to simulate
draw zones increasing the processes o t draw and draw control under block-caving
the area 01 influence
conditions. Iri situ reserves arc converted into mineable reserves
taking into ;icc~untmixing and dilution during interactive draw
(by horizontal and vertical redistribution of in situ tonnage and
metal). I ~ n gand short-tcrm planning can be carricd o u t by
lnteracllon between adlacenl inputting mine layouts, sliut-off grades, draw rates and
drawbells increases aiea of
inlluence la eliplical shape I)roduction schedules.
I n cstahlishing ;I PC-BC niodcl the resource block model,
drawpoint layout, ;ind drawcone geometries are essential (Figure
13). Slices within each drawcolumn are assigned a tonnage and
grade valuc based on the input'resource block model. This forms
tlie raw grade database for material extraction and mixing.
Proportions of sliccs are then mixed as slices below are extracted
FIG12 - E26 Lift I drawzones. o r moved.

interaction and mixing between adjacent drawcolumns and

within a draw column is thought to be limited to a defined
interaction zone (Marano, 1980). the height of which is ii
function of tlie RMR and its range, the maximum spacing of
drawzones across the major apex, and the draw control
(Laubscher, 1995). For E26 Lift I tlie height of tlie interaction
zone (HIZ) ;ibove the drawbell trough is estimated to be about 85
m for coarse material and 40 m for finer material. I f drawpoints
are drawn systematically and concurrently, then above this zone,
material is expected to be drawn evenly. Dilution entry is a
function of tlie drawcolumn height and swell factor. height of
interaction zone and draw control practice (Laubschcr. 1995).
Ideally to delay the dilution entry point at a drawpoint. the height
of the interaction zone should be kept to a minimum and good
draw control practices followed.

Production rates
Production rates from caving operations are measured as the
height drawn in mm/day, and can be a s high as 400 mm/day
depending on the fragmentation, drawpoint spacing and specific
gravity of the ore (Laubscher. 1993). When inducing caving,
draw rates should not exceed tlie rate of advance of tlie cave back
;is this could lead to the creation of an excessive air gap; however
draw rates should be large enough to prevent loading and damage
to tlie extraction level. Based on the number of drawpoints and
production schcdule, tlie average drawrate at E26 is 200 mm/day.

BLOCK CAVE RESERVE ESTIMATION

General
Once the fragmentation characteristics are known (giving a
drawpoint spacing, height of interaction zone and dilution entry
point), reserve estimation can begin. Unlike other mining
methods such :is open cut mining, ore extraction by block caving
is non-linear (Diering. 1996). In considering open cut mining for
example, the mining sequence does not effect tlie reserve. iis ore
blocks remain fixed in their location regardless of wliiit is mined
around them. In block caving however, the remov;il of an ore
block causes movement of material around it. thus influencing
the future location of another block of ore or block o f dilution.
'I'he reserves are therefore unique for each draw scenario and can
be reduced significantly through poor draw control practice. The
application of a uniform dilution factor to an 'in-cave' resource
can lead to erroneous results.
FIG13 - Flow diagram of establishing drawcolumn reserves in PC-BC
Each di-iiwpoint is given ;I location (XYZ co-ordinate). a
record number. a name, a type nnd status. Each drawpoint type
contains ii set drawcone geonictry and cost of development. The
drawcone may be circular o r rectangular in cross section and
may have v;iried radii at dillcrent heights. For example, by
having two distinct drawpoint types and cones one can define
central drawpoints with a vertical draw column and peripheral
drawpoints with an inclined draw column.
The resource block model IS imported from DATAMINE into
PC-BC. Each ccll within thc model has three grade values (Cu
per cent. Auglt and eCu per cent), a ff/m and per cent fines
v;ilue. Density and rocktype codes are also set for cnch cell. In

Mining Geology Conference Launceston, 10 - 14 November 1997 87

 M HOUSE and R SECK
preparing the E26 model, density values were reduced for cells
between the 9800 and 9860 levels to account for swell removed
during undercutting; also cells lying above the open pit were
removed.
For each drawcolumn. a proportion of the material is
exclusively accessible from the underlying drawpoint, while
some is accessible by other drawpoints (ie 'unique' and 'shared'
material respectively). While unique material will only report to
the drawpoint below i t , shared material is available for cross
drawpoint (horizontal) mixing.
The first step in preparing the model is to compute the block
fractions within each drawcolumn that are unique and shared
(Figure 14). Next the resource blocks arc transferred to the
sliccfile. Once these two steps are completed, ore column
depletion can start (Figure 15).
I
!
\
!
I
I Tonnages for drawcolumn depletion can be set for drawpoints
I
\
" 1.1 , /'
FIG14 - Ore column slices dividing unique and shared portions
During ore column depletion, vertical and horizontal mixing
parameters can be varied or disabled. The interaction zone
height of 85 m for E26 can he varied based on the differences in
tonnes between neighhouring drawpoints. Vertical mixing
paramcters can be calibrated to match the dilution entry curves of
Laubscher by using a simple 'sandbox' model to give a dilution
percent for each iteration. These mixing parameters define what
proportion of a slice in the interaction zone can move down for
any iteration. In the 'sandbox' model which has a horizontal
orelwaste interface, the vertical mixing parameters are calibrated
to give a 70 per cent dilution entry curve. Mixing parameters can
be set differently for fine and coarse material (as defined by per
cent fines in the block model) thereby enabling one to model the
effect of differential movement. The amount of cross drawpoint
mixing is user definable based on the differences in tonnes
between neighbouring drawpoints and the distance between these
drawpoints. This mixing is greatest just above the first slice (the
drawbell zone) and reduces gradually up to the HIZ (except for
the case of isolated draw).
aa Launceston, 10 - 14 November 1997
I
I
i
\ '
\,
FIGIS - Coinplete draw coluinns prior to depletiori
individually or i n groups, or determiiied from a height of draw
record. During depletion of the chosen tonnage record or
tonnage sequence. vertical 'and horizontal mixing redistributes
fractions of ore column slices (and thcir grade values) within and
between the ore columns. A new slicetile model is saved which
forms the basis lor the next tonnage depletion. Also, a tabulation
of the tonncs and grade removed for each drawpoint and the
percentage of ore and dilution material is generated. The process
is repeated until the tonncs within the ore column are depleted to
a desired shut-off grade.
In order to define thc tonnes remaining in a draw column to a
given shut-off grade, vertical mixing of the entire column is
undertaken in one r u n without depleting the contained tonnage.
The resultant 'mixed' columns arc a bcst case scenario assuming
excellent drnw control and no horizontal mixing of material. The
height of draw up to a shut-off grade ill the mixed column can be
calculated. The tonnes within the ore column up to thc height of
draw is calculated and scaled to produce the desired production
targets. This process of finding the best height of draw may need
t o be repeated several times during the actual tonnage depletion
of the ore columns. as material is moved between the columns
dependant on the actual draw scenario or production history.
Layout selection
As PC-BC gives a total tonnage and grade for each drawpoint up
to an optimal height of draw, it can be used to determine the
extent of the drawpoint layout. Peripheral drawpoints which may
lie within the resource model cut-off grade boundary may prove
to be uneconomic because of mixing (side dilution) a n d o r
contain insufficient tonnage of ore griide material to cover the
installation cost.
To optimise the extent of the drawpoint layout, an expanded 14
m x 14 m layout (ie two drawbells beycind the limit of the 0.8 per
cent cCu outline) was input into PC-BC. ECU grades in the
block model are assigned a dollar wlue based on a copper co-
Mining Geology Conference

efficient of $20 per percentage eCu. Resource block grades were
transferred to the drawcolumn slicefile. A shut-off grade of 0.8
per cent eCu ($16 - ie $20 x 0.8) was applied to the drawpoint
columns after vertical and horizontal mixing. Drawpoints having
an ore column with an average grade below 0.8 per cent eCu
were removed from the layout. Drawpoints which have an ore
column grade of >0.8 per cent eCu but at a low tonnage are also
excluded if they have a negative nett revenue. The reniaining
layout of 130 drawpoints were then used as the recommended
layout for construction and as the basis for reserve calculation.
Draw strategy
The draw strategy at E26 must account for the orebody geometry.
grade distribution and rock mass characteristics, plus production
and economic parameters. I t seeks to maximisc ore recovery,
maintain production and maximisc the project NPV. Within Lift
1 the orebody tapers towards the surface with the central
drawpoints in general having a higher ore column than peripheral
drawpoints. The central core of the orebody is also expected to
produce coarser fragmentation because of lower gypsum veining
and induration by silica (associated with high quartz vein
densities).
The draw strategy for Lift I aims 10 draw tlie central
drawpoints at higher rates than the outer drawpoints i n tlie first
three years of cave production. This strategy aims to:
1. flatten the ordwaste interface thus reducing dilution;
2. remove the expected higher grade coarser material s o that i t
is not isolated by finer faster flowing low-grade material;
3. maximise the project NPV by providing higher grades and
revenues in early years.
Drawpoints selected for higher draw rates were done so based
on average expected grade from the drawpoint and the height of
tlic ore column.
After this, draw rates will be proportional to the amount of
material remaining in the ore column such that all drawpoints
reach their shut-off grades in the same year.
Draw simulation
With the selection of the 130 drawpoint layout the Lilt I reserve
is constructed from the annual production schedule. Annual
tonnes for each drawpoint arc assigned and extracted with
vertical and horizontal mixing parameters turned on. The
tonnage calls are based on the draw strategy outlined above.
Specifically, this entails:
I. even draw in years I and 2 to allow undercutting and cave
propagation;
2. differential draw of higher grade drawpoints i n years 3, 4
and 5. Draw ratios are:
3 x for drawpoints >2.0 per cent eCu (approx 400
midday)
2 x for drawpoints > I .2 and .O per cent eCu (approx
270 m d d a y )
I x for drawpoints <l.2 per cent eCu (approx 130
mdday);
3. draw proportional to tonnes remaining above a drawpoint
for years 6 - 8. Thus high tonnage drawpoints are drawn at
a rate higher than lower tonnage drawpoints.
The total tonnage remaining after year 5 u p to the optimal
height of draw for $16/t (ie 0.8 per cent CCU) .\hut-off is
calculated as described above. This tonnage record is then scaled
to produce a total tonnage for the drawpoints of 4.1 Mt. The
scaled tonnage record is depleted from the draw column reserves
using vertical and horizontal mixing for years 6 ;ind 7. The
Mining Geology Conference Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997
I>RAW PARAMETERS AND RESERVE ESTIMATION USING PC-BC
height of tlic interaction zonc (within which mixing occurs) is
modified by the draw control factor prior to depletion. The
process ot tinding the best height of draw is repeated after year 7
to give the tonnes available for year 8 - when the lift is
exhausted. Sections through the lift after 3 stages of mining are
shown in Figures I6 - 19. The reserve tabulated from the annual
production schedules is unique for the particular draw strategy
chosen and documented above
.
I
I -E
I
I
I
I
I
FIGI6 - Section through drawcolumns along drawbell row four prior t o
tlcpletion.
The PC-RC reserve is coinpared to the 'in cave' resource in
Table 2 at a cut-olf of 0.8 per cent eCu. The 'in-cave' resource
only includes resource inside ii vertical projection of the layout
above 9800 mKL, excluding undercut swell and the open pit
material. At a cut-off of 0.8 per cent eCu the reserve represents
mi increase i n tonnage of IO per cent and reductions of 12 per
cent in coppcr and 16 per cent in gold grades compared to the
resource. Metal contents increase by two per cent for copper but
decrease by three per cent for gold. These changes are a measure
of' resource recovery combined with dilution and mixing.
Mixing results in some in sirir ore being lost while some waste is
included. As the copper/gold ratio increases towards the
peripheral xid upper parts ot tlie mineralisation, the inclusion of
dilution atfects the gold grades more than the copper grades.
The loss ot gold metal reflects ore loss or sterilisation because of
dilution by waste material i o below shut-off value drawpoint
grades.
PRODUCTION SCHEDULING
Since the start 01' cave extraction in February 1997. PC-BC has
heen used lor short-term production scheduling and monthly
grade reporting. These slio1.t-term production schedules (ie
drawpoint calls) are determined from PC-BC based on the
planned draw strategy (as used for reserve estimation. ie base
case). Actual drawpoint production rarely matches the planned
h w straicgy because of circumstances such as drawpoint
89
M HOUSE and R SECIS

-
---- - \
-. -
I I
I

I
! I
I
\

I
I
I
I

i
I
I
I
i

FIG17 - Drawbell row four after year three production Ftc; I9 - Drnwbell row four alter year 7.

TAHLB 2
E26 liJi I - c ~ o ~ t ~ ~ ~ uof'
r i s'iti-covc
ori re.\ortrce 'und PC-RC rescriw.

Cave Resource 20 IO 0.43

PC-BC R ~ S W V K 23.42 I .4R 0.36
Difference

(Note: Tot;d reserve ( 1 1 26.6 MI includes C;IW reserve plus undercut and
open pit production.)

hangups and loader. drawpoint and rondway maintenance. The

next schedule produccd lrom PC-BC thcrcfore has to ensure that
production is brought b;ick in line with the draw strategy. For
short-term schcduling (say on a weekly basis), the discrepancy
between the actual tonncs mined and the scheduled tonnes is
added to or subtrxted from the planned draw strategy to give a
new short-term production schcdule. However, for longer-term
scheduling (monthly or quarterly) the base case needs to be
revised to ensure that ore column depletion (rather than
drawpoint extraction) rcmains within the long-term strategy.
This is needed a h the tonncs depleted from the column can be
different from w1i;it was simply extracted from the drawpoint
below i t , heciiusc of the movement of material between draw
columns.

CALIBRATION
PC-BC has been a useful tool in block cave reserve estimation
and planning of ore extraction trom a block cave mine.
Calibration of the system however needs to be undcrtaken. 21s
FIG I8 - Dr:iwhell row four after year five production mixing parameters and the area and ;ingle of influence of a
drawcolumn have been based on ;inecdotal evidence and
expcrience of draw from other caving operations. This

90 Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997 Mining Geology Conference


calibration of the system is important for the successful reserve
extraction of E26 Lift 1 and for the planning of E26 Lift 2 and
E48, which may also be mined using block caving. Full PC-RC
calibration requires a fundamental undcrstanding of the
properties of matcrial flow within the cave column for different
rock mass conditions. draw heights, etc and flow simulation
using computer models; which may be beyond the working scope
of mine-bascd professionals. A site specific calibration is being
undertaken for E26 Lift 1 which will give ongoing i m ~ ~ r ~ i v e r n e n t s
to the application of PC-BC at Northparkes. Specifically this
program entails regular drawpoint sampling and comparison of
observed vct'sus predicted grades, fragmentation monitoring and
the placcment of markers in 'in-cave' underground dcvelopment,
drill holes and o n surface.
CONCLUSIONS
Reserve estimation within a block c;tvc requires a good
understanding of the geology and rockniass conditions,
principally as i t relates to the predicted fragmentation. As the
pattern and amount of drawpoint extraction intluences the
movement of material in the drawcolumns, the recovered
rcserves arc unique for each draw scenario. PC-RC is able to
model such mixing within and between columns during depletion
of a resource block model. While still needing calibration,
Northparkes regards PC-BC as an essential tool for mine
planning. production scheduling and reserves estimation i n ;I
block ciive mine.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
T h e authors would like to thank Northparkes Mines for
permission to publish this paper, Dennis Lauhscher for many
discussions on cave theory and its application at Northparkes.
Tony Diering for development and training of PC-BC version 3.0
and Julie Schumachcr for assistance with diagram preparation.
T h e work of all members of the technical services team at
Northparkes in the planning of E26 Lift1 is also acknowledged.
Mining Geology Conterence Launceston. 10.
IIRAW PARAMETERS AND RESERVE ESTIMATION USING PC-BC
REFERENCES
Clicii D. IWO. Gcotechnical :issessinent of block cave mining in
Northp;\Ikes Mines. NSW. Australia. Rock Mechanics Tools and
Techiiiques. P i o i rrditijir 2 i i d N Ani Rock Mechtrtii(.s .Synposiunr.
. 26 1-268
M(iiiii.rii/, Q u t h ~ .pp
I ) ; i u w n . L I<. 19%. I)evcloping Australia's first block caving operation
;it Noiihparkes Mines - Endeavour 26 Deposit. i n 1~rweedinR.r
Uiidci:vi.ouiid O/wi'(iIors' Coii/erwce. pp I SS- 164 (The Australasian
lnstitiitc 0 1 Mining and Melallurgy: Mclboume).
I)ieriiig 'I. 19%. PC'-BC User Miiiiiid w r s 3.00. Gemcoiii Services Inc;
V;incouvcr. BC.
Eatcrhuizen. G S. 1093. UCF i i w r M m u t i l . (Versioii 2.1). G S
13erl1iiiren Pr Eng. Pretoria. South Africa.
1-1;iIl. M C. 1993. The Stratigraphy and Palacovolcanology of the Late
0rdovici;in Goonumbla Vhlcmics. Goonurnbla. NSW Unpubl
Hsc(Huns)Thesis. Monarh Liiivrrsity.
Iicitliersay. P S. and W;ilsh. J L. 1996. Endeavour 26 North: A Porphyry
Copper-Gold Ikposit iii llic Late Ordovician. Shoshonitic
~ ~ ~ i hComplcx.
G ~ i ~ i ~ i ~Volciinic la Ncw South Wales. Ariatralia. Eoon
( h i / , 00 (6):50(1-1532.
House. M J . 1994. Gold distribution at the E26 porphyry copper gold
deposit. Gooiiuiiibla NSW. unpublished MEconGeol thesis.
Uiiivenity of Ilisiiiania.
Ioiics. G J. 19x5. The Goonuiiibla Porphyry Coppcr L)eposits. New
SlIUtll w;llcs. E r r i l l GCOI. 8O:W 1-6 13.
L;i\ibschcr. I ) H. IWO. A gtontechanics classification system for the
rating of ruck iii:iss i n mine tlcsign. JSAfMM, 90 (10):257-273.
L:iuhscher. I ) H. 1993. Assessiiiciit of the E26 Block Caving Potential.
Repon IO Pcko-Wallsend L~tl
L;iuhschcr. I ) tl, IOOS. Cave Mining - St;ite of the art, in Prnceeditijis
Uiider,qntiitid 0pcr.trlor.f' G i i i / c , t e t i c . e . pp 165- 175 (The Australasian
Iiistitu~euf Mining and Me~all~rgy: Melbourne).
M:irmo, Ci. 1980. The Interastioii between Adjoining Draw Points in
Free Fliiwing M;iterials and its Application to Mining Zirnhnbwe
~ . ' I i ~ i i(iIi/ Mimr Joiirnul, 22:25-32.
I)ctcIs, I) C. 1084. I'hysical Motlclling of the Drlrw Behaviour of Broken
Rock i n C;ivinp. Colortido .S(./iod of'Mitie.cQutrrrerly. 70 ( I ).
Iloscngren. K J, 1002. Endeavour 26 north deposit updated geotechnical
;issess~iient.Rclioit 10 Pcko-Wdlsend Lid. No 9 1045.
14 November 1997 91
 Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997 Mining Geology Conference
92
Optimisation of Ore Selection in Mining: Method and
Case Studies
N Schofield' and P Rolley2
ABSTRACT
I n the course of reviewing grade control practices at the M;irvcl Loch
gold mine in Western Australia in 1992. FSSl Consultants developed and
iinplcinentcd ;I novel approach to ore selection using ;I iiiethotl to
niaxirnise financial return (the MP method*). The approdl was based
on improved grade control sampling and an ore selection incthod which
directly incorporates both a measure of the uncertainty in knowing the
true grade of selection units in the definition of ore. ;is well 3s the
operating cost and revenue parameters of the mining operation.
During the past four years. FSSI Consultants have evaluated and
refined the use of this approach and have iinpleiiienrcd custornised
variations of the MP method at seven gold mines and a gold-copper mine
in Australia. The previous methods of ore selection :it most of these
operations were based mainly on polygonal - sectional methods of grade
estimation,
At all of the sites where grade control optirnisation h i ~ sbeen given a
fair trial over several months of production. the use of the M P method
has been consistently rewarding to the mining operations. The benefits
include increased run of mine ore stockpiles and low-grade stockpiles
and decreased fluctuation in the production grade. Most oper;itions have
also benefited from a consistent ability to improve production grade
through high-grading of the increased ore production. l'hc increase in
ore production has the logical benefit of reducing stripping ratios.
increasing mine profitability atid mine life.
INTRODUCTION
In the experience of the authors. there are generally two stages at
which spatial definition of ore is required in underground and
opcn pit mining projects. At the feasibility stage. spatial
definition of the resources i s required for mine planning and
mine design. The resource delinition is usually done from
relatively widely spaced sampling which precludes tlie accurate
estimation of the grade of small blocks that would be suitable for
ore selection at the mining stage of the project. For open pit
mining, ;I number of algorithms have been developed lor
generating optimum pits and practical mine scheduling such as
the Lerchs-Grossmann and Cone Mining algorithms. The
authors are not aware of any generally accepted methods for
optimisation of reserves for underground mining.
Optimisation methods such a s Lerchs-Grossmann (Lerchs and
Grossmann, 1965) are usually applied in practice to spatial block
models of the mineralisation under the assumption that the grade
of any particular block in the model is accurately estimated by
the method used to model the grades. I t is only recently that
serious attempts have been made to incorporate recoverable
resource models constructed using indicator and other non-linear
kriging methods in these optimisation procedures (Schotield.
1995; Rolley and Johnson, 1997). The ;idvantage that
recoverable resource models bring to optimisation is that they
provide more accurate estimates o f tonnes and grade of resources
that will be recovered in mining based on realistic ore selection
procedures to be used in the mine. Recoverable resource models
I. FSSl Consultant (Australia) Pty Liniited. PO Box 657. Epping NSW
2121.
2. FSSl Consultant (Australia) Pty Limited. PO Box 426. Lcederville
WA 6903.
Mining Geology Conference Launceston. 10
also incorporate some sense ot the spatial uncertainry that exists
i n knowing precisely which small mineable volumes or blocks
will be recovered as ore in the mining process.
The problems of estimating accurately the grades of small
blocks in resource models liave been reeognised lor several
decades and provided sonic of the motivation for the
tlevelopmcnt of indicator ;itid other non-linear methods of
Icsourcc estimation. However, the practice of estimating the
grades o t small selection units at the mining stage has not
advanced significantly until the implementation of grade control
optimisation approaches. Uncertainty in knowing the true grade
of ;I selection unit has not liad any significant role in the
classitication of tlic material ;ISore or waste.
Until recently. the most commonly used methods for defining
ore i n open pit and underground mines were based on variations
01' tlie nearest neighbour or polygonal method. Such ;ipproaches
oftcn incorporate ad hoc grade cutting or top cutting procedures
which reduce the predicted werage grade to that reported by the
mill. However. the most serious problem with polygonal methods
is that they almost always ciiuse a large proportion of economic
mineralisation to be lost to waste.
Even where mines have graduated to a better estimation
procedure such a s ordinary ki-igingt, a range of local correction
procedures are commonly used to modify the estimates in
rcsponsc to feedback from the mill. In general, the inverse
distance and kriging estimators have the reverse effect to that of
polygonal methods: they tend to misclassify subeconomic
inaterial Io ore. This misclassilication is largely caused by the
smoothing effect of these estimators on the higher-grade
samples. Grade cutting, the use of inverse distance to the power
[lirce: and ccmstrained estimation through the use of grade
zoning are some of the procedures used to reduce the spatial
smoothing clfect 01' these estiinators on higher-grade simples.
GRADE ESTIMATION AND UNCERTAINTY
Regardless o f what kind of estimation method is used to estimate
the grade of t i mineralised block of material. the estimate
provided almost never corresponds to the true grade of the block:
tliat is. the grade o f the block tliiit would be achieved it' the block
were sent t o the mill and processed as ore. T h e odd occasion
wlien the estimate does correspond lo the true block grade goes
unrccognised by the estimation procedure.
" It h;is been soinetiincs refei.red to incorrectly as conditional
siinu1ation.
i 0rdiii;ir.y kriging, the forin o f kriging under which the kriging
weights are constrained to suiii to one, is sometimes referred to in the
inining coiiiinunity as normal kriging m d occasionally referred to
incorrectly as siiiiple kriging. The gcostatistical community uses the
term siiiiple kripiiig when the kriging weights are unconstrained and
the global inean o f the grade\ IS rrssuined to bc known t o within
:iccept;ihle accuracy
iThe inverse dista~iceestiiixitors to the power three and greater
provide h i n a t e s similar to p)lygonal estimates because by far the
greatest weight IS given to the nearest sample.
~ 14 November 1997 93
 N SCHOFIELD and P ItOLLEY
I
The difference between the estimated grade and the true grade
of a hlock is generally called the estimation error. The cxiict
error in the case of' any particular estimation method and any
particular hlock remains unknown. However the use of ;I
probabilistic method. like indicator kriging for modelling the
grade distribution can provide a description of the range of
grades that are likely to occur at a particular location in the
mineralisation usually presented in the form of a cumulative
histogram. This histogram may also be seen as ii description of
the uncertainty in knowing the true grade at that location.
Traditional grade estimation methods such a s nearest
neighbour methods and inverse distance methods do not provide
a direct way to describe the uncertainty attached to an estimate i n
the form of a histogram. The kriging variance of ordinary
kriging may be used to provide some description of the
uncertainty but its use requires an assumption about the shape of
the histogram of possible grades which is totally unrealistic; that
is. the histogram of possible grades is almost always assumed to
he gaussian in shape. A more severe limitation of the use of the
ordinary kriging variance is the assumption that the estimation
variance is independent of the magnitude of the grade being
estimated. However. in many mineral deposits, the variability of
the grades is directly related to the magnitude of the grade' and
this places a severe limitation on the ordinary kriging variance as
ti useful description of uncertainty in knowing the true grade o f ;I
mining unit.
Among the geostatistical kriging methods, there are a number
of methods which can provide a good description of the loci11
, uncertainty in knowing the grade at any point in a miner;il
deposit (Schofield, 1992). These mcthods include indicator
kriging, disjunctive kriging, multigaussian kriging and their
many varieties. One of the limitations of the indicator and
disjunctive kriging methods is that they do not provide directly a
description of the uncertainty at a block scale. The multi-
gaussian kriging method of Verly (1986) does provide access to
this histogram but only through the use of conditional simulation.
CONDITIONAL SIMULATION AND
UNCERTAINTY
Geostatistical conditional simulation methods (Deutsch and
Joumel, 1992) in their many forms provide a way of generating
maps of the grade of mineralisation at either a point or a block
scale which honour the sample grades at the sample locations,
the histogram of the sample grades and the variogram or spatial
continuity of the sample grades. In other words, if one were to
calculate the histogram and the variogram of the simulated
values, they would correspond closely to those of the sample
grades. The reproduction of the short-scale variogram in
conditional simulation is important in ore selection problems
because it is usually the short-scale variation that causes ore
misclassification problems in mining.
By generating a large number of spatial conditional
simulations (say 100) of the grade in a deposit or part of a
deposit, one ciin have direct access to a histogram of possihle
values for the grade at any particular point or block location in
the deposit. The vnlue generated at a particular location in the
deposit in one simulation is independent of the values generated
i n other simulations and is no more likely to be the true value of
the grade at that location than any other simulated value.
nThis is the well known proportional effect (Isaaks and Srivastavu,
1989).
94 Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997
For tlic purpose of describing local uncertainty in the grade of
mincr;ilisntion, coiitlitionnl simulation methods provide only one
possihly import;int advantage ovci the non-linear kriging
methods discussed above: direct :icccss to the block griide
distribution through averaging of ilie local point simulated
values.
In addition to the more usual situation where the economics of
mining depends 011 ii single metal such a s gold. some deposits
require the modelling o f two or more elements which arc
important to the economics of mining. An example of this
situation IS gold mineralisation closely iissociated with sulphidcs
where the grade of sulpliur in the concentrate is critical to the
efficient operatioil of the gold rccovery process. Another
example is iron ore wliere the concentration and variability of
silica, ;ilumina ant1 phosphorus in addition to iron arc importiint
in defining the quality of the product produced for sale (GuibA c'i
ul, IWO). In these Aituations, appropriate models of the
mineralisation sliould Iionour the 5pitiA continuity of each
elenient ;is expressed through the direct variograin of that
element ;is well ;is the spatial cross correlation between the
various clciiicnts :is expressed through the cross variogram. For
example. i n the c w c of gold and sulphur, the variogram of gold,
the variogram of sulphur and the cross viiriogram of gold with
sulphur :ill need to he c:ilculated and niodelled.
UNCERTAINTY AND OPTIMUM ORE SELECTION
Uncertainty in the grade o l a block is ;I consequence of a nunibcr
of factors, some 01' which can be coiitrolled to ii limited extent
;ind otliers over \vliich there is no direct control (Schofield,
1993). 11icr.c is no question that local uncertainty in knowing the
block grade can be reduced by improving the quality of
inform;ition through better sampling and assaying procedures.
Uncertainty may iilso he reduced Ily decreasing the s;imple
spacing and thus increasing the number of samples ;idjacent to
any individual block. These are factors over which the mine
geologist liiis some control. flowever. improving thc quality of
information or increasin? the number of samples used to
generate estimates o f the grades may come at some additional
cost. The cost-effectiveness of improved sampling may be
addressed tlirough optimum ore selection processes.
The I'iictors affecting uncertainty which cannot be controlled
directly ;ire inherent propcrties of tlie mineralisation: tlic
continuity of grade and propensity tor uncertainty to increxe
with increasing grade. Fortunately, some indirect control over
these tactors is possible by modifying sampling density.
Mineralisation which displays weak continuity characteristics
will generally necessitate closer spaced sampling for efficient ore
selection; ;I need for ore selection at ;I significantly higher cut-off
grade may trigger ;I similar requiremerit.
Uncertainty in the grade of a block ( 1 1 selection unit affects ore
selection because i t causes misclassilication of ore to waste and
waste to ore. In tr;iditional ore selection, if the estimate of the
grade 01' ii block is below the cut-oft' grade, the block is sent to
waste. However, if the true grade 01 tlie block exceeds the cut-
off grade. then misclassitication of ore to waste has occurred.
The real cost of inisclassifying a block of ore to waste is the cost
of mining the block plus the value of the surplus that could have
been made from processing the block and recovering the metal
for sale. The operating prolit of the mine is decreased by that
amount. The real cost 01. inisclassifying a block of waste to ore
is the value of tlie metal recovered minus the mining and
processing costs. While ;I hlock of material with a grade below
the designated cut-off grade does not generate enough revenue to
pay for its mining and processing, the loss may be quite different
to that incurred from discarding a block of ore to waste.
The profit function for ore selectioii i n most mining operations
is a lincar function of costs and revenucs.
Mining Geology Conference

Profit = Revenue - Costs *.
Revenue = Ore-tonnes x ore-grade x mill-recovery x
uni t-metal-price
Costs = Milling-cost_per_tonnc + Ore-mining-cost +
Waste-mining-cost
As a consequence, thc cost of misclassification is a linear
function of the estimation error in the grade. For example, if a
block with true grade equal to 0.75 times the cut-oft grade were
estimated to have a grade equal to the cut-off grade, tlic cost of
misclassification would be precisely 0.25 x cut-oil' x metal price
x recovery plus the milling costs. The use of ordinary kriging as
a grade estimator or thc use of the expected value or E-type
estimates generated from non-linear kriging methods implicitly
iissumes that the cost of misclassification is proportional to tlie
square of the estimation error ;ind that the costs of
inisclassifying ore to waste and waste to ore ;ire tlie same lor ;I
specified magnitude of estimation error. Tlie non-linear and
symmetric nature o f this profit function is clearly at odds with
the linear and asymmctric character of the real protit tunction
used in most mining operations as described above (Srivastava,
1987).
Probability theory provides ;i way t o integrate tlie profit
function (a function of the ore grade) with the local unccrtainty
function ( a cumulative distribution function 01' the grade)
described by conditional simulation o r non-linear kriging to
evaluate the expected value of the profit for a particular choice of
economic cut-off grade (gc) (Clacken. 1996). Tlie use of grade
control optimisation for defining ore is intended to minimisc the
impact of uncertainty in knowing the true grade on the expected
operating prolitability of the operation. The decision as to
whether a block should be selected as ore or waste is based on
whether the expected benefit of accepting the block a s ore (Bo) is
greater than the cxpected henelit of rejecting the block ;IS waste
(Bw). In mining terms, this means that if a block is iiccepted a s
ore. then the cut-offgrade at which Bo is greater than or equal to
the Rw is less than or equal to the economic cutoff gr:ide gc.
DEFINITION OF THE CUT-OFF GRADE
In practice. the marginal economic cut-off grade uscd in most
mines is that grade at which the cost of processing ;I block of
material exactly balances the revenue from the metal rccovered.
marginal cut-off ' = unit cost of processing ore I (unii price of
metal x recovery lactor)
Many mines use this cut-off to define the lower limit of grade
for material going to tlie low-grade stockpile. Commonly, a
higher cut-off grade is used to define the mill feed ore. This is
usually because the operation is mill limited on toiinage but there
may bc some other opportunity function that the mine is pursuing
such as improving their market perception as a Iiigli-grade
producer. In any case. there is frequently ii need to provide ore
outlines which will deliver a higher-grade of ore to the mill
without modifying the operating parameters of [lie mining
operation. Most mines seek to do this by increasing the
operating cut-off grade.
One of tlic most important weaknesses of tlie traditional
estimation methods and ordinary kriging is that they provide no
insight into tlie way in which the uncertainty i n dclining ore
(C
changes with increasing cut-off grade . 13ecause the uncertainty
in knowing [lie grade at a particular location is usually strongly
related to the grade, it increases with increasing grade. This
usually causes greater misclassification of ore and waste when
higher cut-off grades are used with the consequence that the
higher grades expected at the mill arc often n o t realised.
Mining Geology Conference Launceston. 10 -
OPTIMISATION OF ORE SELECTION IN MINING
Grade control optimisatiori provides a useful solution to this
problem because tlic geostatistical models generated with non-
lineiir kriging methods and conditional simulation implicitly
;iccount tor tlie increase in grade variability at higher-grade. For
'111 operation which is mill limited, tlie approach c;in be used to
Fenerate orc outlincs which maximise the grade of ore delivered
to tlie mill. Alternatively. if [lie operation wishes to produce ore
;it a certain werage grade intlcpendent of mill capacity. this goal
can be accommodated.
APPLICATIONS OF GRADE CONTROL
OPTIMISATION
FSSI Consti1t:ints lias developed the application of grade control
optimisation in mining over tlie past five years and lias applied
tlie method i n a number of opcrations with substantial reward for
tlwc operations. The method lias found greatest acceptance in
opcrations wliere problems i i i ore selection have been obvious;
shortfalls i n tonncs and gradc compared to the reserve model and
sliortfdls i i i metal compared to that predicted from grade control.
I n these operations, the implementation of griide control
optimisation has brought significant rewards including large
increases 111 tlie tonnages ol' profitable ore and consistent
improvement in the grade of tlic ROM stockpile. Our predictions
of tlie improvements in performance in these operations based on
prior orientation studies have lor the most part been rc;ilised.
I n some operations, the improvements in ore selection have led
io ;I complete rc-cvaluation o f the mine economics and a
hignificant extension to the mine life. In other operations where
problems iii ore selection weIc not apparent even if the polygonal
modelling were the method ol choice, grade control optimisation
1ias providctl increased tonn;igcs of profitable ore. consistent
prediction 01' 1ie;id grade antl improved cl
ore types.
-
Marvel Loch gold mine WA Sons of Gwalia Limited
In 1991, tlic Marvel Loch gold mine, then operated by Reynolds
Australia. was experiencing major problems in ore production
with shortfalls i n production ronnage and grade compared to the
rcscrve motlel and the grade ol ore predicted from g r x k control.
Mill production was limited I>y the tonnage of ore tliat the mine
could produce.
Ore selection ;it tlie mine WJS based on the use of ;I sectional -
polygonal nicthod applied to 1111: grades of open hole percussion
samples collected specifically for grade control. A number of top
cuts and clilution tiictors were used in different areas of tlie
clcposit to reduce [lie intluencc of high-grade samples on the
estimated grades of ore polygons and to account for the lower
than predicted grade of the oIc received at the mill.
The implementation o f the MP method at this operation
rc;ilised iiii increase of around 30 per cent in protitable ore
tonnage antl much improved reconciliation between mill and
mine grades. Some other benctits derived from the use of the
MP method included:
* I n S ~ I I I I Colxmlions, thc rcvc~~iie
inay be dependent on some non-
linear Iecovcry liiiiction. bur 111the authors' experience. this is rare.
+ 111 SOIIIC inincs. the K ~ O V K IIS~ related to the grade so the break-
even CUI-offgr;idc is defined hy a ciirvc rather than a single fixed
wliie. This is o l t e n the case L I pold
~ deposits where the $old occurs
h o ~ h:is IWK gold und in 3ssoui;11ionwith sutphides.
6 This 15 :iIso triir olthe noiiliiie:ir estin~ationmethods where only
ilie expccicd wliic or E-iypc cstiiiiator is used instead 01 the entire
histogram.
C~II~IIIOII;II
14 November 1997 95
N SCHOFIELD and P KOLLEY
improved profitability;
lowering of sample density and therefore milling cost of
grade control per tonne of ore;
hetter use o f geological staff in mapping rather than (lata
plotting and digitising;
more consistency between geologists over time in the
interpretation of ore:
the increase in tonnes without a significant decrease i n grade
brought about full utilisation of the mill; and
the development of large ore stockpiles as the operation
became mill limited brought the opportunity to process
higher-grade material.
As ii consequence of these improvements, the mine
management completely reviewed the value of the operation to
the organisation and investigated further pit expansion.
-
Yilgarn Star gold mine WA Yilgarn Star Joint
Venture
Grade control optimisation was introduced to assist ore selection
in the mine in 1993. At that time. the mine was experiencing
shortfalls in both the tonnage and grade of the run of mine ore
and had no significant stockpiles of low-grade material. Ore
selection was based on a sectional - polygonal method applied to
dedicated grade control sampling using hollow-hammer RC
drilling with holes angled across the dip of the mineralisation.
Some I5 vertical metres were sampled during each grade control
sampling campaign.
Within three months o f the introduction of the MP method. tlie
quarterly reports of the mine showed a marked improvement in
the tonnage and grade of the run of mine ore and the tonnage of
low-grade stockpiles. Thereafter, until the completion of tlie
open pit. the mine consistently produced run of mine ore ;it
grades exceeding 4 g/t Au. The tonnage of low-grade and run of
mine ore produced using grade control optimisation exceeded
that produced by the polygonal method by around 40 per cent in
the test area used for a detailed comparison of the methods.
Campaign milling of the M P ore outlines consistently supported
the grade of ore predicted by the MP method.
Grade control optimisation was subsequently adopted for
preliminary ore definition in the Yilgarn Star underground mine
and continues to be used. In thc underground niinc, the
prediction of the ore production grade is significantly more
difficult for two main reasons. The ore cut-off grade is much
higher than in the open pit which makes the grade prediction
more sensitive to the proportion of extreme grades in the sample
population. In addition, the spacing of the samples is much
broader which combined with the weaker continuity at highcr-
grades makes grade prediction much more difficult.
-
Red Dome Gold Copper Mine, QLD - Niugini
Mining
The gold - copper mineralisation at the Red Dome deposit occurs
mainly in the skarn alteration zone surrounding small acid
porphyry bodies which intrude limestone and other sediments.
Ore in the open pit was classified into three main types
depending on the grades of gold and copper. If the copper and
gold grades both exceed a certain threshold, the material was sent
to a FLOT-CIL* stockpile. Material with low gold grade but
relatively high copper grade was sent to a FLOT-ONLY stockpile
and material with very low copper grade and relatively high gold
grade was sent to I I CIL-ONLY stockpile. The mine had
experienced some difficulty with correct classilication of the
CIL-ONLY material where copper grade tended to exceed
expectations and cause problems in the CIL processing.
Prior to the introduction of the M P method, ore selection at
Red Dome was based on a polygonal method applied to blast
96 Launceston. 10 -
hole sampling on tlie mine bench. ( h d e s in holes from the
bench ;ihovc did not play ;I signiticaiit role in the ore definition
on the cui-rent bench. Tlic mine had not been experiencing any
significant shortfhlls in ore tonnage or grade except the difliculty
with the C I L O N L,Y ore I rient ioned ahovc.
An orientation study of grade conti-ol optimisation indic.ited
that ore production within tlie present p i t could he increased by
20 per cent incurring ;I comp;ira[ivcly small drop in the
production grade of gold. Over ;I period o f 14 months
production. i t was estimated that the mine produced an additional
22 per cent more orc coinpiired to wliiit would have resulted from
the polygonal grade control method lor ;in increase in protit of
nround five per cent or $ 2 3 M ( p e n coinin G Scott ).
*
The sclection ol' CIL-ONLY ore w ; i h also much improved with
glade control optirnis;ition. The niine management .iIso
recogniscd the hcncfits of improved sampling through 1<C
drilling and sevcr;il programs were mempted. However,
production pressures in this pit comhtned with slow drilling Lind
extremely hard ground made the schctluling of the additional
drilling very difficult.
COMPARISON WITH KRIGING ESTIMATORS
The majority of coinparisons we have inade are between grade
control optimisation and sectional - polygonal methods for ore
selection. Most gcostatisticians would not regard favourable
comparisons with iieurest-neighhour methods as a significant
indication of performance because these methods are known to
he strongly conditionally biased and inefficient.
Compirisons of the performance ol' g r x k control optimisation
i n ore definition with iiiverse distance estimation methods,
ordinary kriging iintl indicator kriging all show that M P method
is superior in defining ore. More significantly, the efficiency of
MP over the kriging estimators increases as the sample spacing is
increased, To ;icliicvc tlie same level of accuracy in ore
definition, tlic kri9iiig methods need higher density sampling
CONCLUSIONS
All ore selection methods are affected by errors in the prediction
of the block grade from sample assays. These errors detract lrom
the efficiency of the ore selection proccss and necessarily c;iuse
sonic loss o f met;il. Traditionnl cstimitors such a s tlic scctional
polygonal inethorls and the more rcucnt geostatistical kriging
estimators do not provitlc ;I useful measure of the uncertainty in
knowing the true grade o f mining blocks. These estimators all
;issumc that the cost o f misclassif'itAon of ore and waste
resulting from the estimation errors I S symmetric at all cut-off
grades. In rcality, i t is rarely the case t1i;it the cost of dispatching
ore to the waste ( o r ii long-term low-gr;ide dump) is the same as
the cost of sending subeconomic material to the mill.
Geostatistical conditional simulation allows us to model the
uncertainty in knowing the true gixde of a block. This
description of th e uncertainty can he integrated with ;in
optimisation algorithm to identify tli;it set of blocks which
maximises the expected mining profit to the organisation given
the various operating parameters.
0 FLOT-CIL rcfers 10 [he flotation and CIL milling circuit. Ore on
this stockpile was tirst processed throughout the flotation circuit lo
recover copper :uitl gold contained in llic sulphides and then
throuphoiit the CIL circuit IO recover tlic remaining gold High
copper-low gold ores were treated with the FLOT ONLY circuit
while low copper-highgold o r a were Ireated with the CIL-ONLY
circuit.
Geoff Scott was chief geologist at die Ked Dome mine during the
M P :ind provided fccdback on thc perforinancc
iiiil)leiiicnlalioii of
OfMP
14 November 1997 Mining Geology Conference

The benefits of grade control optimisation over dircct
estimation of the grade using either nearest neighbour methods
o r kriging methods (both linear and non-lincar) ;ire very
significant. In a number o f gold and gold-copper mines, the MP
method has indicated that higher tonnages of protitable ore are
;ivailable. Milling of the MP ore outlines has conlirmed the
efficiency o f the ore selection method i n identifying higher ore
tonnages resulting in significant improvements in the mining
profitability. The benefits of the MP ore selection method
include:
improved mine profitability,
increased ore tonnages,
better reconciliation between mill and mine gradeh,
lowering the sample density and therefore unit costs of grade
control per tonne of ore,
greater consistency in the interpretation of ore outlines, and
longer mine life.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the assistance of many
geological staff at the mines where we have worked to
implement grade control optimisation, in particular Gary
Brabham, Geoff Scott, Nie Johnson, Michael Erickson. Richard
Crookes and Hob Love.
Mining Geology Conference Launeeston. 10
OPTIMISATION OF O R E SELECTION IN MINING
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. r 19th A/'(,'OM ,synipo.riurn. (Ed: K Ramani) pp
/ ' r ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ t / i iO/i , yrlrc
203-298 (Society of Mining Eiigineers ofthe AIME).
I 14 November 1997 97
I 98 Launceston, 10 - 14 November 1997 Mining Geology Conference
 Geostatistical Texture Modelling in Enhancing Ore Reserve
Estimation in Base Metal Deposits
A Richmond' and R Dimitrakopoulos'

ABSTRACT 3. characterisaticin of the + i t i d texture continuity. and

Ore textures i n hase metal deposits are aii iiiiportant l':ictor iii the 3. the conditicmal simulation of textures at a line scde.
liberation of the econoniic components of the orc, iiictal recovery a i d
reagent consumption during kneficiation. Optiiiiising the mine profit These aspects of texture. modelling are examined in this
requires knowing the relationship between ore texture :ind inineral section.
processing bchaviour, and the ability to predict the met:il grade and rhe
. ore texture at n suitable scale. Data acquisition
A new method that generates distributions of iiiesotcxtures for any
l o construct a mesotextural classification for a mineral deposit it
I .

mining block size or shape is proposed and includes:

I . establishing a protocol for acquiring iiiesoIexture h t a ;
2. iiieasuring the nicsotexture spatial correlations using :I multi-texture
variograin;
3. generating inultiple siinulations o f mesotextures; uid
4. upscaling the simulations t o , gencrate the expccred inining
block/stope mesotexture distrihutions.
Models of the ore textures built using the proposed iiicthodology can
he iiscd to assess resources and reserves. enh:ince orelwasie
discrimination and predict the metallurgical hcliaviour of parcels of ore.
INTRODUCTION
The mineralogy, grain size and shape and association between
minerals is of fundamental importance in understanding the
metallurgical performance of ore. I f the grade varies throughout
an orebody it is possible that the ore texture and hence the
metallurgicol performance and metal recovery are heterogeneous.
When ore microscopy is used to qualitatively solve metallurgical
problems in sediment-hosted base metal deposits. variable ore
textures are noted. '
The construction of an ore texture model requires spati:illy
located texwrc data. The most common spatial data available in
sediment-hosted base metal deposits is diamond drill holes,
which are several centimetres in diameter. '1'0 he of economic
benefit texture information is required tor blocks or stopes which
involve IO - 1000s m3. In practical terms it would he unrealistic
to work on :I microscale (microtextures). At the macroscopic
scale we approach the current practice of an ore composite that
provides global metallurgical information, which assumes
homogenous metallurgical properties. Thus. an intermediate
(mesoscopic) scale is most appropriate for examining the spatial
distribution o f ore textures throughout an orebody. To tacilitate
using this sc;ilc a mesotexture classification needs to be defined.
A new method to construct block models of ore texture
distributions is presented in this study. The application of the
method is shown and the effects on ore reserves and orelwaste
discrimination are discussed.
must be xsumetl that mesotextures are composed of the same
relative ahundances of microtextures, independent of their spatial
location. Oualit;itive studies have found this assumption to be
:ippropriatc (eg Marcault, 1906). The mesotextural classification
must be hnsed on metallurgical characteristics of the
mesotextiii-cs and involve gcneric ore textures present such as
sedimentary handing, massive and brecciation. The latter
eiisures suhjectivity in the testiire logging process is minimised.
Mcsotcxtures in sediment-hosted base metal deposits range
from smnll discrete lenses to larger domains that are represented
i n diamond drill core by mcsotexture intersections that vary in
length from several centimetres through to several metres. The
core logping method must he able to record this range of
mesotexture data.
Compositing mesotextures
Similarly to grade modellinp. texture data must be composited.
The choice of the coinpositc length is crucial in producing a
glohally unbiased texture model. Compositing non-additive
categorical data (such as texttires) of unequal lengths may take
two forms (Figure I );
I. the categorical mode can he chosen from large composite
intervals which may l e d to both global and local bias.
espccially fnr textures that occur as narrow discrete lenses;
and
(.'omposite Composite
l.opg,cd \,ICtllOd 1 Mctliod 2
'resI u res
iMode) [Small intcrvals)

MODELLING TEXTURES
Modelling of textures at a scale practical for orebody mcidclling
and mine planning, is based on four factors:
1. the unbiased collection of texture data at the core scale I oca1 anti Slatlstlcally
(mesotexture),
.doha1 bias representative
2. compositing mesotextures to equal sample support.
U ~I'cxturcA Texture D = Texture C

I. W H Bry:in M i n i n g Geology Kesearch Centre.The UiiiveIsity of

Qtieensland. Brisbane old 4072. Australia. Fi(i I - Methods of c o i l p s i l i n g categoncal data

Mining Geology Conference Launceston. 10- 14 November 1997 99

A RICHMOND and K DIMITRAKOPOULOS

2. the composite interval can be minimised to honour both
local and global statistics.
The second approach to compositing mesotexture information
is recommended.
Spatial structures
Consider K mutually exclusive mesotextures. An indicator
transform for a particular mesotexture k ( k = I .2,..,K) ;it ;I sainplc
location x in a mineral deposit is given by:
1 if location x bclongs to mesotexlurc k
ih(x) =
0 otherwise
For each mesotexture, k , a different set of indicator transforms
is defined. To quantify the spatial variability of the k
mesotextures, a multi-texture variogram is used. The multi-
texture or phase variogram (Soares, 1992) measures the
likelihood that two points separated by distance / I belong to the
same mesotexture and is given by:
SIMULATING MESOTEXTUKES AND ECONOMIC
IMPLICATIONS
To illustl.;i[e the proposed method. an cxample of modclling tliree
mesotextures in ;I deposit and their influence on ore/waste
delincatioii is prcsciitcd i n this section.
Simulating mesotextures
Consider live vertical drill holes that Iiave been logged for three
mesotexturcs that display different iiietnllurgical chaiacteristics,
as shown in Figure 2. This example could represent mesotexture
data from ;I scdimciitary-hosted base nietal deposit with: A being
coarse-grained splderitc and galeiia mineralisation; B being
massive pyrite: and C being fine-grained sphalerite
mineralisation. Metal recovery from material composed entirely
of mesotexture A is X I per cent, mesotexture R is 5.5 per cent and
mesotexture C is 77 per cent. Foi- this example, it will be
assuinctl t h i i t the metal recovery is ;I I i n c x function related to the
proportions of the three niesotexturc types. Thus, based on the
global proportions of the inesotextures (Figure 2). the avcr-;ige
metal recovery is 7.5 per cent. The presence of diffcrent metal
recoveries is the justitication foI the modelling of ore
mesotexttires. The economic effects will be further discussed in
n subsequent section.

where N is the number of pairs for lag h. The multi-texture

variogram in Equation 2 , is a variogram that incorporates all K
categories in single measure of spatial variation. Note that.
although Equation 2 is an average type indicator variogram of the
K mesotextures, the multi-texture variogram is not derived from
averaging the experimental variogram values of the K indicator
variograms at each lag h.

Conditional simulation of mesotextures

Simulating mesotexture categories provides a direct way to
generate point distributions of mesotextures. Sequential
indicator simulation or SIS (Alabert, 1987) is the technique
adopted in this study. The SIS algorithm used to simulate
mesotextures is as follows:
1. Randomly select a grid node x at which no mesotexture
data exists.
Fici 2 - Texture categories hi live drill holes
2. Estimate the local conditional cumulative distribution (Iced)
of the K mesotextures at x using indicator kriging and the
multi-texture variogram.
3. Draw at random a number p uniformly distributed in [O. I ] . To implement the method proposed in the previous section,
The interval of the lccd in which 11 falls is the mesotexture directional experimental multi-texture variograms are first
simulated at location x. calculated and ;I suitable model fitted. Both the experimental and
the variogram models fitted are shown in Figure 3. The model
4. Add the simulated mesotexture to the data set and update fitted is spherical as shown below:
the K data sets.
5. Repeat steps 1 - 4 until all grid nodes have il mesotexture
6. Additional equally probable models of mesotextures ;ire (3)
generated by following a different random path.
Each simulation of mesotextures generated by SIS honours the
sampled mesotexture data, the global mesotexture statistics and The SIS algorithm is then used to generate realisations on II 1
the multi-texture variogram. When using SIS the reproduction of in x I in grid, based o i i the avail;ihlc data and the variogram
the cross-correlation between mesotextures must be checked to model in Equation 3. In this example, 100 mesotexture
ensure reasonable reproduction of cross-mesotexture indicator realisations were generated. Four of these realisations are shown
variograms. Other techniques such as plurigaussian truncated in Figure 4.
simulation (Le Loc’h and Calli, 1997), sequential modelling of The next step is the generation of iiiesotexture distributions for
relative indicator variables (Dimitrakopoulos and Dagbert, 1993). given block sizes. The upscaling 01’ texture distributions from
Markov-based simulations, and simulated annealing are currently points to blocks is n straight forward combination of the
k i n g investigated for simulating mesotextures.
simulation results. Blocks of 8 m x X in x 3 m dimension are

100 Launceston, 10 14 November 1997

~
Mining Geology Conference
 ~~

CitOSTATISTICAL TEXTURE MOIELLING IN ENHANCING OKE RESERVE ESTIMATION

East - West 1 North-South

_..a*._ _.... _.**.
..*.....
a,

1.oo L
..
.

d
8 0.75
0.50

......
0.25
1
0 IO
-
20
Experimental
Model
30 40 0 5
......
-
Model
IO
Experimental

15
Distance (m) Distance (m)

Fit; 3 - Multi-texture variograiiis for e:ist-wcst and mirth-south dirrctiolis

Realisation 1 Realisation 2

0
0 Tcxtlllc A Tc uturc B Tcxtuic t '

Flc; 4 - Sequential indicator siiiiul:itions u t ~ C X I I I ~ C S

Mining Geology Conference Launceston, 1 0 - 14 November 1997 101

 A KICHMONII and K DIMITRAKOPOULOS

I used in this study. The results for several blocks are reported in
Figure 5. Note that the size of the blocks docs not have to he
regular (Figure 6).
hz1 Ore

0Waste
Text. A
.Text. B ME Gzde (%)
Text. C Net Value (a)
Recovery
Recovery=75%
Recoveries as YO
Blocks 8x8~3111;S.G=3.0,Metal Value $1.50kg
Textures as Mining costs $42.0011; Milling costs %12.00/1
proportions

Fit; 7 - Net value o l blocks if inincd and processed incorporating only

g~':ideinforni:ition.
Recovery = (81 x Text. A) + (55 x Text. B) + (77 x Text. C)

Figure 7 may change significantly when texture information is

FIG5 - Upscaling texture siniulations to 8 111x 8 in blocks
considcrcd. Some of the blocks that were previously considered
to be ore arc now cI;issitied as waste arid vice versa. I n Figure 8,
note that the net v:ilue of the bottom westernmost block is now
$ I I19 ;ind classified as ore. Similarly. ;I block in the lower right

L part of the figure changes from ore 10 waste with a negative net
value.

c)

'
0 3
i.?
.
?...?:'
.*
0 0 : .

O
0Waste
ME Grade (%:
Recovery
0Texture12 TexturcI3 = Texturcc'
0
Nett Value ($)

Fic; 6 - Example of upscaling from a tine grid to obtain distributions of

textures for any block size or shape. Blocks 8x8x3m; S.G=3.0, Metal Value $1.50kg
Mining costs $42.00/1; Milling costs $12.00/1

Examining economic implications
The economic implications from the combination of texture nnd
grade models may be demonstrated in a simple example. The
traditional approach to delineating orelwaste boundaries
considers a domain of mineralised material to be metallurgically
homogenous. The net value of a block of material is the
extractable metal value minus the mining and milling costs. If
the net value is positive the block. is ore, otherwise i t is waste.
An example from the deposit in the previous section, shown in
Figure 7, may be considered. In Figure 7, the bottom
westernmost block has a net value of -$933 and is classified a s
waste. This classification is based on all blocks being
metallurgically identical and, consequently, the ordwaste
discrimination is simply related to the interpolated grade.
In the previous section each of textures A, B and C present in
the deposit were reported to yield different metal recoveries. If
the ore texture distributions modelled in the previous section are
combined with the interpolated grades, the re-evaluation 0 1 the
blocks in the deposit changes the orelwaste boundary. This is
shown in Figure 8, where the net value of the same blocks in
Fic; X - Net value 0 1 hlocks if inincd and processed incorporating boih
gmdc and texture intormation.
The above example demonstrates the benefit of spatially
modelling ore textures, where appropriate. Sediment-hosted base
metal deposits contain specific mineralisation styles where ore
textures effect metal recoveries, thus are suitable for the
application of the proposed methodology.
COMMENTS AND CONCLUSIONS
The approach to texture modelling described in this paper
generates distributions of mesotextures for any block size or
shape from simulations of mesotextures at a small grid scale.
The texture modelling is based on mesotexture core descriptions
that can he easily recorded during nortnal logging procedures
The economic benefit from modelling mesotextures is, in part,
related to the integrity of the texture model at a mining scale.
The question of scnle and when t o upscale during the data
acquisition, compositing and texture inodelling process is critical

102 Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997 Mining Geology Conforence

 GEOSTATISTICAL TEXTURE M0L)ELLING I N ENHANCING ORE RESERVE ESTIMATION

in honouring the global texture statistics and spatial structures. It REFERENCES

is easy to misrepresent mesotextures in large hlocks o r stopes hy
Al:iben. F, 1'1x7. Stochnstic iiiiqiiig of spatial distributions using hard
upscaling mesotexture data early in the modelling process.
and soft inforination, Masters thesis (unpublished). Stanford
Accounting for the relationship between ore texture and IJniversity. I6X I).
metallurgical performance provides several henetits, including: I.)iinitrako~~oiiIos. K ant1 Dagbcrt. M. 1993. Sequential iiiodelling of
I. enhanced assessment of resources and reserves. relative indic;iti)r variables: tlenling with niultiple lithology types,
'92, Soares. pp 4 13.424. (A Kluwer Academic
(;eovftiii.rric.v-T~7)i(r
2. better orelwaste delineation, l'uhlishers).
1.c I.oc'h, G and Calli, A, 1'197. Truncated plurigausslan method:
3. reduced block misclassitication, and t heorctic:il :ind practic:il
points of view. ( ; [ , ~ ~ . v f [ l f ; . ~ ~ f ~ . ~ -
. 4. blending of ore textures, in a way similar to which grades and N Schoficld), p p 2 I 1-222 ( N
\ V d / o t i , y o u x ' 9 6 . (Etls: E B:i:ifi
are presently hlended. to maintain ;I constant metallurgical Kluwcr Acadeniic I'ublishers)
performance. Marcnult. I+ 19% Textures <)I h c Hilton North deposit. Queensland.
Australia. :uid tlicir rclatioiisliip to liberation. PhL) thesis. University
o f ~uccrlsland.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I
So:ircs. A. 1092. C;eosfatislic;il cstiination of ~nulti-pha\cstructures.
Mtrflreiritrfrt~trl(;t,o/ogy:).. 24(2).149- 160.
T h e Ccntre for Mining Technology ;itid Equipment provided 21
scholarship to Andrew Richmond; Mount Isa Mines Limited
provided logistical support; and additional funding was provided
by the Bryan Research Centre.

Mining Geology Conference Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997

104 Launceston. 10. 14 November 1997 Mining Geology Conference
Development of Grade Control Systems at the Mt Muro Au-Ag
Project, Central Kalimantan, Indonesia
H Hoogvliet '
ABSTRACT
The MI Muro gold and silver deposit in Central Kaliniantiiii has been in
production since December 1994. The geology is chariiclcrised by
n:irrow high-grade lodes containing gold antl significant ainounts of
silver. Froin :I largely untrainrd workforce i n the pr:ide control
departinent, production per crew and per geologist has tripled during thc
three years of production. Grade control drilling evolved from blast hole
sampling to reverse circulation sampling. National geologists arc trained
i n basic inotleling procedures. A fully integrated reporting and
reconciliation system was programed and iinplemented.
INTRODUCTION
The Mt Muro gold deposit is located in Central Kalimantan. the
Indonesian portion of the island of Borneo, about 70 km south of
the equator at latitude 00'38'32"s and longitude I 14"24'14"E
(Figure 1).
Fiti 1 - Location inap of the Mt Muro project.
Aurora Gold Ltd, an Australian public company, holds a 90
per cent interest in the 480 km2 PT lndo Muro Kencana Contract
of Work ( C o w ) which encompasses more than 75 known
1. PT lndo Muro Kencana Wisina Pondok lndah Suite 600. Level 6, JI
Sultan lskandar Muda Blok V - TA Pondok lndah Jakarta Selatan
12310
Mining Geology Conference Launceston. 10 -
epitherrn~~l gold-silver bearing quartz veins which constitute the
rlcposit. Approximately 15 o f these veins are included in the
I-cserves.
'li)pogr:ipIiy o f tlie area is charactcrised by hilly terrain at
elevations between 100 and 400 m above sea level. Vegetation i s
primary jungle antl secondary regrowth after logging. The area
hiis a tropical climate and receives en annual rainfall of
;ipproxim;itely 3.5 In. Access to the COW may be gained by boat
up the Bnrito River (600 km I'rom Banjarmasin); by vehicle from
Ihlikpapan ( I 2 hours) follow~etlhy a three-hour boat ride, or by
helicopter or light plane charter flight, also from Ralikpapan (one
hour).
The exploration history wiis reported by Moyle et rrl (1996).
Construction of the plant commenced in September 1993 and
was completed i n December 1994 at a cost of $US67 million
(Gregory, 1096). Between December 1094 and March 1997 a
total of 422 OM) oz of gold equivalent (AuEq) were poured.
C;ish cost i n the March 1997 quarter was $US2Ol/oz. Generally
three multi-stage pits are operating at any one time. Since start-
up tlie Muro Sawiing, Serujan North and Tengkanong pits have
heen mined to completion. Currently the Scrujan Central,
Pcrmata and Hulubai pits arc active (Figure 2). The road to the
Kerikil area is under construct~on.
REGIONAL GEOLOGY
'The Mt Muro deposits arc hosted in a sequence of Latc
Oligocene - Early Miocene andesitic volcanics (Figure 2)
including mid-Tertiary subaerial lavas, tuffs and volcanic
hreccias of intermediate c k - a l k a l i n e affinities and lesser
siltstones and shales (Simmons and Brownc. 1990; Moyle et a /
1996). Late-stage dacite plugs crop out. Limited exposures of
younger tine grained basalt represent the last eruptive phase in
the cow.
To the northwest H dcforrncd sequence of Mesozoic shales,
sandstone and carbonates is exposed. Mid-Tertiary Harito Basin
limestones, shales, and sandstones with interbedded andesitic
volc;inics crop out to the soutI~e;~st.
The prominent I'ault directions within the COW are: northeast,
n~rtli-northwest and west-northwest. Mt Muro lies on a
northeast structur;il trend identified by van Leeuwen (!I al(1990).
LOCAL GEOLOGY
Gold-silver miner:ilisation is hosted in hydrothermally altered
lault and lracture zones, which cross-cut the andesitic volcanic
;iiitl pyrocliistic host rocks. The deposits fall in the low
bulphidation category (Leach and Corhett, 1995; Corbett and
Leach, 1995; Corbett, 1996). The best grades usually occur in
multi-phase quartz veins iiiid breccias associated with fault
intersections. Major ore structures. which are locally referred to
as 'lodes', comprise (Moyle ct (11, 1996):
0 quartz veins between 0 3 and 15 m wide, with an average
width o f approximately 4 in;
footwall breccias between 0.3 and 2 m wide;
0 hanging wall alteration halos up to 6 m thick;
hanging wall quartz stockwork mineralisation; and
supergene enrichment of silver in 'flat lying' patches.
14 November 1997 105
 H HOOGVLIET
The majority of the mineralisation is contained in the quartz
veins and footwall bre s. High-grades are associated with the
occurrence of thin discontinuous sulphide-rich stringers, which
occur in the quartz veins. These stringers are up to 5 cm wide.
and several may occur in bands of up to 0.5 m wide. Grades can
be up to 4000 g/t Au and over one per cent Ag, though they
average between 500 and 1500 g/t Au and between 2000 and
40O(l glt Ag. The approximate dimensions may be as large ;IS 40
m along strike and 40 m down dip.
The lodes are generally associated with topographic ritlyes.
Near the top the lode is weathered and intensely oxidised. and
through mechanical processes has been distributed over the side
I
of the hill to form a blanket of eluvial. Oxidation in the lode can
be over 100 m from the surface.
As shown in Figures 3. 4 and 5 (Spiers, 1997) complicalions
associated with the lodes include:
'Rolling' of the lode with dips in opposite directions along
strike.
Significant changes in strike direction.
Hanging wall lodcs with different strike and dip compared to
the main lode.
Pinch and swell o f the lode; the width may v x y tIom 8 in iii
one location to less than a metre 2 0 m away. and change 1.1-om
high-grade to low-grade o r waste.
Cross-cutting structures, which may or may not be
mineralised. If they are mineralised, the intersection with the
I main lode often carries high-grades. I f they are not
mineralised. the main lode may locally disappear or have
low-grade or waste material only.
I Some cross cutting structures display dips of less than 45".
Tension veins between hanging wall and footwall structures.
106 Launceslon. 10 - 14 November 1997
They arc 5 - IS cni wide with spacings of 0.5 to 3 in,
s e p m t e d by waste. Grades are berween 2 and 150 dt AuEq.
The veins dip i n the opposite direction compared to the main
lode.
The mincability of these lodes viiiies. Selective miniiiy is
applied niost of tlie time. 'The minimum mining width is 2 in in
contr;ictu;iI terms. hut occasionally lodcs of I m are mined with
the s m n l l PC400 if warranted b y grade considerations.
Mineability of the lodes is assisted by the high degree of
visibility 01. the ore inatel-ial, and the Iiish clay content. In tlic
majority of' case:, [lie lode will st;ind up after cleaning iip of
hangins will1 wasic. 1r should howcver be noted that not all
quartz I:, 01-eand not a11 ore IS quartz. T h e geology assistants arc
given ;I high degrcc of responsibility i n deciding what is ore and
waste. They are q ~ p l i e dwith re1ev;int level plans and sections
containing assay dais o r block niodel values.
Bulk mining is applied i n tlie following situations:
Wlici-e \utficicnt tcnsion veins .~vcrageout the veins iiiid
alternating wiis~ein1crvals abovc c u t - o f t grade, generally in
tlie I ilnge of 2 - 3 AuEq.
Whcre supergene enrichment of' \ilver averages abovc ilie
crir-(iff'grade: gold grade may bc la:, than 0.5 g/t. but silver
may he above I 5 0 g/t.
Where hanging wall iind main I(itlc join up. Ore blocks of
this type may be up to 30 m wide and contain both high-
grade gold ( 5 g/t) and silver (100 ?/[).
RESERVES
Premining reserves are made up from 10 pits and 22 stiycs.
Three pits 1 i ; w now been completed. Crirrently there are seven
pits and 17 stages rcinaining. The stccp terrain. high rainfall and
Mlnirig Geology Conference
 L)EVELOPMEN'I' OF GRADE CONTROL SYSTEMS

I
PIT OUTLINE
LEGEND
'
~

I - - QUARTZVEIN >02m &_1

ACID WASTE
; .<
---_ QUARTZ VEIN <O 2mlwth hgh go& shooll -;NON ACID WASTE
;. -
/
-
FAULT
.- ... .. .. .-. .- ___

lily11 degrce of variability i n the lodes provide ii genuine

cliiillcnge tor exploration m 1 developmcnt drilling. Close
yxiccd drilling on ;I nomin;il 25 x 25 m pattern i s required to
define tliu deposits within a rcasonahle margin of accuracy and
d d s to the logistical issues.
During lcasibility and eiii ly production, all modelling and
reserve estiniations were ciirricd out i n Microininc. I n early-
I090 ii change ovei- was matlc to Vulcan software and Silicon
Griiphich l i x d w ~ i r c .
Current r w r v c s and resoul-ces ;it March 1997 ;IIK listed i n
T;ihlc I . Tlic JOKC Code wah applied. Mine life based on current
rcwrves ih ,ipproxiiiiately tivc ycars.

PRODUCTION
An Indonesian contractor, PT Pama Persada N u s a n t m (Pama),
ciirrics out mining. All early construction of haul roads and other
earthworks outside the plant site was carried out by Pama. who
;iIso liiive tlie first lour-year iiiining contract (Gregory. 1006).
The first prestripping took pl;icc i n March 1994, with excavation
ol' ore md w:istc from tlic Muro Sawang pit. The main
cqtiipment on site includes:
~ I X Koiriatsu excavators including PC 1000. PC650 and
FIG4 - Geology of [he Serii.jan Central dcposil oil sc'c[ioii 12 650 E.
PC400.

Mining Geology Conference Launceston, 1 0 - 14 November 1997 107

H HOOGVLIET

i !
Om 10 m 20 m 30 rn
. ..

1Cm

!a

FIG5 - Mapped geology in the Scrujan Cciifrd deposit :II 150 IIIKL,looking cast.

six Komatsu HD 465 RDT trucks (50 tonne capacity).

'I-AULE 2
25 Volvo A35 6WD ADT trucks (35 tonne capacity),
Prodrtction srori.rrics.
seven ten tonne capacity trucks, and
five blast hole rigs including lngersoll Rand LMC6OO ;ind
Atlas Copco ROC 848 HC machines.
This is complimented by support equipment including dozers, _ _ _ ~ .

graders, and front end loaders. All these units were shipped u p
the Barito River by barge.
The 1997 budget requires the excavation of I .5 Mt of ore, iind
an average total material removal of 600 000 bcm per month.
The waste to ore stripping ratio is approximately 10: I . At any
one time three pits with up to three stages per pit are active.
Each year one or two new pits are commenced.
The mill commenced operation in November 1994. During
1995 the hardrock and eluvial circuits were run in parallel.
However. in January I996 the Eluvial circuit was stopped, and
eluvial material was blended with Hardrock material. This
solved the problems of the inconsistent supply and material
handling difficulties and helped increase the silver recovery of
the eluvial material. Mill production was increased from 1.2
Mtpa to I .5 Mtpa. Gold recovery is generally above 95 per cent,
while silver recovery is approximately 75 per cent. The
successful start-up of Mt Muro is shown in Table 2.
It should be noted that current production of ;i nominal 1.5
Mtpa is 28 per cent above the feasibility design numbers of 1.175
Mtpa.
GRADE CONTROL GENERAL ACTIVITIES
The grade control team includes 15 national field crew (local
hire) on a 612 roster, five national geologists (of which one
Cash COSI (SUSlor)
senior) with betwccii two and eight years experience on a 4/2
roster ;ind one expatriate supcrinrcndent with I3 y c x s
experience. also on ;I 4/2 roster.
Dilurion ;ind qu;iltty control measui-cs of the ore include: pxiel
mining, supcrvision by ii geological assistant, ore excavation
during day shift only, and batch millirlg tests. Approximately
half of the crew have a tiiickground small-scale or traditional
miners and have ;I good understaticling o f the requirements
during ore excavation.
Gcnct-;il grade control activities include:
drill hole planiiing.
collection of s:iniples t'roni drilling.
0 collection 01' samples from exposed faces (channel
sampling),
0 collection of sxnples to dcterniine Net Acid Producing
Potential (NAPP).
miscell;ineous s;iniple collection iiicluding density, grab and
btockpilcs,

108 Launcesfon. 10 - 14 November 1997 Mining Geology Conference


floor mapping every five vertical metres,
survey of all sample locations,
on-site assay for gold and silver for all samples,
data storage,
modelling,
ore block design,
ore mark up,
ore excavation supervision, and
reconciliation.
All grade control computer work is carried out on PCs with
Micromine software, connected through ;I LAN. All day-to-day
work is carried out entirely by Indonesian stalf.
In the three-year history of the project significant
improvements have been achieved; in particular with the drillinp.
sampling and reconciliation procedures and national employee
skill levels.
HARDROCK ORE DEFINITION
Drill blast sampling
The use of blast hole rigs was the primary method of collecting
grade control samples between August 1904 and December
1996. During this period most standard procedures were
established including all database management, data
manipulation procedures and skill development of the national
geologists.
The early use of airtrack rigs at the start up of prcstripping in
March 1004, was soon replaced by the use o f Atlas Copco and
lngersoll Rand machines. Grade control drilling was carried out
on a 4 x 2.5 m staggered pattern. Holes were vertical. Two
samples were collected over two 2.5 m intervals from each hole.
Any subdrill, drilled for blasting purposes, was not sampled.
Geological assistants recorded brief geological data during the
drilling phase. Each hole number is unique l o r ii pit and each
sample number is unique for the project. Each hole location was
surveyed. The samples were assayed at the on-site laboratory lor
gold and silver. Results were generally available within 36
hours. Both assay and survey data were electronically
transferred via the LAN. Data entry clerks entered geological
data on a daily basis. Either the mine geologist or the geological
assistant carried out floor mapping. Digitising was done by the
mine geologist.
Upon receipt of all the information, a geologist validated tlie
ass;iy data, ciilculated the cut and gold equivalent values (85 g/t
Ag=l s/t Au) and merged the data in with the sample numbers
and geology. From the survey data the 3D co-ordinates of all
samples were calculnted. Assay and survey data were stored in
separate master files. This process took about ten minutes. At
the completion of this process AuEq values and gcology were
plotted on the screen or on hardcopy for ore block design.
Ore blocks need to be designed for hardrock (=not eluvial)
high-grade and low-grade and for eluvial. A further subdivision
was occasionally required to separate high grade silver (>IS0dt)
from low-grade silver. The plant experienced significant
recovery problems with silver grades above 150 g/t and with high
variations of the daily silver feed grade. The recovery of gold
and silver is insensitive to oxide or sulphide material.
At the completion of the ore block design, the boundary points
were electronically numbered with a unique number for the
bench. These numbers and their co-ordinates were transferred to
survey, where the data was uploaded to the survey equipment and
set out in the pit. The geological assistant connects the pegs with
various colours of flagging tape, depending on the ore grade and
~ y p e .It is then ready for excavation.
Mining Geology Conference Launceston. 1 0 - 14 November
1)EVELOPMEh'T OF GRADE CONTROL SYSTEMS
The blast hole s;iinpling method was not ideal. Tlic open hole
sampling method, i n particu1;ir beneath the water table. allowed
c(iiit~iinin~itioi1.vertical holcs i n ii near vertical dipping lode
hystein with generally sharp boundaries result in 'hit or miss' of
thc lode. The problem was ininimised by using ;I staggered
pattern, which reduced the uncertainty of the boundary to I .25
in. and the supervision of ore excavation. Dilution niinimisation
w;is aided hy the ore standing up well as a result of the high clay
content and by tlie generally visual distinction between the ore
; i d the n':iste. I lowever, medium-term scheduling was not
possible with bliist hole sampling, and i t caused bottle necks at
the completion p h x e of pits.
I:ollowing discussions over the advantages and disadvantages
of tlie bliist hole and RC methods, two RC grade control drilling
tests were carried out. one i n March 1905 and another in August
1990. The 1-est11tsof the lirst lest were inconclusive as the 12.5
m spiicing o f the vxtions was kx) wide and did not allow for the
gcologic variation of the Iode. The second test. which
iiicorpor;itetl 7.S 111 section spicing in a relatively 5imple lode,
indicated ;I live per cent tangihlc improvement of ore definition
representing improved profits i n the order of $US I.X M per year.
Dctlucted Irom tliiit amount would be the additional cost of
getting the int'ormation, estiin;ited iit $US03 M. I n addition to
the tangihlc henelits there were the intangible benefits. including
better sampling, fewer samples. better geological understanding.
improved short-term scheduling, improved efficiency in blast
patterns (and reduced blasting cost), and an opportunity to train
tlie ~ r a d econtrol geologists i n tlie first principles of modelling.
In Noveinher 1990 the decision was made to change over to
RC grade control drilling.
Reverse circulation sampling
licverse circulation (RC) gi-aclc control started on I December
1996. in one pit with relatively simple geology and low pressure
i n terms o f production. Chanycover was gradual and for about
5 i x inontlis both I<C and hlast hole drilling methods were
employetl. No ;idtlitional personnel were hired.
The basic operating procedures applied were:
drill piittern 0.25 x 5 in tlillicult areas and 7.5 x 5 in better
understood ant1 simpler ;ireas;
sample interv;il at 1 in;
drilling to continue seven h y s per week ten hours per day;
hudgct metres per shift I 7 5 m; budget waste:orc ratio 2.1:l
(approximately 20 Vsamplc);
drill hole angle 00 or 5 5 degrees; and
vertical udv;incc IO m ( l o u r Ilitches) or 13 111 downhole.
Where the geology \v;is sufficiently understood, the
clownhole depth could vary hetween 6 and 13 m.
There were several signiticiint issues involved with the change
over to RC grade control:
contracf tender process.
no disruption to ore mining.
planning and modeling procedures, and
training the grade control yeologists in modelling.
Coritruct tcwder process
I3ec;iusc of H commitment at management level. RC grade
control was instigated before ii separate contract w:ih tendered.
Tlicrefore. for ii period o f f o u r months, a modified exploration
schedule of rates was ;ipplicd with the exploration contract
drilling company while the contract was designed and tendered.
Tlic whole tender process, from the date the tender documents
were sent out to tlie date the contractor was selected, took three
months. The signcd contract. with the same contractor as for our
exploration drilling, achieved better terms than the modified
exploration contract.
1997 109
H HOOGVLIET
N o disruption to ore mining
Because the mill throughput requirements were continually
putting pressure on the mining operation, it was imperative that
there would be no disruption to the ore supply. Therefore both
RC and blast hole drilling methods were applied for about six
months, the latter being phased out gradually. Also, t o develop
field and modelling procedures. RC drilling commenced in low
priority areas. With six active stages this posed no problem.
Occasionally a double RC shift was operated. The only
disruption occurred when both Permata Stage 2 and Huluhzii. ;I
new pit opened up in February 1997, were available at the same
time in early-April. and both urgent. However. by May 1997, RC
grade control was applied to all hardrock. The good start-up was
partially because the budgeted I75 d s h i f t was gener;illy
achieved, and the waste to ore sampling ratio was signiticantly
better than budget at 1.4: I (2.1: I).
Planning and niodelling procedures
Planning and modelling is carried out using Micromine software.
A Micromine consultant visited site for a week in December
1996 and development of basic procedures was completed by the
end of January. Historical modelling experience WEIS used.
Variations include a block size of 1 x 1 x 1 in and using inverse
distance interpolation with a power 3, instead of 2.
Planning utilised different sources of information
simultaneously. All grade control ore blocks were put into ii 3D
model in order to slice them by section. In Vulcan the pit design
and lode interpretations were sliced into the sections required by
grade control. The exploration and development drill hole data
base complimented this data. Using all this information, a
sectional interpretation was made, which was then extrapolated
to the next I O m. This then formed the basis upon which to plan
each hole in detail. The Micromine blast hole set-up module is
used to create a basic hole location, dip and dip direction
database. This was followed by checking each section to
maximise information per hole and could include changing
collar, depth or dip, or any combination of these, deleting or
adding holes, always with the aim of getting a minimum of two
intercepts in both the hanging wall and footwall. After both the
mine geologist and the supervisor had checked the proposed
program, a set of hard copies of the sections were plotted.
The hole co-ordinates were passed on to survey lor mark-up i n
the pit. Drilling is supervised by a geological assistant who
makes sure hole set-up and total depth are according to plan nnd
who has the authority to extend or shorten a hole and records
basic geology and daily drilling statistics. A data entry clerk
enters geology into a geological database.
Training the grade control geologists in tnodellitig
The first round of modelling in the third week of December took
six days, with several late night sessions. None of the Indonesian
geologists had had any previous modelling exposure. By April
1997 each geologist could run a model in less than 24 hours.
The basic modelling steps include the set-up o f a model.
interpretation of the sections upon receipt of all results, creation
of level plans at bench midpoint based on the sliced sections.
llagging of the samples that fall inside the lode. modelling by
ID3 for each domain that has a different strike or dip, deleting
the blocks outside the lodes and adding the final block model
data t o the master data base. Several verification checks are built
in the procedures.
Since the change over to RC grade control available ore stocks
have increased to around 70 000 tonnes, a doubling from the
previous inventory levels. For the first four months drilling
averaged 170 m per active shift and rig availability averaged 88
pcr cent. including all rig moves and service. The H I3 rig, used
110 Launceslon. 10 - 14 November 1997
to start tlic prograin, wiis replaced wi(1i the CD350, which is
equipped with a 4 5 " fnce sampling hammer, a 350/600 onl)oard
compressor. and ;I c;irouscI. I t is dedicated to grade control.
ELUVIAL ORE DEFINITION
The eluvial matcri;il is clitlicult to mine because of its high clay
content, its t h i n nature. its low angle illid tlic disturbance c;iused
by exploration drilling ant1 surface clearing prior to mining.
Originally eluvial ore blocks \vere based on existing
exploration and development drilling (RC, DDH and Wacca)
data. N o new data was collected. Al'tcr the lirst six months of
milling it became evident that [lie eluvi;il griides were
significantly lower tliari predicted. The discrepancy was
attributed to dilution caused by lack ot' o r incorrect information.
To overcome this problem a special \v:icca team was created to
drill out the eluvi;il ;ireas on a 5 x 5 in pattern, after surtace
clearing. lliis has significantly improved the predicted tonnes
and grade on tlie Eluvial material at the mininglgradc control
stage, tliough cx;ict numbers are not available since the Eluvial
was combined with Harclrock in early- 1996. The cost for one
wacca drill hole at xi avcrage of 6 i n per hole, including luhour
and the rig. is ;ipprwirnately XJS3.50.
INTEGRATED MILL PRODUCTION RESERVES
AND RECONCILIATION REPORTING SYSTEM
During 199s the mining engineering department developed a
production accouriting systcni using P~i-adoxsoftware. However,
there w a s no equivalent system i n the geology department.
Signitic;int ;imounts o f time were spent by the geology
department on producing quarterly and annual ore reserve
statements. reserve\ for scheduling ;ind strategic planning and
reconciliutioii data. ;IS information Iiad to he collected and
manipulated i n ii Ixgely manual manner. I n addition, multiple
pits, stagcs, bcnclics and material typcs had t o be accounted t'or,
and tlie JORC classitication.
I n late- I996 i t wiis decided to intefi-;ite the geology production
and reserve reporting with the existing mining production
system. A consultiiiit from Perth was hi-ed who made three trips
to site over a period of five months t o dcvelop the most important
aspects of tlie system. The system is referred to as the Integrated
Mill, l'roduction. Reserves and recoilciliation reporting System
(IMPRES).
The main teatiires of IMPRES arc:
comparison betweeii depleted rescrvcs and adjusted
production t'or any period against any generation of resei-ves.
with ;issoci;itcd call factors;
repoi-tins of rescrvcs and resources for high-grade, low-
grade. hardrock and eluvial ole, either premining or
renxiining, in two different formats:
coinpirison between reserves and adjusted production on 21
pit by pit and stage by stage basis t o r hardrock. eluvial, liigh-
grade or low-grade selection;
conip;irisons between two gener ;it ions of reserves for the
s;inie pit; and
export o f the reserve table to tlic existing engineering
schctluling routine.
The production o f mine-mill-rcsci vcs call factors now only
takes ;I traction ot the time ;ind the cIi;incc lor errors has reduced
signiticiintly. I t is utiliscd by 1ndonesi;in staff.
All geology functions are tied togetlier in ii geology menu
which allows data entry i n t o the engineerinp production table tor
daily pivduction statistics, update 01 reserves into the reserves
table, and tlic various report outputs. A security access system is
also i n p l x c .
Mining Geology Conference

Project-to-date reconciliation is shown i n Table 3 (hardrock
and eluvial combined):
'rAULE 3
Mini~-millreconciliuIion 11/94 IO 3/97,
Mine-inill call factor
Note: Unad.justcd mine production is data supplied by grade coiitrol
personnel on a day-to-day basis. Adjusted mine production data is equal
to inill production plus the difference in (surveyed) stockpiles.
determined at the cnd of each month.
INDONESIANISATION
Initially there were two Indonesian mine geologists. one
expatriate geologist and 12 crew. Only one of the Indonesian
geologists had previous mine experience and at the end of 1994
the combined mining geology experience between the geologists
totaled five years (Table 4). This increased to seven geologists
and 15 crew in 1995, including a second expatriate for training
purposes. Combined years of mining experience increased to 13.
This stabilised in I996 with one expatriate leaving the
department and Indonesian geologists taking more control. In
1997 the combined Indonesian mining experience was almost
equal that o f all Indonesian and expatriate geologists i n 1995. I n
1997 Indonesians carried out all day-to-day activities without
expatriate supervision.
lndonesianisation coincided with significant productivity
improvements. Table 5 shows the comparison between the
number of field crew and geologists related to tonnes mined and
1994 1995 1996 I997
Expat 1 2 3 4 5
Expat 2 6 challenging conditions.
Note: IMG = Indonesian Mine Geologist.
Note: The above analyses show approximate ycars of mining geology
experience only. Some individuals have significant exploration
experience as well.
Note: Blank indicates person was not employed by IMK during that yea1
or most of the ycar.
Note: I997 is current as of 3 1/3/97, but was counted as i~ full year.
Mining Geology Conference Launceston, 10 -
1)EVELOPMENT OF GRADE CONTROL SYSTEMS
w n p l e s taken. I t shows lliiit between 1994 and 1997
productivity i n terms of tonncs per crew. tonnes per geologist,
s m p l c s per crew and samplea per geologists have approximately
ti-iplcd. I t should he noted 11i;it the change over to RC grade
control hat1 the effect of reducing sampling activity without
reducing tonnage mined. In I095 up to ten per cent of the grade
control sampling was channcl sampling in order to understand
tlie ore distribution. In I906 and 1097 this percentage has
gr;itlually clcclined to below l i v e per cent, another indication of
increased experience and understanding of the geology by the
workforce.
Note: Milied tonnes ale unadjustctl to the Inill.
Nolc: Tonncs niinetl ;ind samples collected for 1997 are as of 31/3/1997.
Now: S;implcs and tonnes per einployee for I997 are annualised.
A key to the success of grade control has been the strict vetting
o f nation;il staff'. Attitude and (perceived) potential were
i-c&ed higher t l m previous experience. The progress within
the grade control department is a representative departmental
example ol tlie S U C C ~ S Sat PI' Indo Muro Kencana i n developing
Ititlonesian staft. whilst at the same time improving productivity
;uid maintaining iippropriate technical standards.
CONCLUSIONS
MI Muro has made :I successl'ul start by producing above budget
ounces at helow budget cost in spite of the remote location, a
largely untrained workforce at start-up, and logistically
'l'lie MI Muro deposits iirc complex, structurally controlled.
lodes that require ;I high degree of geological control to ensure
maximum extraction of ore.
Grade c o n m l has undergone signiticant and successful
cliiingcs including the change over from blast hole to reverse
circulation drilling and saiiipling. and the development of
IMPRES. Productivity per geologist and per crew has tripled in
tlie 2.5 ye;irs since start-up.
Indonesianisation in the gr;idc control department as well as
the other cleparrments on the project is progressing well with all
tl;iily activities plimned and carried out by National geologists.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
'l'lic author wishes to thank management of Indo Muro Kencana
;in0 Aurora Gold tor permission to publish this p;iper and K
Bischoff lor reviewing the paper. The help of C Coxen and D
Crickmay with the preparation of the drawings is very much
appreciated, as is the help from Perth oftice staff.
14 November 1997 111
II HOOGVLIET

REFERENCES
Corbett. G J and Leach. T M, 199.5. Southwest Pacific Rim Gold-Copper
Systems: Structure. Alteration and Mineralization. A workshop
presented at the Pacrim Conference Auckland. New Zcalaiid. 23-24
Noveinber 1995.
Corbett. G J, 1996. Cominents on the Structure and Controls to Gold
Mineralisafion at fhc MI Muro Gold Mine Kalimantan. Indonesia.
Unpublished.
Gregory, R C, 1996 - Case Study - Mt Muro Gold Mine. Pwceedinx:.r CJ/

ihe AlC Coniriici Minina Conference. 27 - 29 May 1996. Singapore.

Leach. T M and Corbett, C 1. 1995. Characteristics of low sulphidation
gold-copper systems in the southwest Pacific, in Proctwfinx.c Pircific
Rim Conjiress IYY.5. pp 327-332 (The Australasim Institute of
Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).
Moyle, A J. Bischoff. K. Alexander, K R, and Hoogvliet, H. 1996. Mt

Launceslon. 10 - 14 November 1997 Mining Geology Conference

Reconciliation of the McKinnons Gold Deposit,
Cobar, New South Wales
S M Elliott’, D V Snowden*, A Bywater3, C A Standing4 and A Ryba’

ABSTRACT I’roducrioii shows there is excellent reconciliation of high-grade

McKinnons open pit gold mine. located within the Cobar Ihsin i n New
South Wales. is characterised by complex mineralisation controlled hy
!lie intersection of steep faults in the hinge zone of :in ;inticline.
Resource estinintion using indicator variography and indicator kriging
was based on IIC drilling on 25 m sections together with grade control
RC drilling on 12 in by 12 i n and 6 in by 6 in patterns. Rigorous
sampling and checking procedures were used to verify the reliability of
the drill hole data. Blast hole data was used to assist gradc control in
defining ore block boundaries.
I. Director Exploration, Burdekin Resources NL, 60 Pun:iri Strcct,
Townsville Qld 4812.
2. Technical Director, Snowden Associates Pty Ltd. 87 Coliii Street.
West Penh WA 6005.
3 Senior Geologist, Burdekin Resources NL, McKinnoiis Mine. Cohar
~onn:igeaiid grade with geostatisticd model expectations. However. the
iiiinetl low-yxle tonnage, wliicli has been stockpiled and awaits
processing. appcars to have been subst;intially reduced when compared to
IhC Illodel.
A retrospective study of the spatial and statistical relationships
hctween bl:ist hole ;issays, explor;ition RC assays. block iiiodel grades
;ind production ha$ highlighted ;I nuinher of classical issues related to the
following ;i\pccts of resource estiiii;ition:
in;ibility of gcostatistical estimates 10 respond to geologically
disriiict hountlarics when jydational behaviour has heen assumed;
the difference hetween selling cut-offs on assays versus smoothed
hlock ~rades:
the sensitivity of the estiiiiatc to the nugget effect;
the potential for more low-grade tonnage according to the
geostatistical block estiiii;ire compared with polygonal grade
control estiiii;ites;
the problciri o t deciding wlictlier a hlock is ore or waste in
;I high

NSW 283s. nugget effect environment. ;iiid

the optimum resource drill density pattern.
4. Manager Projects, Snowden Associates Pty Ltd. X7 Colin Street,West The oper:ition 1i:is committed to ;I trial campaign processiiig material
Perth WA 6005. classitied :is low gr;ide (0.7 - 1.3 g/t inaterial based on assays) which is
S. Coinpuler Geologist, Snowden Associates Ply Ltd. 87 Colin ec~uivalentlo ;in apparent hlock cur-off of 0.85 gh. If the inodel is correct
Street.West Perth WA 6005. the low-g~ideinaterial should be 0.15 g/t to 0.2 E/t higher grade than
sliown in the production inveillory and this will verify the volume

I I I
50WE
I
51WE
I
5200E
4 800- 49W E

I I I

FIG1 - Geology of the McKinnons Gold Deposit 180 IIIKL(after Elliott et t r l , In picss).

Mining Geology Conference Launceston, 1 0 - 14 November 1997 113

S M ELLIOTT er ( I /
variance relationship i n :I high nugget rnvironmenl. If not. the case srudy
will illustrate the dangers of allowing geostatistical models to wander
beyond the limits of geological reality.
INTRODUCTION
McKinnons open pit gold mine commenced mining in January
1995, based on a linal pit design proved ore reserve of 2.39 MI at
ii grade of 1.75 g/t gold with 134 200 contained ounces. This
was defined by a close spaced RC drilling pattern ranging trom
12 m by 12 m to 6 m by 6 m. An erratic gold distribution
required further grade control drilling (blast hole sampling)
during mining for ore boundaiy definition. Mining was
completed in December 1996, with stockpiled run of mine
(ROM) ore (>1.3 g/t) milled to August 1997. The low-grade
stockpiled ore (0.7 - I .3 g/t) is currently being milled. Detailed
mapping and ore monitoring occurred during the mining and
milling cycle, to validate parameters used by the ore reserve
estimate. This paper analyses the similarities and discrepancies
between the final pit ore reserve estimation with linal ROM
milled tonnes and grade along with grade control estimates of
low-grade stockpile material.
McKINNONS GOLD DEPOSIT
The McKinnons gold deposit is described by Elliott ( 1995).
Rugless and Elliott (199s). Bywater et 01 (1996) and Elliott er a1
(In press) so only :I brief outline of the regional and local
geology will he provided in this paper. A summary geology map
ofthe McKinnons gold deposit is shown in Figure I .
The Cobar Basin comprises Early Devonian marine sediment
and minor volcanic rocks deposited in a deep sedimentary basin
with flanking shallow-water sediments along its margins (Glen.
1987). The first deformation folding event occurred shortly after
deposition at 390 - 400 Ma followed by a second deformation
event in the mid-Devonian.
The McKinnons gold deposit outcropped on a low lying ridge
of silicified weakly metamorphosed monotonous laminated to
massive siltstone, mudstone and tine grained quartz sandstone,
known as the Amphitheatre Group, near the western margin of
the basin. The deposit is up to 350 m long, 120 m wide and 80 in
deep. Mineralisation occurs from the surface (202 mRL) to the
122.5 mRL, with highest grades centred around 190 m to 170
mRL. Textures show that gold has formed hy primary and
secondary (supergene) processes. In the oxide zone. gold is
enriched forming economic mineralisation associated with iron
oxide and quartz. In tlie primary zone gold is largely
uneconomic averaging around 0.3 g/t. It occurs in quartz veins,
silica breccia and pyrite veins. Alteration associated with
mineralisation includes an extensive outer carbonate.
intermediate pyrite and inner silica zones.
Mineralisation is structurally controlled forming near the
intersection of steep faults in the hinge zone of an anticline
resulting in complex mineralisation controls. Both intill and
replacement silica textures are associated with mineralisation.
The ore deposit trends NW with internal controls on individual
pods oriented north and north-east parallel to cleavage and fault
directions. Bedding has variable dips between 15" - 35" towards
the north and north-west. with local disruptions common in f i i u l t
wedges.
The bulk of McKinnons mineralisation is situated within one
main ore block in the central portion of the pit (Figure 2). l'he
boundary o f this pod forms an irregular polygon that required
detailed drilling (3.5 in x 3.5 m pattern) for accurate boundary
definition. A major 040" trending breccia zone bounds the
western side of this block, and it is bounded to the N E by a 325"
trending fault. Ore controls to the S E and SW boundaries arc
less readily definable. Figure 2 shows that other smaller pods
occur to the SE of tlie main pod. Low-grade mineralisation has
114 Launceston. 10 -
been more difliciilt to define visu;illy, with irregular quartz
veinin? and minor to ahscnt silicification.
Although ore feeder fault structures assist in controlling the
location of tlie orc pods, geological features cannot be used alone
t o detine 01-cboundaries. which are I'irpely dependent on assay
grades.
RESOURCE DEFINITION AND DATA QUALITY
A range o l drilling methods has been ubcd to outline the resource
tit McKinnons. Geological and sampling data are essentially
dependent on KC drilling mcthods.
Geopeko completed diamond. crms-over RC perciission and
open hole percussion drilling at McKinnons between 1990 and
1992. A total of 65 Iioles were drilled, totalling 4920 in
percussion and 1070 m diamond. Between December I993 ;ind
June 1994. Burdekin completed 98 tacc sampling R C percussion
holes tot;illing 5743 in i i n d five diamond holes totalling 380 in.
Most drilling of the deposit hiis been cxrricd out on 25 m spaced
east-west sections with holes incIinccI at 45" to 60" to the east
and west ;it approximately 20 m intervals. Some lioles were
drilled oblique to the cast-west grid to check continuity of
mineralisation. The average hole diameter was I30 nim.
Gcopeko ;ind Rurdekin surveyed all cll-ill collars and carried out
down hole surveys.
Three to lour kilogram samples \\'ere taken for assay every
metre and reduced to 90 per cent passing I06 pm. Routine 5 0 g
tire assay incorporating an AAS aqua regia tinish was used with
ii lower detection liinit of0.0I g/t gold.
Hurdekin adopted rigorous sampling and checking procedures
during AI its drilling programs to verify reliability of kits
(Elliott, 1995). 'l'he procedures included using independent
control simples. inter-1;iboratory checks, replicate samples,
duplicate simples. x i d large 3 - 4 kg samples reduced to a fine
fraction hctore il subsample was taken tor analysis. Accuracy
and precision tests checked the reli;ibility of the assays tor
mineral resource estimation. Accurxy is estimated to he
between three per cent to seven per cent from control sample
results and precision ranged from f 9 pcr cent to f 13 per cent iit
two standard deviations from duplicatc assay results.
Twinning RC versus diamond aiid RC versus RC holes
checked rclinbility of the drilling method. This check on drilling
methods investigates ;issay value variability and smearing
characteristics. Although differences were noted between
twinned IioIcs, they wcrc interpreted to represent natural
variahility i n the deposit's gold distrihution rather than being [lie
result of poor quality drilling, sampling or analytical methods.
No sme;iring of gold grades was evidcnt and all drilling i n tlie
deposit was carried out above the water-table. Sample recoveries
were commonly constant and considcrcd acceptable.
Another area for resource estim;ition error is bulk density
determin;itions. Tlicy wei-e carried out using drill core on oi-e
and waste matcrinl throughout the clcposit. A total 0 1 233
determinations were made i n the oxide zone and a bulk density
of 2.5 t/m' is used tor w x t e and ore. In the oxide zone there is
no apparent change in the average bulk density value with depth.
Approximutely ten per cent of the ore reserve occurs in the ,
primary zone. Twenty-one ore and waste sample from the
5
primary zone gave an avcr;ige bulk density of 2.6 t/m . The risk
of a significant error in the bulk density affecting the resource
estimate is considered low.
The reliability o f tlie data used i n the pre-development
resource estimation was sufficient ('or i t to be placed i n a
Measured mineral resource category according to the July I090
JORC cotlc.
PRE-DEVELOPMENT RESOURCE DRILLING
A prc-development close spaced drillins program was completed
over the entire deposit prior to the commencement of mining.
The perceived main benelits for this sti.ategy were:
14 November 1997 Mining Geology Conference
 I<ECONCILIATION 0 1 ; THE McKlNNONS GOIJI DEPOSIT

I
5100 E 5200 E

w 15200N

metres

151WN

>3.5g/tAu

13-35gltAu

n 07-13MAu
u
00 3 - 0 7 f l A U
14 900 N

Fiti 2 - Pit plan showing ore blocks at 1 x 0 inKL (atter Elliotr C I til. In pres\)

I. to reduce project risk,
2. to enable mining rates to exceed treatment rates i n a small
pit to reduce mining costs,
3. to improve Lcrchs-Grossmann(LG) optiniisations and pit
design, and
4. to reduce grade control costs and sample turnaround time
during mining.
This program consisted of drilling 528. 120 mm face sampling
RC holes, totalling 34 390 m between August and mid-October
I994 using two UDR650 rigs on double shifts. The deposit was
drilled out on a 12 m by 12 rn to 6 m by 6 m pattern. The same
rigorous procedures for checks on quality control used in the ore
delineation program were also adopted in this program. The
main difference was that a 20 g aqua regia digest with an AAS
linish was adopted instead of thc 50 g lire assay.
The reserve estimated at June 1994 (2.2Mt at 1.91 g/tAu; 135
200 0 2 ) and the January 1995 final pit estimate (2.39 MI at 1.75
g/tAu; 134 200 oz) was similar. Mineralisation would have been
hterilised i i i the ramp by the original pit design but the new pit
design was able to include i t iis ore. The benefits of this pre-
development drilling that cost $I.2 million and iidded four
months to the timetable can he reviewed now that mining has
hcen completed.
I t is evident that detailed quality data collected from the
McKinnons deposit for ore rcserve estimation does not stop
errors introduced by poor y a d e control/mining practice or
inappropriate resource modclling paramctcrs or techniques.
McKinnons may have benctitcd more by not undertaking the
detailed pre-development drill out program and undergoing a
more traditional detailed grade control program during mining.
Thc planned reconciliation 01' the low-grade material will clarify
this.
MINING
Open pit mining ;it McKinnons involved excavation. drill and
hlwt by ;I contractor with grade control, ore delineation.
cxtr;iction m d milling by Burdekin personnel (Discombe and

Mining Geology Conference Launceston, 10- 14 November 1997 115

S M ELLIOIT el (11
Engelhardt, 1996). To optimise profit, the mining occurred on
double shifts with the mining rate higher than the milling rate.
Mining commenced in February 1995 and was completed in
December 1996. Five metre benches were each mined in two 2.5
m flitches. Treatment by the 500 000 tpa CIP plant is planned to
continue until the end of 1998. Treating the ROM ore (>1.3
g/tAu) was completed in August 1997 allowing mill tonnage and
grade reconciliations to be carried out to check original
assumptions and parameters used in the ore reserve estimation.
RESOURCE MODELLING
A geostatistical modelling technique was adopted using indicator
kriging. The resource was modelled on 2.5 by 2.5 m blocks on
2.5 m flitches based on uncut I m assay data. The gold grades
approach a lognormal distribution in all seven domains. high-
grade outliers are present and there is evidence of mixed
populations. The global statistics for 1 m composites (n=48 455)
above a mineralisation indicator grade o f 0.1 glt reflect an
average grade of 1.60 g/t with a variance of 22.2 (log variance
1.55). Individual domains range in average grade from 0.9 g/t to
1.9 dt (above 0. I g/t).
Full indicator variography was undertaken for each of nine
indicator grades. based on the deciles of the data above the
mineralisation indicator grade. The subtle anisotropy interpreted
from the variography confirmed the changes in strike and dip
interpreted geologically. Short range structures of 4 m to 12 m,
up to a maximum of 22 m were nested within structures of the
order of 20 rn to 60 m. The nugget effect was notably high for
all but one domain, comprising 45 per cent to 70 per cent of the
total variability. This reflects the poddy nature of the
mineralisation.
Full indicator kriging was used to interpolate block g p k s and
indicator cut-offs were set at the data deciles (10 to 90‘”
percentile) plus the 95‘’’ and 97.5‘” perccntilcs of each data set.
This method of interpolation is appropriate for skewed data and
mixed populations such as exist at McKinnons. It was not
possible to define precise geological boundaries or to accept that
a robust mineralisation envelope (0.1 g/t) existed at the time.
Therefore soft boundaries were applied between domains.
Concern about excessive edge dilution was addressed by re-
running the model constrained within all blocks exceeding 0.25
glt, using only the data from within this constraint. Hard
boundaries were used at the edge ol’ the mineralisarion envelope
and solt boundaries within the envelope, between the dom:iins.
Owing to time constraints median indicator kriging was used for
the second model and the data was cut to the 99‘” percentile.
There was no significant change to the resource estimate.
GRADE CONTROL METHOD
Grade control was undertaken using a manual polygonal
methodology incorporating the data from the original RC holes
plus blast hole data to refine the edges of the mining block. Ore
boundaries were digitised in plan for each 2.5 m flitch, with
grades calculated by arithmetic average. No smoothing was
applied at this stage. A top cut of 15 g/t was applied to raw RC
and blast-hole data, as determined by statistical analysis and
reconciled trial ore parcels. This technique resulted in the strict
application of a 1.3 g/t assay cut-off for high-grade material and
a 0.7 g/t cut-off for low-grade material, with 0.3 - 0.7 glt material
being delivered to the mineralised waste stockpile.
Dilution in the pit was reduced by drilling 5 m deep holes and
inserting poly-pipe, then surveying the pre and post-blast
positions to monitor movement. Ore boundaries were then
adjusted for heave to reduce dilution.
As detailed reserve drilling had been undertaken prior to
mining, grade control drilling during mining was restricted to
strategic areas of defining boundary margins. This would
116 Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997
involve very ttlc sampling i n the high grade central cores of
large pods. This c;iuscd the grade coiitrol estimated grade o f the
ROM ore to be under-estimated (2.30 g/t) compared to milled
grade (2.05 g/t).
Approximately 30 saniples were taken of the low-grade
stockpile each month during mining a b a check on pit grade
control values. Although stockpile sumpling is considered a
rough method it scrvcs a s a guide. T h e 0.75 g/t avenge of 3 I4
stockpile siimples is lower than the grxlc control value o f 0.9 I
g/t gold.
GEOSTATISTICAL CHARACTERISTICS
A retrospective study of the statistical relationships between blast
hole assays, exploration KC assay5. block model grades and
production has highlighted a number 0 1 classical issues related to
the following aspects of resource estiiitation:
inability of geostatistical estimates to respond to geologically
distinct boundaries when gradational behaviour has been
assumed;
the difference between setting cut-offs on assays versus
smoothed block grades:
the sensitivity of the estimate to the nugget effect;
tlie poretitiel for more low-grade tonnage according to the
block estimate cornpared with polygonal grade control
estimates;
the problem o f deciding whether ;I block is ore or waste iri a
high nugget efiect environment; and
the optimum resourcc drill density pattern.
Nugget effect
The nugget effect describes how well sampling results can be
reproduced by repeated sampling ;it the same location. It
incorporates both the natural inherent variability of the deposit
plus vari;ibility because o f sample size, sample preparation and
analysis. Heteroscncous minera1is:ition is sensitive to the
method of sampling and could give vxiahle results from a single
location. Precision checks previously given indicate sampling
and analytical errors are at acceptable levels.
Recognition ot’ the nugget effect is vital to resource estimation.
The higher the nugget effect. the higher the degree of smoothing
required i n the eztimation where thc estimate is a weighted
average of samples within the range of inlluence of the block
being cvaluatcd. Kriging is an estimation technique which
includes the nugget effect in the derivation of sample weights.
The higher the nugget effect the higher the degree of smoothing;
that is samples arc more evenly weighted. If the nugget effect is
low enough the block derives its avei-age grade from the closest
sample grade. Otherwise the block grade is a weighted avet-age
of the sxnplcs within the range of influcitce.
Volume variance effect
The volume variance eftcct, which rcllects the change of support
and hence tlie decreasc in variability between sample siicd
volumes and blocks representing selective mining units, causes a
regression relationship between sample estimates and actual
block grades. Samples overestimate hlock grades in high-grade
areas and underestimate them i n low-grade areas. Cut-offs
should be ;ipplictl to block estimates in order to optimise
orcfwaste decisions and avoid misclassitying ore as waste.
Statistical reconciliation within test area
A comparison between 2 3 in blast hole samples, exploration RC
composites and block model estimates in a test area representing
the extent of all blast hole simpling ;it McKinnons is summarised
i n Table I and the Q-Q plots in Figures 3 to 5.
Mining Geology Conference
 RECONCILIATION OF THE McKINNONS GOLD DEPOSIT

TAHLE 1
Cii~ripciruiivc2.5 in siuiisiics iri icsi uriu

In 3 /

0 01 1/.
0 01
, , ,,,,I

01
, , , , ,,,,,

1
, , , , ,,,,I

10
, , , , , "'1
100

explar drill 2 5 m camp

3
McKinnons B4 and A8 Benches

IO,
FIG4 ~ 0-Qplot coiiipnring modcl blocks with 2 5 in KC coinposites.

1-

0 1-

I ' "'""I ' ''.7

0 01 01 1 10 I no
explor drill 1 5 m comp

McKinnons B4 and A8 Benches

FIG3 - 0-0 plot coinparing 2.Sm composites from KC and blast hole
sainpling. q - 10 0
0 01 0 1 1 10 100

There is no bias between the exploration RC and blast hole
grades as evidenced by their comparable statistics and the 1:l
relationship in Figure 3. Comparisons between block grades and
either raw exploration RC sample grades or blast hole sample
grades (Figures 4 and 5 respectively) both illustrate a marked
regression caused by the lower variability of the model block
grades. In this case the block grades are higher than the sample
grades in the low-grade areas and lower than the sample grades
in the high-grade areas. The overall block average is similar to
the average sample grades. The log histograms and log
probability plots in Figures 6, 7 and 8 illustrate the smoothing in
the model block grades compared with the raw data. Delineation
of mining blocks at cut-offs below I glt would outline more
tonnes at higher grades than polygons defined on raw assay
grades (either blast hole or RC).
Conditional bias and kriging efficiency
The relationship between input assays and actual block grades
can be predicted from the variography using the method
recommended by Krige (1996) to review whether the model has
the appropriate amount of smoothing according to geostatistical
theory.
blast h o l e 2 5 m comps Au
McKinnons B4 and A 8 Benches
Pic S - 0-Qplot comparing inodel blocks with 2.5 in blast hole
cotiiposites.
'liible 2 shows the regression co-efficient. which is the measure
o l conditional bias, and kriging efficiency which is the measure
of reliability for ;I given block size and grid spacing using a
typical variogram from one of the domains at McKinnons.
These parameters suggest that the kriged blocks would not
have much conditional bias ( a regression co-efficient of 1 is
pertect) but krising efficiency i s low (above 50 per cent is
considered advisable by Krigc). The kriging efficiency would be
improved by increasing the block size.
The apparent discrepancy between sample and block grades is,,
according to this tcst, an expected outcome and it suggests that
the block grades would eventuate if the cut-off was set on
smoothed estimates. This is an important relationship to
understand and, if block grades are indeed realistic, there is

Mining Geology Conference Launceston, 10- 14 November 1997 117

 S M ELLIOTT ef ctl

LOG Normal Histogram LOG Normal Probability Plot

MCWNNONS MODEL 2.5M COMPS MCKINNONS MODEL 2 . M COMPS

Real Value Real Value

FIG6 - Log histogram and log probability plot for inotlel blocks iii test :ires.

LOG Normal Histogram LOG Normal Probability Plot

MCKlNNONS EXPL 2 . M COMB MCKINNONS EXPL 2.5M COMPS

5
a

- n n r- T
0 010
Real Value Real Value

FIG 7 - Log histogram and lo&probability plot for 2.S 111 I<C coiiiposites in tesl area.

LOG Normal Histogram LOG Normal Probability Plot

MCWNNONS BLASTHOLES 2 . M COMPS MCKINNONS BLASTHOLES 2 . M COMPS

Real Value Real Value

FIG8 - Log histograin and log probability plor for 2.S i n I)l:ist hole coiiiposiites 111 test area.

I 118 Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1YY7 Mining Geology Conference

 KECONClLl ATlON OF THE McKlNNONS COLD DEPOSIT

. . .- ,

Sampling grid Regression

ro-efficient
Kriging
efficiency
I
'3
'* . I,
I. -
I, -
X x 8 in grid. I in coinps 0 XY 4x
1
-
-

1x8
I
K x 8 m grid. 2.5 in conips 0.93 40 4,
=-%-- i

potential to retrieve more ore that may have been misclassilied as

waste using a manual polygonal grade control method. However,
although there may be no bias as such, the reliability of
individual block estimates could be low. Hence highly selective
mining would be likely to fail. Orelwaste decisions would most
optimally be made on larger selective mining units.
MODEL VERSUS PRODUCTION COMPARISONS
At the onset of mining, it became evident that there was
reasonable reconciliation of high-grade material with model
expectations but that low-grade tonnage was substantially
reduced (see Table 3).
Reconciliation figures for ROM ( > I .3 glt) hetween grade
control and milled tonnes and grade indicates a contained gold
variance of +3 per cent. The overall loss in contained gold of - I3
per cent is largely attributed to the dramatic drop in mined low-
grade tonnes ( - 5 5 per cent) when compared to the ore reserve
model.
Detailed grade control drilling and bench mapping in
conjunction with face channel sampling showed that ore
boundaries are often well defined ;IS opposed to being
gradational boundaries as assumed i n the ore reserve model by
using essentially unconstrained boundaries.
Figure 9 shows the grade tonnage curve for the model reported
within the pit outline as well as within the limits ol' the mining
hlocks on 12 consecutive benches mined at McKinnons (175 -
205 mRL). Also plotted is the production estimate for cut-otfs of
0.3 g/t (mineralised waste), 0.7 g/t (low-grade) and 1.3 g/t (high-
grade).
Within the mining outlines, it appears that the 0.7 g/t assay
cut-off represents an effective block cut-oft' of 0.85 g/t. Mining
to a block cut-off of 0.7 g/t would have presented I 1 per cent
more tonnes at nine per cent lower grade than was actually mined
as low-grade. The resource model defines further low-grade
material external to the mining outlines accounting for an
additional 1 1 per cent in tonnes, with an overall decrease of nine
Fio 0 - GIXIKtonii:ige reconoili:ition between model and production
estimates ( I 7 4 - 205 in RL).
per cent in grade. The significance of this discrepancy is even
inore marked at tlie 0.3 g/t ciit-off for which the model defines a
resource ol' 2.1 MI at 1.37 compared with 1.5 MI actually
mined at I .6 g/t.
However. besides examinins data statistically it is important to
also examine it sp;itially to assist in understanding tlie problem.
The block model plans indicate a smearing effect or zonation
I'rom high-grade to low-grade and through to mineralised waste.
This is not observed in the actual spatial distribution when
m;inual ore boundaries were ;ipplied associated with raw drilling
data. A typical comparison between raw RC data with the
overlying block grade for a Iw.~-grade section of tlie pit is given
i n T;ible 4. Note that there are many examples where significant
dil'ferences exist hetween the raw grades and corresponding
block grade. At the mine ;I manual cut-off grade was used
1~cc;iuscthere appeared to hc a sharp cut-off between 0.7 g/t
nxiterial ant1 waste.
This is demonstrated by Figure 10 which shows the 0.7 g/t
hlock model houndary being signilicantly larger th;m the raw
grade control 0.7 g/t boundary. This relationship is observed on
each bench and may account lor the significant overcall in low-
gimde tonnage (or extra 'ore'.. if the model is correct) suggested
hy the geostatistical ore reservc: modelling technique.
DISCUSSION
Whether the extra 'ore' is real o r not is yet to be decided. At the
niiiie site i t is firmly believed that because the assay tl,m is lower

Feasibility reserves final mine pit disign (Jan 95 Grade control and inill reserves difference
grade tonncs x 1000 t grade glt au tonnes x 1000 t grade glt ail tonnes 70 I grade % contained au 70
KOM 1151 2 62 117.5' 2 6Sl +2 I +I +3
Low I239 0 04 S632 OOI* -55 -4 -56
I
Total 2390 I75 17% 2 09 -27 I +I9 -13

Note
I. Mill rcconcilcd ore reserve for KOM ;it August 1997.
2. Grade control O K reserve of low-grade. survey adjusted in January 1997
3. Grade control ore reserve of IlOM is 1 2 I 5 000 I gr:itliiig 2.30 g / ~ A i i .

Mining Geology Conference Launceston. 10. 14 November 1997 119

 S M ELLIOIT et (11
TABLE 4
Comparison of raw KC grades with block model grades (182.5
m-180 mRL).
Note:
w - waste (<.3g/l)
MW- mineralised w ~ s t c(0.3- 0.7g/l)
LG- low-grade (0.7 - I .3g/t)
ROM - Run of Mine gr:ide (>I .$$)
than the block grades in these low-grade areas - in fact many
samples are totally barren - the hlock model must be in doubt lor
the low-grade categories. This is explained. as being because of
the existence of sharp mineralisation contacts which the
unconstrained model did not consider. These contacts arc
difficult to map in the pit in relation to iron staining; silicification
and faults so in practise the ore boundaries are largely based on
assay grades. Statistically, if there are no visible geological
boundaries the combination of high nugget eflect and the volume
variance effect lends credence to the possibility that there could
be extra 'ore' on the mineralised waste stockpiles and
mineralised waste on the waste stockpiles.
In an attempt to understand the relationships observed, the
operation has committed to processing material classified in the
pit as low-grade (0.7 - 1.3 g/t material based on assays) which is
equivalent to an apparent block cut-off of 0.85 g/t. The results of
this trial should be definitive as to the merits of using hlock
grades compared with assay grades at McKinnons. If the model
is correct, the low-grade material should be about 0.15 to 0.2 glt
higher than shown in the production inventory. The high nugget
effect and the volume variance relationship could have hidden
some or all of the missing low-grade material. If not, this case
study will illustrate the dangers of allowing geostatistical models
to wander beyond the limits of geological reality. In the case of
McKinnons. this was a difficult limit to set on close spaced
exploration RC drilling and remained difficult even using blast
120 Launceston. 10
Ftc; I O - Pit plan showing grade control ;uid hlock tnodcl 0.7 g/t Au
boundaries.
hole data and pit inapping. The dilt'iculties experienced both
during resource motlclling and mining highlight the complcxity
of the McKinnons deposit and this reconciliation exercise
reaffirms the importance of takins cognisance of the lull
spectrum of technical parameters from feasibility through to
mining i n ;in attempt to ensure optimisation at all stages o f the
project .
CONCLUSIONS
The accuracy of the feasibility ore reserve tonnes at McKinnons
appeared to vary suhstantially between high-grade (>I .3 g/t) and
low-grade (0.7 - 1.3 glt) a s delined hy later grade control and
mill reconciliations. The high-grade material milled is within
one per cent to two per cent of the feasibility model's tonnes atid
grade which is ;in excellent result. However, the low-grade
material determined by grade control shows a 55 per cent
shortfall using the same modelling piirameters. This has led to
an estimated 13 per cent shortfall of contained gold.
If' thc gcostatistical modelling is correct, it would suggest
misc1assific;ition of low-grade tonnagc during mining caused by
the high nugget el'fect and the volunic variance relationship. A
higher block grade would he expccted compared with the
arithmetic average o f raw drill assays for the mined low-grde
pods. Site personnel believe the unconstrained modelling
method used mny have created non-cxistent low-grade blocks,
citing 21s evidencc stockpile sampling, sharp mineralisation
boundaries based on close spaced grade control patterns, bench
mapping atid face clianncl sampling.
This issue should he resolved after the low grade material has
been processed to check if the grade is higher than estimated hy
grade control methods ( I . 1 glt instead 010.9 g/t).
REFERENCES
Dywater, A , Johnston. C, 1-1;111. C R . W;LII;ice Bell, P and Elliott. S M.
1996. Geology of ,McKinnonsgold niine, Cobar. New South Wales,
in Thc Cohtrr Miwrtrl Field - A I Y Y 6 /+r.xpective ( a s : W G Cook,
A J H Ford. J J McDcrinott, P N St;indish, C L Stegman and T M
Stegman), pp 270-29 I (l'he Austral;lsian Institute of Mining and
Metallurgy: Melbourne).
Discombe. M B and Engelhartlt. D. 1990. The Cobar gold field - A
geological perslxctivc. i n The C o l ~ vMittercil Field - A / Y O 6
Per.vpecc/iw, (Eds: W G Cook, A J 1-1 Ford. J J McDennott, P N
Standish. C L Stegm:in and T M Stcgrnan). pp 85.5-381 (The
Australasi:in Iiislitute of Mining m d Metallurgy: Melboiime).
~ 14 November 1997 Mining Geology Conference

Elliott. S M. 199s. I k c o v e r y and developinent of the McKiiinons gold
deposit, Cobar. New South Wales, i n New Grnercirioti Gold Mines:
Ctise Hisrnrir.t of Discwver): 1995. pp 12.1 - 12. I I (Australian
Mineral Foundation: Adelaide).
Elliott. S M. Bywater, A and Johnston. C. In press. McKinnons Gold
Deposit. Cohar, in Geoloay of rhe Aiisrrdicin mid fopuci New
Guiwxti Minenil Depo.tir.y, (The Australasian Institute of Mining
and Metallurgy: Melbourne).
Glen, R A, 19x7. Geology of the Wrightville l : l O O 000 sheet 8034,
Geological Survey of New South Wales.
Mining Geology Conlerence Launceston. 10 14 November 1997
~
RECONCILIATION O F THE McKlNNONS GOLD DEPOSIT
Ki-igc, I) G. 1006. A Practical Analysis o f t h e Effects of Sp;itial Structure
:ind 0 1 Data Available and Accessed, on Conditioiinl Biases in
~ (Etls: E Y Raafi
Ordinary Kriging. in Geo.wi/iyiics W o l l o r i ~ o t i'Y6
aiid N A Schofield) Vol 2 pp 709-810.
Iluglcss. C S aiid Elliott, S M. 199.5. Multi-element geochemical
explor;irion in deeply weathered terrain: the McKinnons gold deposit
iiear Cohar. NSW. Australia - :I case study, in 17rh ICES, 15/19 May
1995. lownsville. Extended Alistracts. pp 100-102.
Standing. C A. 19'9s. McKiiinons Project, Geostatistical Resource
Estiiiialion. Snowden Associates Report.
121
122 Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997 Mining Geology Conference
Geological Modelling of a Stoping Block at BHP's Cannington
Ag-Pb-Zn Mine
G Streeton '
ABSTRACT
Production of ore ;it B H P Minerals I'ty Ltd's Canniiigton Mine
commenced iii May 1997. The initial stoping blocks at the mine are
located in the tipper pan olthe Footwall Lead lode. and the Hangingwall
Lead and Glenholine Breccia lodes. This paper discusses tlie geological
investigations. interpretation and modelling that was undeitaken for the
Footwall Lead lode production block at Cannington Minc. as well as
providing a basic geological introduction to the Cannington dcposit.
INTRODUCTION
The Cannington deposit was discovcrcd hy BHP Minerals Pty
Ltd (RHP), i n 1990. The deposit is located within the Mt Isa
Inlier and is hosted by the Mesoproterozoic Soldiers Cap
Formation. The mine is situated some I40 km SSE 0 1 Cloncurry,
and is accessed via the Matilda Highway from Cloncurry to
McKinlay xid then via a sealcd road from McKinlay to the site.
The commencement of production at Cannington is thc
culmination of an intensive feasibility program comprising
surface drilling, underground mapping and drilling via an
exploration access decline, bench scale and pilot plant
metallurgical testwork and mining and infrastructure studies
(Roche, 1994; Bailey, In Press).
In the run-up to production at Cannington, ;I decision was
made to develop parts of the upper Footwall Lead lode early on
in the mine life. Thc primary reason for this was its close
proximity to the surface and hence suitability for trucking. as tlie
shaft haulage system will not be commissioned until after
production commences. The Hnngingwall Lead lode and
I were targeted a s the main production source
for the mine in the 1 five years of operation hecause of the
high contained metal ociated with these lodes. Dcvclopment
of the Southern zone g the exploration decline a s tlie primary
means of access, has seen the decline developed to GOO nietrcs
below the surface and ore handling infrastructure is currently
being constructed. including a hoisting shaft and underground
crusher station.
The deposit has an estimated total rcsource of 43.8 Mt iit I I .6
per cent lead. 4.4 pcr cent zinc and 538 dt silver. Tlic inensured
resource currently stands at 11.8 Mt at 13.Spcr cent lead, 5.4 pcr
cent zinc and 626 g/t silvcr. The deposit has heen split by
faulting into two discrete mineralised zones, named the Northern
and Southern zones. The Southern zone total rcsourcc is
estimated to be 34.7 Mt at 12.4 per cent lead 4.9 per cent z.inc
and 582g/t silver and the Northern zone total resource is
estimated to be 9. I Mt at 8.9 per cent lead. 3.0 per cent zinc and
371 glt silver.
A 1.5 Mt pa concentrator is being built to produce lead and
zinc concentrates with high silver contents. An accommodation
village and associated surface infrastructure liave been
constructed, and the road to McKinlay has been upgraded and
sealed. The mine is being operated with a tly-in/-fly-out
workforce, with the employees being sourced from the
Townsville - Mt Isa corridor. It is anticipated that t l i e mine will
be operated by a workforce of around 260 when in full
production
I. Mine Geologist. Cannington Project, BHP World Minefiils. The
Broken Hill Pty Co Ltd. Post Office. McKiiilay Qld 4823.
Mining Geology Conference Launcoston. 10.
DEPOSIT EXPLORATION AND GEOLOGY
The exploration program leading to the discovery of the
Cinnington deposit has been well documented elsewhere and is
hcyond the scope of this paper. Readers are referred to
(Skrzeczynski, 1994) and (Walters and Bailey, In Press). The
pi-ogram wxs designed to spccilically seek Broken Hill type
deposits, and the Soldicrs Cap Formation was targeted as it
exhibited similar characteristics to the Willyama Group of the
Broken Hill Block (Walters, 1994).
'l'lie Cannington deposit is hosted within a sequence of
garnetiferous psainmites within a migmatitic quartzo-feldspathic
gneissic tcrranc (Railey, In Press). The north-south striking
sequence is cut by two regional scale NW-SE faults. the Trepell
and Hamilton. The Trepell Fiult separates the Northern zone
from the Southern zone and tlic Hamilton Fault defines what is
thought to hc tlic southern limit of the deposit. The entire
deposit is ovcrlain by Crctaceous and Recent sediments
iiicluding river sediment. mudstone and sand ranging i n thickness
from ten to 70 nietrcs.
Four major delormation phases have been identilied (Gray,
1992). with peak metamorphism reaching almandine umphibolite
grade. The Southern zone sequence is controlled by a tight to
isoclinal recumbent D2 synforin. which strikes north-south and
dips at 40" to 70" to the east nnd plunges to the south. This
w p c n c e is cut by a series o l late, brittle ENE striking faults
wllich dip to the NNW and have predominantly dextral
iiioveinent. An amphibolite body is present within the centre of
the told structure and ~cpai-~itcs the footwall and hangingwall
mincralised sequences. The rnineralised sequence is
charactcrised by ii series of siliceous and mafic host lithologies.
The siliceous units consist of quartzites, cherty quartzites.
g:irnetiferous quartzites of v'irying garnet content. schists and
psxnmitic schists. I n contrxt, the iron rich matic units are
tlominatetl by pyroxene gangue, with varying amounts of
magnetite. 'l'liere are also biinded pyroxene-quartzite units
(Walters, 1094) which often occur in the transition zone from
iiiafic to siliceous lithologies.
Within tlie Soutliern zone sequence of siliceous and malic host
rocks, a \cries of' distinct inineralisation styles liave been
identified. The wrious mineralisation styles, are characterised
by their metal content and thc nature of the host rock and have
been named after local pastorill properties. The mineralisation in
the Southern zone has also been divided into a series of lodes
hascd on tlic dominant economic metals present. More than one
mineralisation stylc may bc represented in a lode. Figure I
illustrates the geochcmical distribution of the various
iniiieralisation styles and lodcx.
The Footwall Lead (FW Ph) lodc is located on the western side
o f the Caritiington Orebody (see Figure 2). F i p e 2 is a
gcneralisetl cross-section of the Southern zone and illustrates the
distribution of the lodes. Tlic lode is characterised by a mafic
high-gr;idc silver-lcad-(zinc) mineralisation (Nithsdale) and a
clown-dip. lower-grade mow siliceous mineralisation style
(Warenda).
Associaicd with the FW Ph mineralisation is the Footwall Zinc
(FW Zn) lode which has a complex zonation of ore and gangue
mineralogy trom malic zinc mineralisation (Colwcll). to a
hiliceous zinc iniiieralisation (Cuckadoo) and a siliceous lead-
14 November 1997 123
 The I-l:ingingwall Lead lode (HW Pb) contains more than 50
per cent of the Southern zone resource. The lode consists of a
mafic leiid-silver niineralisation (Burnham) and a siliceous
lower-grade lead-silver mineralisation ( Broadlands).

I
Ag Pb GEOLOGICAL MODELLING OF THE UPPER
nw FOOTWALL LEAD LODE
LOOES

Introduction
\ Ag - Pb Zn
The FW Pb lode i n the vicinity o f the initial production block
\ 211 strikes north-south, dips to the east at (15" and varies in thickness
Fw
from three to 20 metres. Historically. ordinary kriging has been
I LODES used ai Cannington for all the feasibility studies and preliminxy
' Ag - Pb
[ NITHSDALE 1 planning. Morc recently, geological modelling and grade
estimation of the Footwall Lead lode wiis undertaken by two
1 WARENDA 3 different estimation methods: ordinary kriging with a wireframe
control, and a method of optimising ore selection using
condition;il simulation c;illcd MP (Maximisc Profit). For a
FIG1 - Cannington lode horizons and mineralisation typcs detailed description of the MP process. readers are referred to the
paper that is being presented in these proceedings (Schofield and
J o k y , I n Press).
With the ordinary kriging approach, wireframes of the lodes
based on i i n equivalent value cut-of1 Sr;ide applied to drill hole
samples were generated using Guide m d Datamine software.
These wire frames ignored the subdivision of the lode into
various mineralisation styles. The grades of lead, silver, zinc ;ind
iron for blocks within the wire frames were estimated by
Datamine using the ordinary kriging algorithm provided in the
200m GSLlB software ( I h ~ t s c hand Journel. 1992).
The MP method of ore definition differs from the ortlinxy
kriging approach in ;I number of ways (Schofield and Rolley, In
Press). The method first provides a niodel of the distribution of
mineralisation types based on the mineralisation classification of
the drill hole samples. The classification is based mainly on the
lead, zinc and iron chemistry of the s;imples and the geologists
interpretation of the spatial position o f the mineralisation in tlie
geological sequence. Using this model of the distribution of
mineralisation types, the method then generates a model of the
distribution of lead, silver and zinc griides within each o f the
tion types. In this way, the final model respects the
n of mineralisation types ;is defined in the drill holes a s
well a s the grade distributions of lead. zinc and silver within each
mineralisat ion type.
Ordinary kriging is still used in conjunction with M P ;IS i t
provides ii control for cornparison purposes. It is anticipated that
as the level of geological understanding increases and sufficient
reconciliation of production versus predicted ore has occurred. i t
will become apparent which method (11interpretation is the most
suitable. This comparison is compounded by the different styles
of miner;ilisation, which can require different approaches to
interpretation.

Looking North
I Drilling of the FW Pb lode was undertaken from both the surfiicc
FIG2 - Generalised cross-section of the Southern zone lode distribution.
silver-zinc mineralisation (Glenholme). The FW Zn lode is
situated stratigraphically above the FW Pb lode.
The down dip extension of the Glenholme mineralisation in
the FW Zn lode is the Glenholme Breccia (GHB) lode in the keel
of the synform. The main distinction between the Glenholme
and GHB is the increased presence of breccia texture in the
GHB.
The Hangingwall Zinc (HW Zn) lode is composed of a mafic
zinc style of mineralisation (Kheri).
Geological investigations
and from underground development iidjacent to the lode. l'he
drilling w;is conducted i n several underground and surface
phases over a period of five to six years, resulting in the drill
spacing being decreased from 50 to 25 metres to a final spacing
o f 12.5 metres. The drilling data obtiiined was used to generate
preliminary wireframes of key faults, lithological boundaries and
the lode boundaries. These wireframes were further refined as
the drilling density was increased.
Gaining an understanding of the spatial distribution o f the
mineralisation is ;I key to modelling the lodes. As can be seen
from Figure 2, tlie lotles are 'draped' around the core
amphibolite. The boundaries between the different styles of
mineralisation which make-up the lodes are irregular and

, 124 Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997 Mining Geology Conference

 GEOLOGICAL hlOllELLING OF A STOPING BLOCK

gradational and are difficult to adequately interpret and model

using manual techniques. The geochemical boundary between
Nithsdale and Colwell style mineralisation which also generally
forms the hangingwall of economic mineralisation in the FW Pb
lode tends to vary, with irregular pods of ore occurring along this
boundary.
Modelling by the manual technique consisted o l creating
strings in Guide using drill hole intercepts and then subsequently
linking the strings to create wireframes. Wireframes were
constructed for:
the cross-cutting faults.
the footwall contact, and
lode outlines.
Since Cannington is a polymetallic deposit. considerable use is
made of an equivalence value which converts the Pb, Zn and Ag
grades to a single dollar value per tonne of ore. The equivalence
value provides a convenient tool for comparing the economic
value of the various metals present in the ore. The equivalence
value is calculated using input from various sources including
metal prices, recovery estimates, smelter treatment charges and
transport costs. One problem of using equivalence values is that
as metal prices vary, so docs the relative value of each metal in
the ore. As a result the equivalence value is based on long-term
price estimates rather than current market prices.
The lode outlines for the FW Pb lode stoping block have been
constructed using a cut-off that is thought to be ;in appropriate
cut-off value to meet the project's financial performance
objectives. As mining progresses and a detailed understanding of
the economic factors at Cannington develops, this cut-off will be
reviewed. Fic; 3 - Interprctatioi~of the Foorw:ill Lead lode at the I I80 level showing
lhc effect of kiulting on the load.
Interpretation of small scale faulting
Using the initial lode wireframes and the MP model that were GSLIB. The blocks were constrained within wire frames of the
generated from the 12.5 metre spaced drilling, the level lode detinccl lrom drill hole intercepts of mineralisation. After
development was designed and implemented. After the stope the drill spacing was decreased, the lode was re-wireframed
development had been mined it soon became apparent that using drill hole intercepts with a selected cut-off value, plus an
because of the ENE striking faults. vertical sections were not the additional one metre added on to the footwall and hangingwall of
most appropriate means of delineating the FW Pb lode. This the lode to account for the low-grade peripheral mineralisation.
fault set occurs in the upper FW Pb lode at approximately 20- In essence, the ordinary kriging block model provides estimates
metre intervals and is oblique to the vertical drilling fans. of block grades within a polygonal boundary, defined by an
Consequently, interpretation of the faults and the associated equivalent value cut-off applied to the drill hole intercepts.
offsets using vertical sections proved to be difficult and Historical evidence shows that such polygonal estimates tend to
unsatisfactory. There was some difticulty with locating and overestimate the true grade of mineable mineralisation
predicting the fault offsets using both the ordinary kriging model (Schofield. pers comm).
and the MP model. Both techniques were not able to adequately The MP model of the gradc distribution is not constrained to a
interpret the fault offsets, resulting in grade heing projected prior polygonal model of thc ore distribution defined by a wire
across the faults and development undercutting the hangingwall. lrame of the lotle. With the MP approach, ;I model of
The lode and faults were extensively remodelled i n horizontal distribution of each mineralisation type within the footwall
'slices' using the geological mapping data from the development mineralisation is constructed using a method of indicator
in conjunction with the drill hole data and where appropriate chip sitnulation. I n reality, the geometry of each mineralisation type
sampling. The mapping and sampling wtis converted into drill is complicated by local structural features of the geology. The
hole format for incorporation into the database. This reworking use of indicator simulation is intended to provide a more realistic
greatly improved the accuracy of the wireframe model, model of that geometry compared to a simplified polygonal
especially around the faults, where the fault offsets could be model. Based on ;in initial simulation model of the geometry of
constructed more accurately. The horizontal 'slices' were each mineralisation type including the Nithsdale (mafic lead and
constructed every ten metres vertically and then linked to silver), the Colwell (mafic Linc and iron) and Cuckadoo
recreate the lode wireframes. Once the wireframes had been (hiliceous zinc and lower-grade iron), the MP approach provides
adjusted to take into account the mapping data and face sampling a model o l the distribution ot' grades for lead, zinc. silver. iron
data. they were then used for the final stope and ring designs. and specitic gravity which respects the distribution
Figure 3 illustrates the difference in the lode outlines hetween the characteristics of each mineralisation style.
original lode wireframe (dashed) and the final lodc wireframe I n the FW Pb lode. the MP model indicates a lower metal
(bold). value than the ordinary kriging within the polygonal wire frames.
The reasons for this difference could well be related to the use of
Block modelling ii constraining wireframe with the ordinary kriging which is
pi-oviding essentially a polygonal estimate o f the grades of lead,
The initial evaluations of the FW Pb lode were hased on block zinc and silver. based only on the predominantly higher-grade
grade estimates generated using the ordinary kriging algorithm in ;isay data from within the coii\training wireframe.

Mining Geology Conlerence Launceston. 10- 14 November 1997 125

G STKEETON
The block grades generated by both models were used to
generate two separate tonnes and grade estimates for the stopes
and production rings. These grades were then used t o estimate
the anticipated weekly production and stockpile grades. The
grade estimates will be tested by onstream ;inalysis in the
concentrator.
DISCUSSION
The Footwall Lead lode is one of the initial production areas as
the Cannington mine commences operations. The lode was
modelled using ;I variety of techniques including m;inu;il
interpretation, ordinary kriging and an optimised ore selection
process. Difficulties were experienced because of the complex
mineralisation and faulted structure. Differing results have hcen
obtained from the various grade estimation techniques used to-
date, which are because of the different approaches to grndc
estimation involved. The reconciliation process will help to
identify the most appropriate longer-term modelling technique
for the Cannington orebody a s production continues in the
longer-term.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author would like to thank Andrew Bailey. Stuart Jeffrey and
Neil Scholield, not only for their assistance in the preparation of
this paper. but also for their technical guidance during the
undertaking of the work described.
126 Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997
KEFERENCES
Ihiley. A. 111Press s i l v e r - l ~ x - ~ i ideposit,
C;iiiiiiiigtoii ic C;c.o/o~y o/ r l i c
A i i ~ r i ~ ~ i / i (~i i iit il Neiv G i i i i i c ( i i i M i n r r d L ) t ~ ~ i i i . ~ i r(sT. h e
I?ipii(iti
Austr;il;isinn Iiistitute 01 Mining and b1et;illurgy: Melbourne).
1)eutsch. C V :ind lournel. A G 1902. f ;SLlB: ( ; t w . ~ r t i / i . ~til/ i ~.S(ifri~~tirc.
/,I/m0~ ( i n ( / U w i . ' . ~( ; i i i t / c . (Oxford Uiiiversity Press: New Yo1-k.
Oxfortl)
Gray. D R. 1092. StIiicturnl repon on the C';iiiiiington I'h-hi-Ag tleposit,
Mount l s a Inlier. H H P Minerals l'ty Lltl.
Roche. hl T. I094 The C':iiinington Silver Lend Zinc I:)cposit - At
Feasibility. iii 1 ' 1 1 i i w d i t 1 , y . 1994
~ AiiilMM Aiinutil Giri/ertwc.(,. pp
193- 197 (The Aiistr:iI:i<i:iii Institute of Mining and Metalluigy:
Mell>ouine).
Schofieltl. N A i i i i d Rolley. P J. I997 Optiiriisntion of ore selection:
hlerhotl c:isc studies. i n Proc.cwliii,yr 3'" liirerntiliiiiit~l Miiiiii,q
;ind
( ; c Y ~ / o ~ Y ( ~ o i r / c . ~ ~ c ' i i cpp . (The
Austrnl;isian Institiitc of Mining
~ e03-98
niitl Metallurgy Melboiirne).
Skrreczynski. R, I W 3 . I71-oiii concept ICI Cmnington: A tlec;itlc o f
explor;ition i n the I k t e r n Succes~ioii. Syiiiposiuiii on I z c e i ~
ndv;inces in the Mount Isa Block. A I ( ; Hit/le!in. I3:35-38.
Walters, S G. I994 Geology and lode cliaracterisntion. Canniiigron
Southern Zvne. UHPM Ikport CK7907
Walters. S G and Bailey, A. 111 press. Geology and inineralisation at the
C:innington Ag-Ph-Zn deposit - An exninplc of Broken Hill T y p e
inineralisarion 111 the Eastern Succession of the Mount Isa Inlier. NW
Qucciisl;ind. Austr:din. liconoinic Geol~igy.
Mining Geology Conference
Quality Control Systems at BHP’s Mount Whaleback Iron Ore
Mine, Newman, Western Australia
M Kamperman’
INTRODUCTION
The Mount Whaleback iron ore deposit at Newman. Western
Australia comprises the largest known continuous iron ore
deposit in Australia, originally with a Measured Resource in
excess of 1700 Mt of hematite ore. The deposit occurs within the
Hamersley Province which forms part of the Pilbara Block in the
NW of Western Australia (Figure 1). The Mount Whaleback
iron ore deposit. together with a number of discrete iron ore
bearing satellite orebodies in the Newman district, contributes to
the Newman Lump and Fines products. Extensive quality
control systems are utilised from mining to shipping to ensure
that each product meets a narrow geochemical target grade range.
GEOLOGICAL SETTING
The Hamersley Province covers an area of 80 000 km2 and
contains the 2500 in thick Lower Proterozoic Hamersley Group
I. B H P Iron Ore Ply Ltd. PO Box 6.5.5.Newman WA 6753. Australia.
Indian
Ocean
PORT HEDLAND
...._
FIG I -
-
0 100 Km
Location map showing general outcrop x e a o l llic Hanicrsley Proviiicc
Mining Geology Conference Launceslon. 10 - 14 November 1997
(approximntely 2500 Myr). The Hamcrsley Group is dominated
by a sequence o l banded iron formation (BIF), dolomite,
pyroclasticlchemic~ilshale and acid volcanics, and is intruded by
dolerite sills and dykes (eg Harmsworth er al, 1990).
The Mount Whaleback deposit comprises rocks of the
uppermost unit of the Fortescue Group (the Jeerinah Formation),
;ind rocks of the Hamersley Group (the Wittenoom Dolomite, the
Mount Silvia Formation, the Mount McRae Formation and the
Bi-ockman Iron Formation). Iron ore mineralisation at the Mount
Whaleback Mine is in the Brockman Iron Formation which, as a
host for enrichment of iron ore, is economically the most
important formation in the province. The Brockman Iron
Formation consists of an alternating sequence of BIF. shale and
chert. On ii regional scale the formation has been subdivided into
lour members, namely the D a l e s Gorge Member, the Whaleback
Shale Member, the Joffre Member and the Yandicoogina Shale
Member. At the Mount Whaleback mine only the three lower
members are exposed in a 500 r u thick sequence.
The Dales Gorge Member IS the main ore bearing unit and
accounts lor approximately XO per cent of Mount Whaleback’s
iron ore resource. It ranges in thickness from 135 m when
unenriched to 65 in when fully enriched (eg Harmsworth cr nl.
1990). At the Mount Wh;ilehack deposit, the Dales Gorge
--YARRIE
W.A S.A -
127
M KAMPERMAN

Mcmber is subdivided into four units, D I - D4,on the basis of
geology, geochemistry and geophysics. The Whalcback Shale
Mcmber separates tlie Dales Gorge Membcr from the Joffre
Member, which accounts for the remaining 20 per cent of Mount
Whalcback's iron ore resource. On a regional scale the Joftrc
Member is over 300 m thick, but only thc lower 2UO m is present
at Mount Whalcback. The Joffre Mcmbcr is subdivided into six
geologically distinct units, J I - J6. These units can olso be
idcntificd by geophysics and, to a lesser extent, by gcochcmistry.
Iron ore mineralisation of the Dales Gorge Member consists of' ii
high-grade, low phosphorus, hard, microplaty hematite ore. I n
contrast, ore in the Joffre Member can be high grade, but is
gencrally softer and usually more gocthitic than ore in the Dales
Gorgc Member.
Goethitic iron ore mineralisation is found at Orcbody 29.
approximately 5 km SE from the Mount Whalcback dcposit, in
the Marra Mamba Formation of thc Hamersley Group.
Currently, iron ore is also mined in thc Dalcs Gorge and Joffrc
Members of the Hamcrslcy Group at two satellite orebodics.
namcly Jimblebar and Orebody 23/25, to the East of thc Mount
Whaleback deposit. The satellite orebodies, together with ore
from Mount Whalcback and Orebody 29, are an important
component in the Ncwman Product blend.
QUALITY CONTROL SYSTEMS
From the Mount Whaleback mine operations to the Port Hcdland
port operations a scrics of individual quality control systems are
monitored to ensure that a high quality iron ore product of target
grade composition is mined. railed and stockpiled before being
shipped to individual customers (Figure 2). Thcse control
systems can be described as follows: geological and
geochemical. visual gradc and blending, railing and stockpiling.
Geological and geochemical systems
Geological control is initiated by cxploration and high density
(40 m x 20 m) resource drilling, using both reverse circulation
and diainond drilling. On-going drilling programs cimtinue to
provide dctailed structural information for final pit limit designs
and grndc control purposes. Geologicd controls on a inine scale
are used to tlclinciitc iicciiriitc ore-wxte boundaries and higli-
grade and low-griidc zones of mineralisation. These include face
mapping programs and tlie gcologicill logging of blast holes
associated with grade drilling.
Geochemical control is derived trom grade drilling and
sampling of blast patterns. Individual units of the Dales Gorgc
and Joffre Members ciin be identilled on the basis of silic;i
(SiOl), phosphorous (P) ;ind alumin;l (A1203). which are tlie
main cont;iiiiinanis in iron ore and iroil. Blast hole geochemical
results obtained trom drill patterns are rcconcilcd against
geologicnl logs. Tlic gcochcmical and geological data are used
to subdivide single blast patterns into wi:illcr blast blocks which
;ire individually characterised by having similar grade and ore
type material. Blast blocking rcsultb ;ire used to assign material
for direct crushing o r stockpiling. H1;ist hole geochemistry and
ensuing blast block grades and tonnes are reconciled annually
against tlic geological orcbody modcl using a short-term orebody
model.
Visual grade and blending systems
Visual grade and blending control at the Mount Whaleback Mine
takes place on a continuous 12-hour shift rostcr and is based on
information generated from geological and geochemical controls.
Ore production is controllcd by a crushing schedule which plans
for ore to be rccliiimetl from minmg faces and prc-crusher

PORT STOCKPILE TARGET GRADE

*
[ DAILY GRADE REVIEW If I
I
J. I
Schedule
I SATELLITE SCHEDULE I WHALEBACK ScHEDUiE
1
I
I
1
I
Mine I
Crush I
PREDICTED SHIFT GRADE

Stoc

!-
RaillDump
Sample

pile
+
ACTUAL SHIFT GRADE

SATELLITE STOCKPILE
GRADE
LOADOUT
Y K P I L E MODEL

--t
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I

Port
-
I- I
Stockpile
Sample
MINE PREDICTED RAIL GRADES

+
PORT ACTUAL RAIL GRADES - I
I
ACTUAL PORT STOCKPILE GRADE[- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4
~ ~

FIG2 - Flowchart illustrating quality control sequence of ore ~ii~vernrnt

from inine lo port

128 -
Launceston. 10 14 November 1997 Mining Geology Conference
 QUALITY CONTROL SYSTEMS A T HI-IP’S MOUN’I‘ WHALERACK IRON ORE MINE
stockpiles. The crushing schedule takes into account available
mining units, daily railing and tonnes requirements. geochemical
target grades and geochemical blast block grades for each
individual ore source, whether ex-pit or pre-crusher stockpile.
Included in the daily crushing schedule are contributing tonnes
and grades from a beneficiation plant, which upgrades low-grade
shale-ore contact material into a higher grade ore through the
removal of the shale component using heavy medium separation
techniques. Hourly sampling of post crusher ore streams acts as
a blend control monitoring process immediately before ore is
stockpiled onto two surge piles. Corrective actions are taken
when blended, crushed and sampled ore fails to meet the desired
target grades.
Railing and stockpiling systems
Iron ore contributing to the Newman Product blend is railed from
three geographically distinct sources: Mount Whaleback.
Orebody 23/25 and Jimblebar. Mount Whaleback ore is blended
to target grades as a post primary (-200 mm) and secondary
crusher (-100 mm) product onto one of two loadout tunnels and
consists of direct ex-Pit, stockpile, beneficiated and Orebody 29
ores. In contrast. Jimhlehar and Orebody 23/25 ore is loaded
onto trains from various post-crusher stockpiles. Trains from the
three contributing sources run as separate units from the mines to
Port Hedland where the product is processed through tertiary
crushing, screened for size, sampled and stockpiled onto
Newman Product Lump (30 mm to +6 mm) and Fines (-6 mm)
stockpiles.
Stockpiling controls at the Port Hedland operations fulfil
several basic functions:
Mining Geology Conference Launceston. 10- 14 November 1997
I. stockpiles act as a huller to maintain adequate stocks for
unforeseen production delays;
2. they torin a sulliciently large blend source to minimise the
ellect of variation in mined grades; and
3. they ;ire a reclaimable source with a narrow chemical target
grade i-ange to minimise inter-shipping variability.
Monitoring systems
All quality control systems ;we guided and monitored on Unix,
Mainframe or PC based software systems. Two systems, the
,Mine Quality (MQ) and the Port Quality (PQ) systems. are
directly linked and monitor many process variables. These
include hourly sample results and tonnes as mined and blended,
surge pile grades above loadout tunnels, train grades as loaded.
[rain grades as dumped and stockpiled, the progressive build of
clilfcrent stockpiles and ships loaded with ore from stockpiles.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wishes to thank the management of BHP Iron Ore Pty
Lid and in particular to R V Faeldan and C M Brown for
permission to publish this manuscript. Special acknowledgments
go to the conference reviewers.
REFERENCES
Hariusworth, R A. Knceshaw. M. Moms, R C. Robinson. C J and
Shrivasrava, P K, 1990. HIF-derived iron ores of the Hamersley
Province. i n Geoloxy o f f h e Mimrul Deposifs ofAusrrtrlici und Pupuu
Ncw Giiirteu (Ed: F E Huphts), pp 617-642 (The Australasian
Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).
129
130 -
Launceston, 10 14 November 1997 Mining Geology Conference
Grade Control Sampling and Ore Blocking: Optimisation Based
on Conditional Simulation
W J Shaw' and S Khosrowshahi'
ABSTRACT
The objectives of grade control remain unchanged but new methods are
being developed to attain them. Since the early- 1000s. an improvement
in the power of mine site computers has made the geostatistical tools of
conditional siinulation more accessible. Optimisation of the grade
control process on mine sites now involves two stages: optiinisation of
the sampling regime and optimisation of the interpretation of ore and
waste boundaries.
Optirnisation of the sampling regime first requires :in understanding of
the nature of the mineralisation and in particular the impact of particle
size on the sampling precision. This relationship. termed the
Fundamental Error of sampling. enables an optimuin subsampling
protocol to be defined for the sample preparation and assaying. However.
the actual sample collection method, whether drilling or trenching, must
be correctly selected and the sampling grid should be optiiriised. The
relative costs :ind benefits of various alternative sainpling methods and
grids can be determined using the method discussed.
The use of the grade control data can also be optiinised. In the past
ore and waste houiidaries were often defined using a lincar interpolation
algorithm that smoothed the data (such as polygonal, sectional, inverse
distance squared or even kriging methods). Frequently the relative
impact of ore loss and dilution could not he estiinnted. Conditional
simulation to generate equiprobable alternative maps (realisations) can
now be adopted IO address these issues. A transfer functioii is then used
to evaluatr the similarities and differences between the iiiaps. The Ore
Block Optirnisation (OBOO) process is a transfer function tIi;it produces a
three-dimensional inodel of the optimal ore block outlines. This provides
a clear guide for the mining geologist to reline and mine. The nature of
the transfer function and the inputs and outputs are discussed.
In the past. reconciliation has k e n the 'acid test' for any grade control
system. Any ore blocking method bawd on conditional simulation can
make use of the exhaustive data set to ensure that rcconciliation between
prediction and production will improve significantly. The OBO" method
provides a guide to the mining geologist to ensure that the best ore blocks
are iiiined. Misclassification between ore and waste is reduced. ore loss
and dilution are niinimised (and are measurable) and ore is optimally
assigned to stockpiles of various cut-off grades. These advantages
significantly enhance mine profitability and control of the mined grade.
INTRODUCTION
The objectives of grade control remain unchanged. At the AIG
Seminar 'Strategies for Grade Control' held in 1990, the
objective of grade control was put forward as 'to nxiximise the
value of ore mined and fed to the mill' (Shaw, 1990). AI The
AuslMM's Third Large Open Pit Mining Conference thc
objective was expanded to include three aspects: maximisc the
return on shareholders funds, optimise economic use o f the asset,
and control the tonnage and grade of production (Shaw and
Khosrowshahi, 1992). The process of meeting these objectives
can differ. At large bulk commodity mines (cg iron ore or
bauxite mines) i t involves meeting customer specifications for
shipped ore. At gold mines it involves maximising the present
value of ore production by minimising ore loss and dilution.
While the objectives and general principles remain unchanged.
since the early- 1990s an improvement in the power o f mine site
computers has made the geostatistical tools o f conditional
simulation more accessible, enabling new methods to he applied
to meet these grade control objectives.
1. Principal Consultants. Mining CG Resource Technology Pty Ltd.
Kirin Centre, IS Ogilvie Road, Mt Pleasant WA 6153.
Mining Geology Conference Launceston, 1 0 - 14 November 1997
Mining grade control suffered in the 1980s from two
prohlems. The first was poor quality data, with blast hole
sampling bcing standard practice. The second problem was the
use of simplistic estimation methods such as polygonal
techniques with no regard for the principles of mineralisation
continuity. compounded in some cases by ore blocks defined
using few samples.
As part of the process of' providing advice and investigating
grade conlrol problems, the tnost frequently asked questions put
to us are:
Is the g x d c control sampling representative?
What is the most cost-effective way to define the tonnes and
grade of the ore'! (ie is the sampling grid optimal?)
Why is the mill production always lower than tlie predicted
grade control grade?
Are w e defining and mining ore to maximise the grade into
tlie mill ;it all times? (ie is the ore blocking optimal?)
Since I99 I , in ii series of workshops on mining geology, grade
control and reconciliation. Mining & Resource Technology Ply
Ltd (MRT) has advocated the adoption of a philosophy at mine
sites to systematically analyse the grade control process and
divide i t into: data collection, interpretation, prediction, and
reconciliation (of production v s prediction). These issues are all
addressed hy the two procedures discussed in this paper:
optimisation of the sampling regime and optimisation of the
interpretation of ore and waste boundaries. However, i t must be
hornc in mind that an optimd grade control system requires
inany key componcnts to be ;idopted. The most important and
cost-cl'lcctive 0 1 these is geological mapping and it is important
that this he integrated into all optimisation procedures.
OPTIMISATION OF THE SAMPLING REGIME
Definition of the errors
0ptirnis;ition of tlie sampling regime requires an understanding
of the nature of the mineralisation and in particular the impact of
particle size on the sampling precision. This relationship, termed
the thdaincntal Error of s;impling (Cy, 1979; Pitard, 1993;
FraiiF"is-t~ongarFon, 1095). cnables an optimum subsampling
protocol to be delined for the sample preparation and assaying.
I n order t o adopt ;in optimal sampling regime it is nccessary to
understand sampling principles. in particular the four
components needed for correct sampling: orientation,
de1iinit;itioii. extraction and subsample preparation. These
simpling errors may be brictly explained as follows:
Suiriplc or'ictitution
I n stronply structured orebodies with a steep dip or plunge, the
correct sampling orientation is often achieved by angled drilling.
In such orchodies. replacing inclined holes with vertical holes
c;in lead to inisclassitication between ore and waste.
Sal I ip IC t k 1irii itci t ion
This error IS eliminated by ensuring that all the material in the
s m p l e comes frorn the right plnce. ie from the zone for which
tlie grade prediction is required. Usually blast holes penetrate
131
W J SHAW and S KHOSKOWSHAHI
through the base of the mining bench to provide 'suhdrill' to
improve the blasting. The common example of incorrect sample
delimitation is where this subdrill material is included with tlic
sample that is used to represent the grade of the mining bench.
This error can also lead to misclassification between ore and
waste.
Suinple extraction
This error is incurred where material is lost from the sample.
Common examples are dust loss or poor sample recovery in open
hole percussion drilling. Such errors can lead to problems of
bias (ie accuracy) and are bcst identified by testwork.
Sample yrepurutioti
The relationship between the inherent particle size of the
mineralisation (the liberation size) and the particle size of the
sample is referred to as the Fundamental Error of the sample.
This relationship can be defined for a deposit by testwork and
used to predict the error produced at each stage of sample
preparation and subsampling for assaying. Delinition of the
sample preparation errors provides an estimate of the precision
(ie repeatability) of samples. The collection and averaging of
many samples can reduce the impact of poor precision on the
estimation of the average grade of an ore block. However assay
results with high individual errors will still ciiuse random
misclassification at the margins of ore blocks and this can lead to
extensive ore loss and dilution in highly structured orebodies that
have a high perimeter to area ratio.
Testwork to measure bias and precision and the use of a
relative measure referred to as the HARD (half absolute relative
difference) are discussed in Shaw (1097). This provides a robust
measure for comparison between sample batches, assaying
methods, laboratories and deposits. I t can be used to generate
tcstwork results that are repeatable and to define sampling
nomograms. The Fundamental Error can be dclined using the
parameters k and cx (using the terminology of Franqois-
Bongarcon). These can be used to characterise the deposit and
provide a basis for comparison with other orebodies. In gold
deposits, other non-parametric measures such as the nominal
liberation particle size of the gold, or statistics on the HARD
values can be used ;is comparative measures of the expected
relative sampling error. In summary, the statistical methods
presented in that paper provide a means by which the quality of
sampling data can be quantified.
Errors may be introduced to the grade control process by
ignoring these four components of correct sampling. In the past,
the first three of these errors were regarded as non-quantifiable in
that the sampling wiis regarded as either 'right' or 'wrong'. The
method discussed below enables the impact of all four errors on
misclassification between ore and waste and thus on
reconciliations. to be evaluated.
Optimisation of the sampling grid
Under the pressure of mining production. it is often necessary to
make pragmatic compromises. At many mine sites now, the
grade control program commences with reverse circulation
drilling. When the soft weathered zone gives way to hard fresh
material the sampling costs increase significantly. Blast holes
appear more attractive as a source of samples and it would be
useful to know the comparative costs and benefits of using them.
Trialing different sampling regimes in practice can be costly.
Even if the area to be mined is sampled using two different
methods, in a fair test it can only be mined on the results of one
of the methods. The procedure outlined here neatly avoids this
difficulty and provides a mechanism whereby objective
comparisons can be produced. The cost and time to carry out
132 Launceston, 10 - 14 November
comparative smpling tests empiric.illy can be significantly
reduced. In addition, the inconclusive results often caused by
interruption o t sampling trials by production requirements c;in be
avoided.
A conditional simulation motlcl. is produced of ;I
representative section ot' the deposit tising the bcst available data.
I n some c:ises, t l i i h I i x bccn based on the current grade control
sampling regime and i n other cases o i i the more broadly s p x e d
resource drilling. Obviously significant care and attention must
be devoted to ensuring that the conditional simulation model is
valid. This model is maclc-up of a hrgc number of realisations
(images) th;it each reflect the spatiiil variability of the availnblc
data and honour dl the known dat;i points. The conditional
simulation model is generated on a closely spaced mesh of points
(nodes) i n three-tlimensioiis, using the continuity and misotropy
of miner;iIis;ition dclincd by experimental variography. I t is
important that the known geological features of the deposit ;ire
also correctly rellected in the model. Once these criteria are met,
this mathematical model may be taken ;is ii representation o f tlie
distribution of grades in the deposit.
The conditional simulation model can then be 'sampled' to
represent the grade at different positions and the impact of
estimating hlock grades t'rom those s;mple results. The sampling
ciin be designed to represent ditchwitch trenching, blast hole
sampling over viirious bench heights (Ivith or without the subtlrill
i n the sample) and I-everse circuliition drilling. In each case the
sampling can be ciirried out on a 1;irge number of different
drilling grids and the optimum sampling method can be
determined using sampling iind assaying costs. the value of the
ore mined, tlie cost of milling the included dilution and tlie
impact ot ore loss ;is an opportunity cost.
Resource rnotlclling ot the Sunrise Dam Project of Acacia
Resources Limited is discussed in Giize, Khosrowshahi (!I a/
(1097). As part o f a subsequent grade control sampling
optimisation study tlie following scenxios were evaluated:
verticd blast hole drilling on vai-ious staggered grids using
2.5 in siimplcs:
vertical blast hole drilling on various staggered grids using
I .O in samples;
inclined reverse circulation drilling on various staggered
grids using 1.0 in samples; and
0 1iorizont;il ditchwitch trenching with I .O in samples and
various line spiicings.
At node position the grade was estimated from the
sampling data and an ore - waste boundary was delined. The
values were then ;iccumulated at every node point to define the
tonnes and grade ot ore and waste delineated by that sampling
method. Since the conditional simulation model was ;ivailable to
provide iin exhaustive data set, a comparison could be made
between tlic true grade, the estimated grade and the classification
as either ore o r waste by the sampling method.
In some ciises, inaterial above the cut-off grade would be
defined ;is waste by tlic sampling method being trialled,
indicating that ore loss woultl be incurred. The converse was that
i n other ciiscs material below the cut-ol't grade would be defined
as ore, indicating that dilution would be incurred.
From this information. iit any specilied cut-off grade the
tonnes and grade could be defined in live ways:
&Theprinciples ;ind practice of producing and using cont1ition:il
siiiiulation models for resource estirnntioii and grade control are
discussed in detail i n Khosrowshahi and Shaw (1997) and are not
reiterated here.
1997 Mining Geology Conference

TRUE the true tonnes and grade for ;ill matcrial above the
specified cut-off grade. derived from tlie exhaustive set of the
conditional simulation model. In a real mine this value can never
be known.
ESTIMATE the expected tonnes and grade that would he
defined, based upon the sampling method and grid adopted.
ORE LOSS the tonnes and grade of material incorrectly
classified as waste by the sampling method.
DILUTION the tonnes and grade of matcrial incorrectly
classified as ore by the sampling method.
PGC the tonncs and grade of material that would be mined as
ore after correcting for ore loss and dilution. The tonnes for
PGC and ESTIMATE are identical (since i n both cxics i t is tlie
mined tonnage) hut the PGC grade is lower. I n some places
dilution has been included and in other places ore has been
omitted. In both cases metal units have been lost. *
The relationship between the metal content of these various
categories is shown in Equation 1 ( a s tonncs times grade), and
can be used to define the efficiency of a grade control sampling
method, as first presented in Shaw (1991):
For the Sunrise Dam Project a large number of grid spacings
and cut-off grades were evaluated. To determine the effects of
geological trends on the sampling, two orientations were
examined in each case. A sensitivity study was also carried out
to evaluate the effects of different sampling quality between the
methods. All the cases were repeated with a specific random
relative error applied based on experience and previous sampling
studies carried out on the deposit. When all the different
sampling methods, grid spacings, cut-off grades. grid
orientations and error sensitivity studies were completed there
had been 46 400 sampling scenarios evaluated on tlie conditional
simulation model.
The results indicated that, for this relatively high-grade
deposit. the sampling strategy to maximise profit;ihility for
mining the saprolite was dedicated rcvcrse circulation drilling
using 1 m samples with holes drilled on a 4 m by 5 ni grid. The
holes were best oriented perpendicular to the dip of the
mineralisation. (This last observation is hardly surprising to the
experienced mining geologist but nice to prove objectively.)
This sampling regime was implemented with spectacular
results. The usual reconciliation problems experienced by mines
that adopt blast hole sampling was avoided (many mines liwe a
deficiency of up to 0.5 g/t Au in the mill compared to the grade
control predictions). This success must be attributed not only to
the sampling quality but also to the geological controls applied
by the mining geologists on-site and to the adoption of the Ore
Block Optimisation method discussed next.
The objectivity of the method described is only limited by the
reliability o f the input data. The costs of the various sampling
scenarios to be evaluated must be defined. If sampling errors are
used then the quality of the sampling data must he qu;intitied. To
this end, MRT has accumulated ;I significant database that
quantities sampling quality at a large number of deposits using
the HARD statistic. This enables realistic assumptions to be
made of tlie impact on sampling quality of the various sampling
errors discussed in the previous section. Usually the studies arc
also carried out on a 'perfect sampling' basis with no error
component to ensure that such assumptions have not distorted the
results.
OPTIMISATION OF ORE BLOCKING
The use of the grade control data can also be optiinised. I n the
past ore and waste boundaries were often defined using a linear
interpolation ;ilgorithm that smoothed the data (such as
Mining Geology Conference Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997
G R A D E CONTROL SAMPLING AND ORE BLOCKING
pdygonal. sectional, inverse distance squared or even kriging
nietliods). Frequently the reliitive impact of ore loss and dilution
could not he estimated. The linear estimators smooth the data
and do not provide any information on the expected variability at
the unknown points betweeii the sampling data+. For all
estimations. regions o f ore ;ind waste are defined that show
greater continuity than those i n the actual deposit. The true
v.li.'.
i r ib'ility of the deposit. which may be referred to as the
'
dispersion. is not rctlected. The use of conditional simulation to
Sencr;ite equiprobable a1tern;itive maps (realisations) has been
;idopted to provide information on this variability. The
iwlisations generated at c l o x spaced nodes again provide an
exhaustive data set that can be used to optimise decision-making.
Of course. the differences and subtleties of the conditional
simulation tools used to produce the realisations that represent
tlie variability of tlie deposit need to be understood.
Interpretation of the conditional simulation model is carried
out through a transfer function (Journel, 1985, p 31) which is
used here iis a generic name tor the process used to evaluate the
similarities and differences hetween the realisations. The
conditional simulation model can be used to define the
probability of ore heing above or below the cut-off grade at each
node and tlie expected grade at that node. The Ore Block
Optimisatiori (OHOo) procesh is a transfer function that uses this
probabilistic information to determine the optimum configuration
of mineable ore blocks and produces a three-dimensional model
of the optimal (best) ore block outlines.
I n producing optimal ore blocks. it is necessary to consider a
number o f site specific parameters. The paramount consideration
is o f course the geology. The conditional simulation model
should take into consideration not only the assay grades but also
lithological domains and the relationship between mapping and
logging with the mineralisation. This has been applied at
different sites i n different ways. At the Union Reefs Gold Mine
of Acacia Resources Limited, drill chip logging that
differentiated the lithologies into siltstone and shale was used to
contirm and provide lithologicd controls on the mirieralisation.
A more recent trial at an Indonesian mine took into account
different structural orientations in different domains.
I n addition to definition of' the geological and grade variability
i n the condirion;il simulation model. a number of mining
pxiincters must he specified for the OBO' process. These
include the minimum mineable block size, the mining and
milling costs and tlie economic cut-off grades for the desired ore
and low-grade stockpiles. Generation of the conditional
simulation model can take considerable time (usually an
overnight run): once completed the OBO' process produces
optimal ore block outlines from this model.
I3ecause of the sensitivity o f many operations to the decision
o f hulk niining versus selective mining (see Shaw. 1993) the
possibility of examining dif'fcrent mining scenarios is also
incorporated. Results of the Ore Block Optimisation process can
he imported into mining sot'twiire as a block model with the
entire volume catcgorised iis ore, low-grade ( i n various
categories it required) or waste. Maps in plan and section can be
generated indicating the ore hlock boundaries. These provide a
clc;ir guide for the mining gcologist to refine as required, mark-
o u t and dig.
+ The x r o n y i n I'GC represciits the Predicted Grade Coiitrol value,
ie [he v:iliie that should be predicted by grade control 10accurately
define Ihe grade of the ore hciiig mined. The term Actu;il Mined Ore
is rescrvcd for the tonnes and @e of ore after mining. which m~y
he tlilfcrent due to changes I ~ ore
I blocks based o n visual control or
other inining practices.
*A li111 discussioii of the dil'lcrcnces between estimation (with
associated siriootliing)and siiwlation (where the variability or
tlislwsioii is ret;iiiicd)is pro\.itlcd in Khosrowshahi and Shaw
( 1997)
133
 W J SHAW and SIA KHOSROWSHAHI
RECONCILIATION
Reconciliation involves comparison of the predicted tonnes and
grade with the produced tonnes and grade. Poor reconciliation
indicates less than optimum use of the resource and results in
grade control coming under pressure, prolit budgets not being
met and unhappy shareholders. In the past reconciliation has
been seen as the 'acid test' for any grade control system.
However, any ore blocking method based on conditionill
simulation can make use of the exhaustive data set to ensure that
reconciliation between prediction and production will improve
significantly.
Generation of a valid conditional simulation model requires
good quality sampling data and valid application of the
gcostatistical tools. Tlie conditional simulation model then
provides information on a very dense mesh (the exhaustive h t a
set) that can be used to predict the mineable diluted grade of ore
blocks and measure the ore loss. This enables better
reconciliations to be achieved by providing a robust method of
predicting the real diluted grade of any ore block that is dug and
sent to the mill. However. this is quite different to ensuring that
the ore blocks are optimal. Thus the 'acid test' is no longer tlie
~
sole criterion to apply when assessing a grade control method.
One factor in succcssful grade confrol is the estimation of tlic
expected ore loss and dilution from different sampling grids.
Empirical methods t o optimise sampling regimes were first
developed in two-dimensions (Shaw, 1991) ;ind then refined
using three-dimensional modelling (Shaw, 1992). Using tlie
methodology discussed above, the likely mineable grade and
I
tonnage can now be predicted for different sampling orientations.
sampling grids and bench heights. The costs of selective mining
versus bulk mining can be assessed and balanced against the
benefits of reduced ore loss and dilution.
Tlie OBO' method provides il guide to the mining geologist to
ensure that the ore blocks are defined in the best configuration.
Misclassifieation between ore and waste is reduced. ore loss and
dilution at the planning stage are minimised (and can be
quantified) and ore is optimally assigned to various ore
l stockpiles. These advantages signiticantly enhance mine
I
profitability and control of the mined grade.
CONCLUSION
High-quality mining grade control requires many aspects io bc
addressed. The process of optimising grade control requires:
geological control for boundary definition; a sampling density
that provides adequate resolution at boundaries; robust grnde
interpolation; measurement of the ore loss and dilution; and the
analysis of the costs versus benefits of alternatives.
The sampling optimisation studies clearly show how [lie
mining resolution that determines ore loss and dilution is dictated
by the sampling grid. Mining the same part of the deposit using
different ore block perimeters (resulting from different sampling
methods or grids) would give different mined grades for the same
tonnage because of the different amounts of ore loss and dilution.
I Use of conditional simulation to provide an exhaustive data set
means that reconciliation between predictions and production
I improves dramatically.
Use of the Ore Block Optimisation transfer function means
that the definition of mineable ore blocks becomes more
objective. The impact of changing mining strategies (eg selective
mining versus bulk mining) can be rapidly assessed.
Misclassification between ore and waste at tlie ore block
I planning stage is quantified and can be reduced if more
selectivity (and usually more costly mining) is adopted.
The sampling optimisation and Ore Block Optimisation
approach implemented at a number of mine sites enables
I determination of:
134 Launceston, 1 0 -
the correct sample orientation lor [lie deposit,
tlic niost cost-etl'ective sampling method and sampling grid,
the correct subsampling procedurc5.
the optimal ore hlocks tor mining.
the ore loss and dilution incurred, .ind
the relative benefits of selective mining versus bulk mining.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This p;ipcr is one i n :I sei-ics by thc ;iuthors that addr
various components of niining graclc control in an
provide iin integrated tramework. 'The philosophy of this
;ipproach lix formed the basis of ;I course in mining geology.
grade control ;ind reconciliation vnce 1991. Over 400
participiints from ;ill ovcr the world have provided much
stimulating discussion about grade control and reconciliation and
their contribution is gratefully acknowledged.
The Ore Block Optimistition system was developed by Dr Sia
Khosrows1i;ihi i n consult;ition with otlicr members of Mining &
Resource Technology Pry Ltd. I t has l w n provided to a number
of mine sites under ;I liccnce agreement.
Tlie support of' Acacia Resources Limited has becn greatly
appreciated during recent studies on simpling optimisation ;ind
Ore Block Optimisation iit the Union Reefs Project (NT) and
Sunrise D;im Project (WA). Tlie authors would like in particular
to thank Nick Crasc, Duncan Gihhs. Andrew Grove and
Cameron Switzer for their constructive input.
REFERENCES
Franc;ois-Boiiearc;oii,I). 19%. Modern S:unpling Theory. Course Notes.
Pellh
Gaze, I< L. Khosrowsliahi. S. Gibhs. I> :ind Grove, A. 1997. Geological
and geostatistical resource estiinatioii of the Cleo Deposit. Sunrise
ha1;uiced approach, in ( h / d & Nickel O r e Re.vrwe
L);III) - ;I
Tow;irds 2000 AusIMM Mineral Resources and
E . s r i m i r i o t i Prwrir c,
Ore I<cservcs Seniin;irs. AuslMM K;ilgoorlie Branch. WA. 2 I
Octotxr
Cy, P M. 1979. Sainpling of Eirticulate Materials - Theory and Pr;ictice,
i n L)c.\~e/o/vrre/ir.v ui GeiJ,,rcir/ic,,ncitics. Vol 4, 43 1 pp (Elsevier).
Journel. A G. 19x9. Fund:inientals of gco.;t;itirties in five lessons. Short
Course i n Geology. 8,40 111) (Anieric;ui Geophysical Union).
Khosrowshdii. S niid .(;haw.W J . I007 Conditional Sinnilation for
Resource Chmcterisarioii and Gratlc Control - Principles ;ind
Practice. i u /'m.ccdui,~.s\Vor/d ( ; o / d 97. pp 275-282 (The
Austr:il;isicln lnstilule of Mining and Mct:illurgy: Melbourne).
I'itard. F, IW3. Pic,, J P GJ'.PSmnplirig 7'/r(~oryc u d Somnp/itix / h i r i c ~ ' .
CRC Press Inc (second edition). 488 pi)
Shaw. W J. 1990. M:uingenient of grade control and mining geology - nii
overview. I n Stmegies For Grade Coiitrol. Aurrrtilicin lnsriliirr of
C;crf.sc.ic,,irists Bir//eriti /O. pp 1-7.
Shaw. W J, Control Course Notes: Mining geology. g1':ide
1991. Gr;ide
control and recoilciliation. A short workshop course on grade
control. I'crth, WA.
Shaw, W J and Kliosrowshahi S. I992 Optirnising grade control
procedures in large and sniall open p i t nines, in Proceedinxs 7'liird
Lorxe Open /'ir Mitiirig Cot1fereric.e. 1)p 2.5 1-254 (The Australasian
Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Mclhourne).
Sliaw. W J. 1093. PI;rciical solutions to soiiie grade control problems and
why rhey work: a few case studies. i n Prowedinxs rhe
(;eo/oxy Cofi/crence, (The Austr;ilasian
/,ir[,f.,i~il;~J,i[i/ Mifiirix
Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Mclhourne).
Shaw. W J. 1997. Vditlation o f sainpliiig and assaying quality for
bankable leasihility stutlies. in The rc\oiirce dcircrhuse rowcrrds 2000.
AuslMM Miner:il Resources and Ore Reserves Seminars. AuslMM
I1lawnrr:i Branch, NSW, I6 May.
14 November 1997 Mining Geology Conference
 -
Towards 2000 The AuslMM Mineral Resources and Ore
Reserves Estimation Seminars and the JORC Reporting Code
Based on a paper prepared by members of the JORC Committee and Towards 2000
Steering Committee presented by Vivienne Snowden updated by Bob Appleyard'
INTRODUCTION
The objective of this paper is to provide ;I hrief introduction to
The AuslMM initiative which originated in I996 and has
developed from a concept proposed by Kic West, a Sydney
consultant. The notes which follow are drawn primarily from a
paper included in the Ironmuking KesoitrccJs and Keservc.~
Esslirnution Seminar volume presented by Vivienne Snowden, a
member of the Towards 2000 Steering Committee and of the
JOKC committee.
BACKGROUND
The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy (The
AuslMM) has been one of the principal organisations behind the
JORC Code, which has been adopted by the Australix~Stock
Exchange nnd the Australian Securities commission as the
standard for reporting mineral resources and ore reserves. This is
now starting to be recognised as the international stiindard, with
the UK, the USA and Canada all examining some form of the
JORC Code for their resource and reserve reporting guidelines.
The AuslMM has now further taken the initiative to produce a
major volume covering all aspects of world's best practice i n
Mineral Resource and Ore Reserves estimation. This prestigious
volume will be published in the year 2000.
BRANCH SEMINARS
As a lead-up to the production of the volume, The AuslMM is
holding a number of seminars around Australia. each focusing on
a different aspect of the entire resource and reserve estimation
process. This will be organised by the individual area Branches
of The AuslMM. The first such seminar, 'The Resource
Database towards 2000', organised by the lllawarra Branch, was
held in Wollongong on 16 May 1997. The Melbourne Branch,
hosted a seminar on non-geological reserve inputs and risk on 9'
September.
The National Conference on lronmaking Resources and
Reserves Estimation was held in Perth in late September and
attracted a large participation. A seminar on Ore I<eserve
Estimation Practicc, focussing on nickel and gold, was held in
Kalgoorlie in October and the forum to be held a s part of the
Launceston conference is the next in the series.
Other seminars planned are from the Far North Queensland
Branch, which will focus on sampling practices, the Southern
Queensland Branch, which will cover metallurgical testing and
marketing aspects (yet to be confirmed); the Sydney I3ranch. who
are organising a one-day seminar on reserves and prnde control
in metalliferous mining project development (to be held at the
end of the MINDEV conference, on 26 November), and the
Gippsland Branch who are planning a seminar o n Reserve
Estimation in Thick Seam, Low Rank Coal in early-Decemher
1997. A mining investment sector oriented seminar is being
planned for Sydney in January 1998.
I , Chairinan, Steering Coininitlee. The Australasian Institute of Mining
and Metallurgy.
Mining Geology Conference Caunceston. 10 14 November 1997
~
EMERGING THEMES
Notes o n the lllawarra seminar appeared in the August issue of
Tlro AuslMM Riille!in and i t is expected that future issues of The
A d M M Nullciiri will c o n t i n notes on other seminars. A
number of themes which have emerged from some of the
seminars to-date include:
A teain npproach is vital both at the database collection stage
nnd in resource and reserve estimation stage. All the relevant
disciplines should be represented in that team.
The integrity of the resource database is vitnl antl it should be
stib~jcctto the highest quiility management and control from
the earliest exploration s q e to the operational stage. The
datahase ncctls to be complete, accurate and regularly
validated and ;IS much as possible consistent in its format to
avoid interpretation errors and material omissions. Auditing
is vital i n the process 01. investment decision-making (note
Busang) and the value o f the process relies on a quality
database.
The integrity of sampling is vital (note Busang) and there
needs to be g o d communication between laboratory and
geologist.
Quolity and geologically directed geostatistical input has
been ;I great advance in resource estimation but the
iinport;ince of good geological, mining and metallurgical
input must never be overlooked, particularly ;IS the cycle
swings back towards undcrground mining.
The ;ipplication of cut-oil' p a d e s is a science (art'!) in itself.
The s;itne orebody can require the application ol' ;I number of
different cut-off grades to uptimise its economic value.
Iliffercnt economic antl corporate oh.jectives c;in generate
different ore reserves.
There is a variety of opinion in the application of hedged
metal prices in ore reserve estimation and the way in which
capitnl expenditure should be treated. These and other areas
need more debate to develop ii best practice approach.
Quality of the management of the ore reserve estimate is an
; m a which i n many ciiscs is not given ;I sufficiently high
priority. Communication between the generators of the
reserve inputs and the users of the reserve is often inadequate
both ;is to degree and to timing.
THE SPECTRUM SERIES
T h e proceedings from each of the above seminars. including
discussicin and questions. will be published through The
AuslMM's Spectrum Series. This is a series of mid-cost
publications covering topics which are not monographs or
conference proceedings.
THE TOWARDS 2000 VOLUME
The best 01' the papers from c x h of the Spectrum Series seminar
proceedings, together with other contributions from world-
renowned experts on various topics, will be selected. These will
be published i n the Tow;it-tls 2000 Resource and Reserve
Estimation tncinopraph, which will uphold the high quality and
135
I G K APPLEYARD
landmark nature of The AuslMM’s monograph series. This will
feature chapters on the key aspects of resource and reserve
estimation. including exploration data collection, geological
interpretation, the resource database, resource estimation,
metallurgical testing. reserve estimation. risk iisscssnicnt,
reporting, and bankable feasibility studies. The AuslMM hopes
that this monograph will be viewed around the world as a manual
of best practice, and will enhance the status of The AuslMM and
the Australian minerals industry as world leaders.
The Best Practice Initiative and the JORC Code
The Australasian Code on Keporting of Mineral Resources and
Ore Reserves. commonly known as the JORC Code. is
effectively i n mandatory use in Australia and has been adopted as
the standard by the investment regulatory authorities, the
Australian Securities commission and the Australian Stock
Exchange. International initiatives in the same area ;ire involving
the Australasian Code to considerable extent and the Code itself
is continually under review and improvement.
The Best Practices Initiative is being developed in parallel with
the JORC Code and i t is hoped that in time it will receive the
same degree of recognition. While there is not intended to be
any duplication of the matters covered by the two initiatives, the
papers presented as part of the Best Practices Initiative to-date
have, in a number of cases, highlighted issues relevant to the
JORC Code and. in many cases. currently under review by that
committee. Some of these issues include
the identity of the Competent Person(s);
the approach to determining cut-off grade;
the possible need to define dilution and other mining inputs
in an ore reserve report.
the need to comment on the quality of the database and
estimating procedures used in preparing a report and,
possibly a need to comment on the risks involved;
a possible need to comment on the objective of the reported
estimate; and
a possible need to quantify in some way the contidence levels
in the various categories of resource and reserve.
Vivienne Snowden’s presentation at the Perth Conference
provides an excellent summary of some of the issues currently
relevant to the JORC Code, its use and its on-going review and
involvement in the international initiative. The relevant
paragraphs from that paper are reproduced below.
JORC INTERFACE WITH THE AUSTRALIAN
INVESTMENT REGULATORY AUTHORITIES
The main investment regulatory authorities i n Australia are the
Australian Securities Commission (ASC), and the Australian
Stock Exchange (ASX). Their respective areas of responsibility
and contact with respect to the JORC Code have some overlap
but in essence, the ASX has the most direct ‘working face’
involvement with it.
The ASX has ii clear preference for the integrity of the
financial markets for which it is responsible IO be based on the
premise of co-operative self-regulation, rather than hy
governmental 1egisl;ition or regulation.
In pursuance of this policy, from I July I989 the ASX annexed
the JORC Code and Guidelines (and subsequently the Diamond
Appendix) as part of its Listing Kules - Appendix 5 . The Code
and Guidelines are the only inclusion of an externally sourced
document in the ASX Listing Rules. Furthermore, Australia and
New Zealand are the lirst countries to have their mineral
resources and reserves reporting standards, a s set by their mining
institute, as an integral inclusion in their Stock Exchange Listing
Kules.
136 Launceslon. 10 - 14 November 1997
In cf’fect tlie Code. sponsored by l h c AuslMM, the Austr;ilian
Institute of’ Geoscienti$t\ (AIG) iinil tlie Minerals (huncil o f
Australia (MCA). sets the standards for public reporting on
mineral resources. reserves and cxplor;ition results, while the
ASX is [he vehicle under which such rcports are monitored when
submitted by stock exchange listed cciiiipiinies under Appendix 5.
NON-COMPLIANCE REPORTING
Instances where reports issued to the ASX do not comply with
the JOKC Code and the ASX listing Rules include the
following:
Lack of categorisation
The Code strongly discourages statenient, which provide only
total tigtircs lor Mineral liesources or Ore Reserves. I n public
reports. mineral icsourcc estimates should be allocated to one or
more o f the defined clitegories 01 Measured, Indicated and
Inferred and the tonnageslgrades allocnted should he stated.
Likewise. ore reserves estimates of tonnage and grade should be
allocated to Proved and Probable categories.
Use of incorrect terminology
Terms such ;is ‘Prohable liesources’. ’Geological Resources’. ‘In
Situ Reserves’, ‘Mining Reserves’. ‘Possible Reserves’ and so on
have no incaning under the Code and should not be used in
public reports.
Reporting of only contained metal without also
reporting tonnage’s and grade
The Guidelines st;ite that such reporting ‘deprives the public of
vital information’ and ‘is not in accortl;ince with the Code’. I t is
very relevant to the potential investoi t o know whether a quoted
quantity of contained metal is the product of a large tonnage of
low-grade material or o f ;I small tonn;ige of high- grade material.
The practice of quoting contained nictal without also quoting
grades c m , particularly for Mineral Resources. result in a value
for the deposit which is totally at vari;ince with its true realisable
value.
A variation of this. though far from common, is for reports for
polymet;illic deporits to quote equiv;ilcnt metal vnlues without
showing clearly the full data and assumptions (grades for
individud inetals and iissuined metill prices) employed i n [he
estimntionlconversion to ;I single equiwlent grade.
Lack of explanation as to the relationship between
reported Mineral Resources and ore Reserve
lieports often do not make it clear whether stated Mineral
Resources ;ire inclusive o f , o r additional to stated Orc Rcserves.
The relationship is impoi-tant because readers of the report might
otherwise add together tonnage/grade figures. which are not
intended to he added toceether and so reach incorrect conclusions.
The Guitlclines provide recommended forms of clarifying
stnteinents.
Lack of reference, where necessary to assessment
criteria (Table 1 of Code)
Any report of ‘exploration results’ m u s t include details which
hear on sainpling of the mineralisaticin such as drilling/sairil)ling
density, driIling/sampling methodology. sample and assay quality
and so on. Reports of Mineral Resources and/or Ore Reserves
should state the n;iture of data on which the estimates are h s e d
and make mention ol m y assessment criteria for which
inadequate (ir only poor quality data is ;ivailable.
Mining Geology Conference

Inadequate and/or incorrect statements regarding the
Competent Person
The ASX Listing Iiules require that ;I statement he included in
those public reports which contain information on Mineral
liesources and Ore Reserves to the cflect that the requirements 01'
the Code with respect to the competent Person have been met.
The Guidelines (page 19) provide a recommended form of
statement. which covers the requirement, arid it (or minor
variations o f i t ) should be used in all relev;int reports. In an
addition to the ASX Listing Kules effective I July 1995. the
name of the Competent Person must be given.
Statements to the effect that Resources and/or Reserves
figures have been 'estimated' (or even worse
'calculated') in accordance with the Code
The Code does not regulate estiination methodology. I t
establishes ;I system of Kesources/Rcservcs classification and
sets minimum standards for public reporting.
Lack of rounding of ResourcesIReserves figure
If tonnage and grade arc not rounded so as to reflect the
uncertainty surrounding their estimation, then an unrealistic
degree of accuracy is implied, and this could be potentially
misleading IO readers of the report.
While a JORC subcommittee assists the ASX. when requested,
in monitoring compliance with the Code, over the last two years
or so the ASX has broadened its skills and has become more
familiar with the detailed requirements of Appendix 5 . The ASX
on occasions uses 'please explain' notices to companies whosc
reports apparently do not comply with the Code without calling
on the advice of the JORC subcommittee. For more complex
reporting situations. the ASX may use the services of an
independent consultant for direct advice.
It should ;dso be noted that the Listing Kules regarding
continuous disclosure empower the ASX to put questions to
companies which may include mattcrs which are not specifically
covered in the Code. eg details of exploration results.
WORKABILITY OF THE JORC CODE
The reasons for the workability of the JORC Code arc varied bur
include the following:
It is ;I co-operative self-regulatory approach between the
stock exchange-listed companies, The AuslMM, AIG, MCA
and the regulatory ASC and ASX.
The Code itself is user-friendly and in general meets the
needs and expectations of the mining companies both large
and small, mining industry consultants, company personnel
and very importantly the readers of
resourccs/reserves/exploration reports be they the proverbial
informed layman investor, sophisticated institutional equity
investors, or debt financiers.
Recognition of the usefulness of the Code did not happen
overnight and cducation of both compilers and users of
reports has been an objective of JOKC. Better the carrot than
the stick!
The incidence of peer group pressure amongst Competent
Persons has encouraged their reports to comply with both the
spirit and letter of the code.
Mining Geology Conference
Launceston, 10 14 November 1997
TOWARDS 2000
Siniil;irly. coi p a t e compelition amongst listed coinpanics to
catch the eye o f the investor and to ensure the investor is
fully informed has bccn ,I force making for better reporting.
Since the introduction 01' tlic Code in 1989, many companies
hnve t;iken pride in supplying rcsources/rcscrvcs iiiformation
which i s exeinplary and which exceeds the Code's minimum
requirement by ;I large iiwgin.
The mcmbership of the JORC Committee has hceii one o f its
strengths. Initially JORC comprised rcprescntatives from
The AuslMM and the Australian Mining Intlustry Council
(now Minerals Council 0 1 Australia). I n recent years, six
organisations have been represented on JORC - The
AuslMM, MCA. AIG Mineral Industry Consultants
Association (MICA), ASX and the Securities Institute of
Australi;i (IS).
No codc C;IH cover oll conditions and times and the Code
5pecifically statcs i t will he reviewed from time to time as
appropriate, to reflect changes i n circunistanccs. Some
changes have already heen m;de since its introduction in
1989 and ;I review ofthe code is currently in progress.
THE INTERNATIONAL RESOURCEWRESERVES
DEFINITIONS INITIATIVE
'l'lic Australasi:in Code hiis had :I significant intluence on
international thinking on reporting o f mineral resources and
reserves. 'l'liere hns been consitterable progress towards standard
intcrnationd definitions for mineral resources and reserves, with
the hope. indeed expectation. that such ii standard will be
xliicved within the next few years.
Followinf recognition by other countries of thc success of the
JORC Code, there has been international recognition of
Australi;i's role in the initiative by the Council of Mining and
Mctallurgical Institutions (CMMI) to develop a universal set of
rcporting standards for adopted o r acceptable i n the major
mining countries including Australia, South Africa, United
Kingdom. United States of America and Canada.
Also. thc United Nations - Economic Commission lor Europe
(UN-ECE) sponsored group. covering largely Eastern Europe,
including the former Soviet Block, is moving in n parallel
fashion to the CMMI and ILIS established ;I lraniework for
reporting lieserves and Resources from a wide disparity of
reporting standards operating i n the individual countries within
that grouping.
I<ecognition of the Code's effectiveness has influenced a
sipnilicant number of resources and reserves which would be
other mining countries to re-asscss their reporting standards.
Now. for the first time. a set ( i t standard intcrnatioixil definitions
for reporting o f mineral rewurces and reserves is n realistic
possibility.
The JOKC Code has hccome the model foi developing
intcrnational Resources and lieserves reporting standards.
Guidelines will have to hc produced by each country o r its
mining institute t o cover its qxciiic conditions. laws and needs.
..1 his is hecause regional, legd. cultural, operating, economic and
regulatory authority conditions need to be recognised on an
individual country basis.
-
137
 Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997 Mining Geology Conference
138
 Geotechnical Issues

Session Chairperson

Peter Hills
Beaconsfield Mine JointVenture
Discontinuity Analysis in Open Cut Exposures Examples From
Selected Central Victorian Sites
C N Winsor' and T J Fowle?
ABSTRACT
Examples are provided of discontinuity nnalysis at selected sites i n
central Victoria. Discontinuities are rock fractures of' low tensile
strength. including bedding. foliations and joints. which ;ire analysed
during rock exc:wation design, to quantitatively detertiline the defect
orientations. spacing and lengths. Their analysis can reduce the cost of
mining operation and improve safety. Extrapolation beyond the exposed
face is required. although difficult without an understanding of the
regional geology. For rock engineering purposes assuinptions are
commonly m:ide that discontinuity characteristicsare uniform throughout
the rock mass. however this is often invalid. as rock inases have usually
undergone large-scale deformation. exhibit anisotropy and
inhomogeneity. Structural geologists are able to interpret large-scale
deformation responses for the purposes of structural correlation and
extrapolation. Examples of discontinuity analysis linked to regional
geological assesment from sites in central Victoria. reveal that
discontinuities exhibit similar characteristics in a range of rock types of
different ages and composition. Spncing variations betweeii individual
sites are believed to be a result of local rock type differences
INTRODUCTION
The stability of rock excavations (dams, tunnels, roads and
mines) are intluenced by discontinuity properties such as
orientation, length and spacing. The term 'discontinuity' is
defined as any mechanical rock defect of low tensile strength
across which displacement can occur (Priest, 1993).
Discontinuities occur at all scales from large-scale faults,
mcsoscopic bedding surfaces, foliations and joints. to
microscopic cracks, in all geological environments.
Discontinuity characteristics commonly depend on their origin,
however rock mechanics engineers have not extensively used
origin and relationship to the large-scale as a predictive tool. The
need for greater geological input into programs to ;malyse rock
properties has recently been addressed by Stapeldon ( 1996) and
is extended here.
Of importance to geotechnical engineers is the extrapolation of
discontinuity data, from measurement zones to inaccessible
regions, as the mechanisms that contribute to the instability of a
slope or underground excavation are often controlled by
discontinuities a distance from the rock face. Rock
discontinuities usually exhibit characteristics controlled by large-
scale primary or tectonic influences. Difficulties i n predicting
rock mass responses arc caused by the discontinuous and
variablc rock nature, ie heterogeneous, anisotropic,
discontinuous, porous, permeable and multi-phase. Problems
can also arise from the multi-phase nature of rock deformation.
Despite the widespread knowledge that excavation can be
disrupted by the occurrence of unpredictable geology, relatively
few techniques are presently available t o assess the three-
dimensional nature of the rock mass prior to or during
excavation. Some methods use data collected at the rock face,
however most are capital intensive or require monitoring at the
face (Wittke, 1993).
I. Mineral Resources, School of Engineering. The University of South
Australia, The Levels SA 5095.
2. Geology Department, Management, Technology and Environment,
La Trobe University. Bendigo. PO Box 199, Bendigo Vic 35.50.
Mining Geology Conference Launceston, 10 - 14 November I997
-
To charactcrisc rock properties, rock engineers ol'tcn use a
scanline sampling method (Priest, 1993). wherc ;I tape is
extended ;icross ;i rock mass. Such an approach has been used
here, hut is supplemented with assessment of the regional
geology. Under ideal conditions with total rock exposure, the
properties of every discontinuity that intersects the tape are
recorded. Data modelling is undertaken to enable the
cletcrrnination of' quantitative information concerning rock
stahility, using programs such ;IS SCANMASTER (Meyers et al,
I993a.b). The improved knowledge of discontinuity parameters
at mine sites and other geotechnical locations will improve safety
and lower costs incurred in lost time and disrupted production.
The program's output inclutles the mean set orientation, their
vari;ibility denoted by:
I. thc Fishers constant (for high clustering this is 20-30, if
random it is close to I ) ,
2. the set spacing, and
3. distrihution.
Ideally surveys should be undertaken along three orthogonal
scanlines, hut this may place restrictions on the identitication of
suitable sites. Often the best site geologically does not offer the
hcst exposure. Where ideal sites arc not present the results may
he biased. There are however advantages in using this method in
tcrms of yiclding qualitative results. Generally surveys in areas
moclilied by folding and/or. faulting have limited application
unless the I;irge-sc;ile is asseswl.
To accommodate the differences between engineering and
geological discontinuity nomenclatures, structural planes are
denoted in this article by their dip o r plunge (two figures) and dip
o r plunge direction (three figures). Owing to regional variations
i t is often not possible to uniquely determine and assign a
number to the orientation of ;I structural fabric, so terms such as
north and west, etc are used.
The terminology adopted l'or deformation responses is such
that events are denoted by the letter D, folds by F, penetrative
surfaces by S and lineations hy L (after Bell and Duncan, 1978).
Depending on the local structural history more complex
nomenclatures can be devised to assign deformation phases.
Gcotechnical engineers generally prefer not to adopt these terms
for the sake of their analysis. However, such an approach.
;ilthough time saving, can lead to a false characterisation of the
rock mass, which can have a bearing on stability assessment.
THE GEOLOGICAL CONTROLS ON ROCK MASS
DISCONTINUITIES
Discontinuities are usually controlled by the rock type and
modification phases (Hancock, 1985). Rocks can bc classified
according to their formation processes:
;I) Sedimentary rocks ;ire products of weathering,
transportation, sediment settling and lithification.
Discontinuities include bedding surfaces, joints and
dilational veins - vugs. Bedding spacing depends on
composition, grain siLe and homogeneity. Other
discontinuities can also he intluenced by stress conditions.
141
C N WINSOR and T J FOWLER

Igneous rocks arc solidified magma. Primary flow surfaces display ;i close relationship to fold development. Norinal,
b) reverse or strike-slip laults have predictable geometries, but their
can be present, related to flow direction, topography or
parallel to magma contacts. Grain size often exerts a location usually iniist be confirmed by geological mappiny or
remotc sensing.
control on spacing. The spacing of cooling fractures is
dependent on cooling rate and composition.
CASE STUDIES
c) Metamorphic rocks are modified because of changes in
temperature and/or pressure. An anisotropy is often present Thc following examples illustrate thc results of discontinuity
as a foliation andor lineation. Other fabrics include analysis i n ii range of geological tcrrains. from essentially
crenulations, or cleavage fissility, folds, faults, shear zones, undeformcd, to simple lolded. to multi-faultedfolded regimes
veins and fractures. Discontinuities arc controlled by the and for a variety of rock types. This investigation extends the
macrostructure. with spacing dependent on local and/or examination of rock discontinuitics in the Adelaide region
regional controls. (Winsor and Priest, 1996). Examplcs arc presented from central
Victoria. encompassing a wide spectrum of rock typcs of vcry
A wide range of terrains are evident in the geological record. different gcological ages (Cambrian to Carboniferous).
dependent on the tectonic conditions and history. Terrains may Although the rocks examined vary i n terms of age, composition
include the following tectonic environments (Hobbs et a / . 1976): and proccsscs involved i n their forni;ition it is noted that the
a. igneous intrusions, general oricntatioiis of discontinuities ;ire similar throughout the
region.
b. extensional blocks,
c. flat lying sediments, Examples: Central Victoria
d. foldthrust belts,
Regionul setting
e. graben - rifts,
The geology of central Victoria, as reviewed by Douglas and
f. polydeformed areas.
Ferguson (1988). comprise Palaeozoic sediments of the Tastnan
g. salt dome, Orogenic belt froin early Cambrian to early Carboniferous.
These sediments have undcrgone a complex history involving
h. shale structure, burial, inctamorphism. folding, faulting and uplift and form part
I. simple folded region, of the metalliferous Lachlan Foldbelt (Ramsay and Vandenberg,
1986). Thc folding style is generally chevron, with N-S plunging
j. slate - schist belt, axes and large-scale folds exhibiting wavelengths of IO to 15
k. tectonic melange, kms. Steeply dipping faults are common along axial planes to
folds. The area ot' Central Victoria under invcstigation is known
I. wrench faulted area, and as thc Bendigo-Ballarat zone, across which an upright to vertical
cleavage is well dcvelopcd as Gray (1988) reveals. On thc
m. regions effected by synsedimentary deformation.
This list is not exclusive, but reflects a spectrum of tectonic
conditions that have been described. Generally for each of the
environments, discontinuities display a Consistent pattern,
dependent on structural overprints and rock types. Where an
area is subjected to recurring tectonic events the discontinuities
present reflect this history. Man induced joints generally exhibit
a non systematic (random) pattern. In this article we are
concerned with discontinuity analysis in areas that have been
either simply folding or polydeformed. Case studies from central
Victoria will be presented.

SIMPLE FOLDED TO POLYDEFORMED

TERRAINS (FOLDED AND FAULTED)

Simple folds
For areas affected by simple folding, there is commonly a
consistent fold axis orientation. While there may be a gradual
change in the orientation of the fold axis, in a given area, the
style and geometry of folding should not exhibit sudden
variability. Knowledge of the structural history and orientation
o f the regional forces, together with local geology can enable
determination of discontinuity characteristics. Joints related to
the folding process exhibit distinct orientations. Across a simple
folded sequence, where folds are upright and gently to
moderately plunging, ideal discontinuities can be predicted as
demonstrated by Winsor (1985, 1995) and Winsor and Priest
( 1996).
Reverse fault
Anticline
-+
Syndine +
Bedding trend -- .
Polydeformed
These are regions affected by multiple folding and faulting where
discontinuity predictions can be problematic, as fractures can
develop at any state in the deformation process (cg Winsor, FIGI - Stnicttiral inap of the Bcndigo - B;illarat Zone of Central Victoria,
1983). Commonly igneous activity, metamorphism and thrusting displayiiig sitcs of discontinuity analysis ;ind regional fold and bcddiiig
trends. after Gray ( 19x8).

142 Launceslon. 10 - 14 November 1997 Mining Geology Conference


eastern margin of this zone (location I ; Figure I ) a prominent N-
S, west dipping reverse fault is present. Locally adjaccnt to the
sediments arc fault bounded Cambrian greenstone rock slices.
Sites at which discontinuities were analysed include:
a. Cambrian greenstones metavolcanics - site I ,
b. Palaeozoic metasediments - site 2.
e. post-deformation (late Devonian) granites - sitc 3.
cl. mctascdiments adjacent to a granitc - sitc 4, and
c. late Devonian to lower Carboniferous basalts - site 5.
Sites visited
Site I - Luke Cooper
(AMG abstract map reference 997559. Lake Colbinabhin, 7824-
1-4, 1 : 25 000). The rock type here comprises massively thick
porphyritic (pyroxene) basalt lavas (mctavolcanic greenstones)
with little internal structurc. Younging directions i n the pillow
lavas suggests thc sequence is overturned. At this location there
are many macrofirults. most of which display evidence of reverse
obliquc movcment (Figure 2). Other faults demonstrate
horizontal slip striations, indicating dextral displacement. A
scanline survey was undertaken in the NE corner of the quarry
(Figure 2). with results displayed in Figure 2b and Table I . 'The
discontinuities dcvcloped at this site indicate a consistent pattern,
related to a regional folding 'event in the adjacent metasediments.
Location 1
i Bedding
(a) Structural data
FIG 2 - Geological plan. stereographic projection of a) structural and b) discontinuity data. site I . Lake Coopcr Quarry. Greenstones.
Mining Geology Conference Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997
DISCONTINUITY ANALYSIS IN OPEN CUT EXPOSURES
The discontinuities present includc joints subparallel to the
adjacent thrust fiiult and subparallel to fold axial planes (set I ) ,
joints normal to tlie told axis of regional folds ('ac' joints - set 2);
and subhorizontal joints, related to topography (set 3). Two
slic;ir fracture sets are also developed.
S i r e 2 - Fosterville open-cut gold mine
(AIMG abstract map refcrencc 765347. Barnadown. 7824-4-3.
1:25 000). At this site sl'ites and sandstones (quartz rich
turhidites) are xljacent to ;I major brittlc NS trending fault
(Figure 3). 'l'hc m a is affected by upright subhorizontal NNW-
SSE trending folds, Figure 3a. A slaty cleavage is developed
p;irallcl to tlie axial plane 0 1 ' the fold and dips t o the west,
suggesting that the folds are :lshymetrical with moderately-steep
west dipping axial planes. Macrofaults display variable
orientations from vertical E-W striking, to moderately NE
dipping faults with ;I NW strike (Figure 3).
A series of scanline invcstigations including vertical and
subliorizontal surveys were undertaken on the eastcrn limb of a
syncline and across an adjacent anticline within the SW portion
of tlie niiric site. Results w e a l that discontinuities have
oricntations controllcd by the regional folding. They include
lictlding with variable orientations and joints subparallel to fold
axial plancs (set I discontinuities; Figure 3b). Joints normal to
bedding, c1eav;igc and to the local FI fold axis orientation, ic
'x'joints (sct 2 discontinuities; Figure 3b and Table I). 'be'
joints normal to hcdding, cleavage and parallel to the FI fold
axis, sct 3 and set 4; (Figure 3b and Table I). Scts 3 and 4
0 100
L I I I I I
metres
Chert bed
Pillow Lava
with
Fault
younging
Basalt Sill
Scanline survey
Quarry wall
O'&
H
-.-.,. .
.....
.....
---
A -
(b) Discontinuities
si
GC
rmals
143
C N WINSOR and T J FOWLER

TAHLE 1
Discontinuity dura sites 1-5 (all distributions are negutivc

correspond to 'bc' joints occurring on fold limbs. Table I reveals

that the spacing of 'ac' joints (set 2) as this site is significantly (a) Structural data (b) Discontinuities
grcatcr than 'bc' fractures (set I).

Site 3 - the Harcourt Luyton Quarry

(AMG abstract map reference 599042, Barker, 7724-2-3, 1 :25
000). In this quarry the rock type is a uniformly coarse massive
granite with thin aplitic dykes. Significantly, this rock postdates
the regional folding in central Victoria. Thc rock mass contains
minor fragments of metasediments along its wall. No prominent
igneous flow fabric is evident. Discontinuities i n the quarry arc
mainly joints exhibiting a range of orientations, ic stccp NNW
striking and NE dipping (set la). stcep NS striking and NW
dipping (set I b). and steep EW striking (set 2) and horizontal (set
3); Table 1 and Figure 4. Although thc granite postdates thc
rcgional folding discontinuities, the rock mass cxhibits similar
orientations to those present in the deformed mctascdiments (site
2) and oldcr greenstone (site I). Sets l a and I b may correspond FIG3 - Geological plan. stereographic prolection of a) structural :lnd b)
to joints parallel to fold axial planes of two dcformation phases. discoiitinuiry (1;it;i. site 2. Fosterville Qiarry. Merasediments.

144 Launceslon. 1 0 - 14 November 1997 Mining Geology Confererice

 DISCONTINUITY ANALYSIS IN OPEN CUT EXPOSURES

~~~

Location 3
Discontinuities

SI
-- GC 1

FIG4 - Stercographic projection of discontinuity data. site 3. Harcourt

Laytoii Quarry. Granite.

Site 4 - the Muldon Quarry

(AMG abstract map reference 377018, Maldon, 7724-3-3, 1 :25
000). The rock type here is a metasediment in a zone of open
folding (Figure 5 ) . situated close to a granite intrusion, on the
gently east dipping overturned limb of an inclined fold. The
intersection of bedding and cleavage (Lo,)plunges moderately
south (Figure 5a). Discontinuity analysis was carried out on the
west limb of a south plunging syncline. Results are displayed in
Table I . The main discontinuities are NW trending, NE trending,
subhorizontal and gently NE dipping joints (Figure 5b). Set I is
subparallel to the axial plane of folds ( S I parallel joints or 'bc'
joints), set 2 is subnormal to the fold axis ( h c ' joints), set 3 are
subhorizontal and set 4 are probably shear fractures neither
normal or parallel to any tectonic indicator. The spacing of set 1
joints is significantly less than the other sets.

Site 5 Vuughan Springs Basalt Luvu Flow

(AMG abstract map reference 532839, Vaughan, 7723-4-2, 1 :25
000). These flows are part of Late Devonian to Lower
Carboniferous basic magma in central Victoria (Marsden, 1988).
which formed after or at the final stages of the regional folding
and faulting, evident at sites 2 and 4. Discontinuity analysis
indicates four major fracture orientations from subvertical ENE
(set 2 4 and NE trending (set 2b). to subhorizontal (set 3) and
moderately west dipping, NS trending (set 4), ;IS indicated i n
Figure 6 and Table I . The latter set exhibit topographic control.
(a) Structural data (b) Discontinuities
Regional assessment
comparison of the discontinuity sets between sites reveals that
joints normal to the fold axis ('ac' joints). others parallel to the
axial plane and a subhorizontal set arc present at all locations.
Spacing of 'bc' joints (set 1 ) is commonly less than that of 'ac'
joints (set 2).

GENERAL METHOD TO PREDICT

DISCONTINUITIES IN OPEN CUT EXPOSURES IN
MULTI-DEFORMED TERRAINS
The following discontinuity analysis method is suggested for
future investigations:
I. Review the regional structural history, geometry and scale
of event. Determine the orientation, spacing and frequency
of macrofold and macrofault zones.
2. Determine the geometry of any penetrative fabrics and
factors influencing their geometry. Undertake fabric FIGS - Geological plan, stercopraphic projection of a) structural and b)
correlation and assignment of folds and lineations through discontinuity data. site 4. Maltl~iiiQuarry, Granitized Metasediments.
regional mapping and fabric correlation.

Mining Geology Conference Launceston, 10 - 14 November 1997 145

C N WINSOR and T J FOWLER
Location 5
S<!t s1
Set GC 1
FIG6 - Stereographic projection of discontinuity data. site 5. Vuughan
Hill roadcut. Basalt.
3. Identify the geometry of macroscopic faults and dctermine
how thcy influence the geometry of penetrative fabrics.
4. Undertake structural analysis (as outlined by Marshak and
Mitra, 1988; Ragan, 1985) and determine the geometry,
scale and timing of macroscopic folding and related
structures.
5. M a k e idealised discontinuity predictions in relation to the
macrostructure.
6. Carefully select positions for scanlines. inlight of their
relation to the macrostructure.
7. Undertake scanline survcys and dctcrminc geometry and
spacing of discontinuities.
8. Compare discontinuity predictions with the results of
scanline surveys. If discrepancies exist review the
macrostructural interpretation.
9. Document investigation results.
CONCLUSIONS
Assessment of the structural geology over an area can providc an
aid to discontinuity predictions, particularly for undeformed or
simply deformed areas. The benefits of incorporating knowledge
concerning the regional macrostructure as part of scanline
surveys is apparent. Discontinuities at a number of mine sitcs i n
rocks of different origin and age, in central Victoria ;ire
controlled by the underlying tectonic fabric. Such results are
apparent at other sites, in the Adelaide region, a1 Broken Hill, at
Iron Duke and at Olympic Dam. This suggcsts that in parts of
the Australian continent, rock mass discontinuitics will exhibit
similar characteristics. Using local and regional information,
rock mass predictions arc feasible a s an aid to conventional Mine
Geotechnical investigations assisting in the preliminary stages of
site investigaions and there after improving safety, efficiency and
communication between mine geologists and mining engineers.
Investigations arc underway to charactcrise discontinuities in a
range of geological situations.
146 Launceston, 10 -
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
T h e advisc and assistancc provided by Dr Anthony G Meycrs.
Professor Stephen D Priest and Dr Robct-t G Wiltshire, School of
Engineering. University 01' South Australia is appreciated. Alex
Kavoukis o f the Multimedia Services Section. FLC, University
of South Australia is thanked for p r c p x i n g the diagrams.
REFERENCES
kll. T H ;itid Duncan. A C. 1978. A rationalised and unified shorthand
teriiiinology for lineations and fold axes in tectonites.
~ ' ~ ~ l ~ l J l ~ J / 47. l / l )TI
' . -T5
~ ~ ~ ~ . ~ .
Douglas. J G and Ferguson. J A. 19XX. G w / ( J ~of Y V i t ~ r ~ r i uDITK.
,
Victorin. 657pp.
Gray. D It. I O X X . Structure :tiid tectonics. 111 C e h x : y of Vicroritr (Eds: J
G Douplas and J A Fergiison) 1 : 1-36 (IIITK. Victoria).
Hancock. P L. 1985. Brittle niicrotectonics: principles and practise. J
~ ~ l 7 :437-458.
S l t ~ f t c;c,o/.
Hobbs. I3 E. Means. W D xid Williaiiis. P F. 1976. h i ourliw of'
.r~rirc.~frt.ct/ peolq:?. 57 Ipp Wiley (Intcriiational. New York).
Marsden. M A H. 1988. Upper Devonian Carboniferous. in Geo/opy O f
I . J ~ I J G I)ouglas and J A Ferguson) 5: 1-36 (DITR.
V J ~ . I ( J (Eds:
Victoria).
Marshak. S. and Miti-a, G. 1988. Btrsic. fJferhod.cOf .trruciurcr/ Reology,
446pp (Prentice Hall).
Meycrs. A C;. Priest. S I 1 and Walker. II J. 1993a. A technique for
preparing rock inass discontinuity gcoiiietry files for slope stability
monitoring. in O/wn /'ir ctnd U~tc/c!rxr~imdMining (Ed: T
Szwcdzicki), pp 365-374 (Geotcch Imt :ind Mon).
Meyers. A G. W:ilker. D ;ind Priest. S 1). 1993b. SCANEDIT mid
SCANMASTER users inanual - limited version. Internal report to
BHP Raw inaterials rese:irch group, unpublished. 32p.
Priest. s D. 1985. / ~ I ' f f t i . ~ ~ J / t ~ ~ t/JrfJjCClJfJlJ
'ic'tf/ it1
J~lC'l/lfJd,~ r~~c~hr/~trr:.~.
I24pp (George Allen and Unwin).
Priest, S I). 1903. D ~ . W J J I I J m y .~\ ( I. \~/ i ~ rr w k engineertnx.473pp
I IdU
(Ch;ipm;in and Hnll. London).
Ragan. I)M. 1985. .Slt~ucrur.cr/ xeoloxy, 3rd cd (John Wiley) 393 pp.
Ranisay. W K I{ :ind Vandeliberg, A H M. 1986. Metallogeny :ind
tectonic dcvelopnicnt of the Tasinan Foltlhelt system in Victoria. Ore
C;eo/n,yy Kcview. I :213-257.
Stapledon. D H. 1990. Keeping the 'GEO'; Why and How. in
~ ~ c o ~ t/t(ifift:s
ter i f , (I C / f t r n ~ f nWOI ~ / I / , 71h A N Z conference in
Geortrev /J(III~CT(Ells: M A Jxksa. W Shaggwa and D A Cameron). pp
3-1 X (7th ANZ conferelice i n Gcoinech:uiics. Adelaide July, 1996).
Winsor. C N. I9X.3. Vein and syntectonic libre growth associated wlth
mult iple slaty clcavngc tlevclopment i n the Lake Moondarra ;iren.
Mount Isa. Australia. Tec I O / I ( J ~ / I ~ . T ~ C 92: Y . 19.5-210.
Winsor. C N. 1985. Iiirerprcration of a set ( i f faults across the hingc :ind a
liinh of ;I large sc;ile flexure i n the Mount Isa district, Qucensland in
terms of fractures related to the folding process. J Srrutv (;c,ol,
717 10-725.
Winsor. C N. 199.5. 'l'he prediction of rock inass discontinuities i n the
Clarc V:illey Syncline. b e d on reyonal geology interpretation.
Clare Valley conference. Geological Society of Australia, SGTSG.
2.5-2') Sept IOOS. 177-178.
Winsor, C N ;ind Priest. S 1). 1996. The controls exeited on rock
discontinuities - exaiiiples from tlic Adelaide fold belt, i n
C;c,o,frrc./tcitiit.r J J J (1 Clicin~inx W d d . 71h ANZ conferenuJ in
~ ; ~ ' ~ J l t f ~ ~ ' / t (Eds:
~ t ~ l fM ~ . Jaksa. W Skaggwa and D A Cameron).
~ : .A
pp 240.245 (7th ANZ Conference i n Gcoinechanics, Atlelaide July.
1996).
Wittke. W. 1993. I<ein;irks on the pfiictical application of rock
InecI1;inIcs. I n ! Sor KocQ Mr1.h Nov.~Jot!t.ftttl, I :21-24.
14 November 1997 Mining Geology Conference
Probability Analysis of Rock and Soil Slopes in a Complex
Geology Environment
Dawei Xu'

ABSTRACT dealing with uncertainty in pit wall stability assessment is to use

reliability theory or probability mcthods. Figure I gives an
In the stability assessinent of open pit wnlls, geotechnical eiigineers hove
to deal with uncertainty related to structural geology. rock inechanical intuitional understmding of probability analysis.
parameters. groundwater and so on. This uncertainty will immediately
and significiintly impact on wall stability a ~ ~ e ~ ~ m e ntherefore,
;uid t
influence mineral recovery and ultimately the financial returii of olxn pit
inining. However. the conventional factor of safety applied to incawre
the stability of slopes and the relevant analytical coinpiitcr p:ickages
c;uinot quantitatively consider the variability or uncertainty of the input
data. As a supplecnent. therefore, geotechnical engineers have hegun to
;ipply probability to the stability assessment of open pit walls over the
last two decades. To-date unfortunately. no powerful computer package
is ;ivailable to geotechnical engineers to conduct the probability :tnalysis
of slope stability.
This papcr presents a computer package of probability :un;ilysis for
rock and soil slope stability. In this computer package. the strength
paraineters o f rock and/or soil inaterial such as cohesion. friction angle
and unit weight of the different rock and/or soil type domain i n ii
complex structural geology environment can he considered ;IS the hasic
input random variables. Groundwater level can also he taken into
account as a random variable in this package. Two 'rigorous' limit FIG I - Ovcrlap of shear stress : i i i d shear strength distributions (after
equilibrium solutions. the MorgensterdPrice method and the Sarma
Ileyet. 1982).
method, can he used to calculate the factor of safety during Monte Carlo
Simulation applied in this program. Five types of probability distribution
are included in this package for the user to siinulate basic input random
variables. Two realistic cases from BHP Iron Ore arc used to illustrate Although the mean strength of rock material is much greater
this package. th;iii thc mcan stress, variation in both can result i n a section
wlicrc the stress will exceed strength as shown in the hatched
INTRODUCTION m a and sliding or failure will occur. In slope stability analysis,
rcliahility is dctincd 21s the prohability that a slope will b e stable.
In the conventional rock and soil slope stability analyses, the
factor of safety associated with the limit equilibrium concept has In the last two decades. ;I number of geotechnical engineers
iincl reseiirch workers have hccn addressing the application of
been often applied as a measure to evaluate the stability of
slopes. A number of limit equilibrium methods tor rock and soil Iirohahility approaches to rock/soil slope stability and risk
slope stability assessment have been developed in the last four ;isscssment of open cut mines Moss and Steffen (1978). Herget
decades. To-date. the limit equilibrium solutions derived by (19x2). Kirsten ( 1983), Miller (l984), Nguyen and Chowdhury
Bishop (IYSS), Janbu (1973), Morgcnstern and Price (1965). (10x4). McMahon (1985, 19x8). Read (1994) and s o on. To-
Spencer (1973) and Sarma (1979) have been well recognised and tlate. however, no powerful computer package has been
widely used by geotechnical engineers around the world. dcvcloped to deal with the wriability or uncertainty of various
input data tor slopc stability assessment. This paper introduces a
However, these conventional methods d o not allow quantitative comprehensive computer package for the probability analysis of
consideration of the variability or uncertainty of the input data rock/soil slope stability. In this package cohesion, friction angle,
such as orientation, scalc and location of gcological defects, unit weight and groundwater level can be considered as basic
shear strength parameters of these geological detects, mechanical input random variables. All thesc parameters can be simulated by
properties of the rock or soil material or the groundwater level.
the M o n k Carlo simulation method based on live types of
In general, geotechnical engineers utilise prior experience and probability distribution. The Iiictor of safety can be c;ilculated by
choose upper bound or lower bound (conservative) input two 'rigorous' limit equilibrium solutions. the MorgernstedPrice
parameters to consider these uncertainties. and the Sarma methods.
For open pit mining, these uncertainties not only impact the
stability assessment of slopes but also influence mineral recovery
and financial returns. The volume of waste excavated usually
LIMIT EQUILIBRIUM APPROACHES
decreases with increasing overall slope angle. However, an Two witlcly used limit equilibrium solutions, the
increase in the wall angle may result in additional cost from MorgenstcrdPrice (M&P) and the Sarma methods arc used in the
cleaning up failed rock material, postponing mining or loss of prohability ;inalysis package that has been developed. The major
ore. Therefore, i t is best t o , u s e risk analysis to select an difference hetween these two methods is the assumption of a
optimised overall slope angle based on an understanding of rcl;itionship between interslice shear and normal forces.
geotechnical parameters in uncertainty. The key word in risk
analysis is uncertainty (Read, 1994). The best approach lor
M&P method
l'lic Morgcnstcrn and Price method (1965) is one of the most
1. Geoteehnical Engineer. Department of Mining Engineering and popular ;unong relatively 'rigorous' generalised procedure of
Product Quality Control, BHP Iron Ore. PO Box 655, Ncwlnan WA
6753. slice (GPS) methods. The nicthod can be used for both circular

Mining Geology Conference Launceston, 1 0 - 14 November 1997 147

DAWEI X U
and arbitrary slip surfaces. In this method, two factors of salety
which are based on both force and overall moment limit
equilibrium equations need to be calculated as follows:
F =
c
,=I
{C,AX, +( W, +AT, -U,)tan@,}seca, I m,,,
(1)
I
2I= I
(W, + A T , ) t a n a ,
in which, the relationship between interslice normal and shcar
forces Ei and Ti is assumed as,
where )r is an unknown coefficient and
f ( x i ) is a prescribed function with respect to co-ordinate x I
By adjusting the value of the coefficient a relatively
'rigorous' solution, ie Fj = Fm, can be obtained.
Sarma method
In this method, the non-vertical slices can be considered in
accordance with the rock defects. In contrast to other 'rigorous'
methods, the Sarma method considers only the force equilibrium
of each slice. This method invokes the possibility of shear
failure inside the sliding mass and assumes the degree of
mobilisation of shear strength inside the rock mass agrees with
that on the slip surface, ie the factor of safety is the same on tlie
slip surface and the internal shear planes. The static factor of
safety can be calculated by reducing the shear strength
simultaneously on the slip surface and the internal shear planes
until the following equation is close or equal to zero.
The parameters in Equation 4 were defined by Samar ( I 970).
The factor of safety is included in these parameters. An iterative
procedure is required for calculating the static factor of safety.
PROBABILITY ANALYSIS OF SLOPE STABILITY
The factor of safety (FOS) calculated by the Morgensternl Price
and the Sarma methods cannot be expressed by an explicit
mathematical formula. This means that the factor of safety has
to be calculated by an iterative procedure. I t is, therefore,
impossible to determine the accurate mean value and variance of
the factor of safety as well as the failure probability. In general,
three approximate approaches can be used to conduct a
probability analysis of slope stability:
i. the first order second moment method (FOSM);
ii. point estimate method (PEM) and
iii. Monte Carlo simulation (MCS).
Monte Carlo simulation is used in this computer package.
148 Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997
Definition of performance function
I n the probability analysis of slope stability, a performance
function. G ( X ) = FOS - I , is always used to indicate whether the
slope is in a 'safe state' (G(X)> 0) 01- i n a 'failure state' ( G ( X )<
0). Theretore, the failure probability ol' a slope can be defined as
follows
I>,=Pr( G(X/IO] (5)
The performance function, G(W. i h primarily related to the
slope layout. the rocklsoil material profiles, the slip surface
location, the rock/soil material properties (unit weigh, cohesion.
friction angle) and the groundwater level.
Basic input random variables for probabilistic analysis
Based on tlie three-dimensional visualised structural geology
model, which can be generated by the VULCAN system. the
uncertainty in identifying the failure mechanism of rock slopes
can be greatly reduced. Therefore, the uncertainty of the
geological model is not taken into iiccount in the developed
computer package. Of course, the errors from determining a slip
surface may signilicantly impact the results of the slope stability
analysis. These errors will be included in a further version of
this package. In this computer package, the basic input random
variables tor slope probability analysis are material properties
and groundwater level.
iMonte Carlo simulation method
The Monte Carlo simulation technique is a very important tool
for simulating the probability distribution of a system when the
variables i n the system are random. For the slope probability
analysis, the probability distribution 01' the performance function
or factor of safety can be simulated by this technique with a large
number of calculations. The failure probability can then be
statistically estimated. Moreover, the statistical moments of the
performance function can be easily estimated. A key task of
Monte CaIlo simulation i s to generate the appropriate values of
each random variable in accordmce with its prescribed
probability distribution. A total o f live types of probability
distribution are included i n this pxkage. They are normal
distribution. beta distribution, triangle distribution, logistic
distribution and uniform distribution. Thc first four distributions
are shown in Figures 2. 3. 4 and 5 respectively. Asymmetry of
the triangle and beta distributions can be simulated by assigning
tlie distribution parametcrs. For the normal and logistic
distributions, the truncation can he considered by setting up the
upper and lower bounds of the random variables. In most c;iscs.
x Value
Fic; 2 - Norinal distiihution
Mining Geology Conference
 PIIOBAHILITY ANAI.YSIS OF ROCK AND SOIL SLOPES

Tri (0.5) riindom v;iriables and the correlation coefficients between them
iirc specified. The failure probability of a slope can he defined
Tri(0.25) 7 by tlie ratio between numbers o f FOScI and numbers of FOS>I.
'The empirical distribution 01 FOS can be described with a
histogram. The mean value (111:) and standard deviation (OF) of
FOS can be estimated by the following equations:

x Value where. N is tlic number of simulations and F; is FOS

calculated at i-tli simulation.
FIG3 - Triangle distnbution
CASK STUDIES
'livo cases o f rock d o p e stability assessment were selected from
1
BHP Iron Ore for examining the developed package.

South Wall Pit-D stability analysis in Yarrie Mine

A critical section was selected from the south wall of Pit-D in
the Yarric Mine to conduct the probability analysis. The
potential failure mechanism i n this case was the contact between
HlFlOre and Mudstone/Granitc as shown in Figure 6. It was
obvious that this potential failure was of a multi-bench scale. No
rock mechanical test was carried out on this contact. Based on
tlic relevant rock mechanicd tests elsewhere, the rock mass
condition ;issessnient and tlie three-dimensional shape of this
x Value contact, tlie mean values of the shear strength parameters
d e c t e d for the stability analysis were pc = 50 kPa and = 25'.
FIG 4 - Beta distribution. The factor of safety based on GALENA, a limit equilibrium
;iniilysis package. was estimated I . 1 12. If the lower bound shear
strength p;iramctcrs are used tlie slope will fail. Groundwater
was not taken into account in tlie analysis because the water level

p
is lower than that of the cont:ict.

265
rk- BIF 7 ..........

- 255
E 245
c 235 Slope Profile
V.

7
"

2 225 t - -
f 215
2 205
x Value 195
185
222 242 262 282 302 322 342
Horizontal Distance (m)
FIG S - Logistic distribution

the normal distribution can be used to simulate the basic input
data for the slope probability analysis. However, depending on
how much knowledge has been obtained, other distributions may
need to be used for generating the basic input random variables.
Read (1994) mentioned that i f there is a genuine lack of
knowledge, the correct probability distribution is the uniform
distribution and the value that is selected will have 21 SO per cent
chance of being correct. Because maximum entropy in a closed
system is equivalent to maximum randomness o r chaos. all
outcomes are equally likely.
T h e empirical probability distribution of FOS for a rock
and/or soil slope can be simulated by the Monte Carlo simulation
method once the probability distribution of all the basic input
FIG6 - A criiicnl scction for thc south wall Pit-D stability analysis
I n ordci- to conduct probability analyses, the input data shown
i n liiblc I were used. A total of I O 000 time simulations were
carried o u t . All basic input data were assumed to he normally
distributed. After calculation, the mean value and standard
deviation of FOS obtained were 1.1 19 and 0.141 rcspectively.
The empirical and normal distributions of FOS for this section is
shown in Figure 7. It is interesting to note that the empirical
distribution of FOS was close t o the normal distribution. T h e
failure probabilities obtained from the empirical and the normal
distrihutions were 22 per cent and 20 per cent respectively.

Mining Geology Conference Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997 149

I DAWEI X U

TABLE
1

700 1.00
600 0.80 p ~

$500 -g;
g400 0.60 53
&300
:200
0.40 E3
100
0.20 z
0 0.00
xo qo qo s oq r; rg rq rq rp r
Factor of Safety

Flc; 9 - Distributions 0 1 k t o r of safety h;ised on input (lata with

nsyniinetric non-nornial distribution.

significantly affects the ,failure probability. The empirical and

normal distributions of FOS are shown in Figure 9. Comparing
Figures 7. 8 and 9 , it is interesting to note that the empirical
distribution in Figure7 is closer to the normal distribution than in
the other two figures.

Probability analysis under complex geological

FIG7 - Distributions of factor of safety based on input data with norinal
distribution.
The influences of different distributions of the basic input data
to the failure probability are examined with this example. In one
case the distributions of the cohesion and friction angle were
assumed subject to be Tri(0.S) and Beta(2.2) respectively. The
mean value and standard deviation of FOS obtained were I . I IS
and 0.140 respectively. The failure probabilities associated with
the empirical and normal distributions were slightly increased to
23 per cent and 21 per cent respectively. No significant
difference was found as non-normal . distributions are
symmetrical. The empirical and normal distributions of FOS are
shown in Figure 8. In another case, the distributions of the
cohesion an< friction angle were assumed to subject to he
Tri(0.6) and Beta(2.3) respectively. The mean value and standard
deviation of FOS are I .06S and 0.125 respectively. The f3'1 ' I ure
probabilities calculated by the empirical and normal distributions
were significantly increased to 33 per cent and 30 per cent. This
means that the asymmetry of the distribution functions
conditions
A slope cross section with complex ycological conditions i n the
Mt Whaleback mine WEIS selected for examining the package.
The structural geology model and slope profile arc showii in
Figure IO. The potential failure surf'ace is assumed along and
cross the Mcliae Shale beddings. The input data are presented in
Table 2. The groundwater level wxs taken into account :is the
random vai-iable i n this examination. All the basic input random
variables were assumed to lit a normal distribution. After IO 000
time simulations, the mean value of' 1-0s was 1.219 which was
slightly greater than that calculated on the basis of the
deterniinistic analysis (FOS = I . I91 ). The standard deviation of
FOS was 0.1 18. The failure prolxibility associated with the
simulated results was 7.8 per cent. The crnpirical distribution of
FOS is shown in F i y m I I . The failure probability based on the
normal distribution, N(pr:os = I .2 19. q - 0 =~0. I 18). was 8.5 per
cent. Figure I I ;11so shows that the empirical distribution was
very close to the normal distribution i i i this case.

330 4
20 60 100 140 180 220
Horlrontal Dlstance (m)

Fie: I O - A cioss-scclioii with coniplex geological condition.

FK;8 - Distributions of factor of safety based 011 input data wlth
syininetrical non-normal distribution.

150 Launceslon. 10 - 14 November 1997 Mining Geology Conference

I

Note: R,/H and RvJB mean that the relevant shear strength pnraineters are along the bcddlng planes of the McKac Shale.
FIG I I - Distributions of factor of safety based on input data with norinal
distribution (in coinplcx geological conditions).
RISWCOST ANALYSIS
I n the enginccring context, the term 'risk analysis' is almost
always related to an analysis within the framework o f probability
theory and costing. For example, if onc rock slope has a high
failure probability but the cost due to that slope failing is quite
low, thcn the risk of this slope may be in the low category. In
contrast to this, if a slope failure will sevcrcly jeopmlise mining
production o r significantly impact orebody exposure, the risk
may he high even if the failure probability is reasonably low. So
far no uniform theory or model is available to estimate [lic risk of
pit wall failure. Read (1994) proposed a conceptual model as
follows:
Risk = P, x [value of investmcnt to prevent failurc +
consequences of failure (financial, judicial, social and political
costs)) (7)
where, PI is failure probability of pit wall.
Herget (1982) suggested that the cost o f possible instabilities
may be estimated by:
C = P, x N x C,
Whcrc, PI is failure probability of pit wall;
N is number of unit cclls;
C, is cost of instability of a unit cell
It is remarkable that both equations need to use the failure
probability o f t h c slope to estimate the risk or cost.
Mining Geology Conference Launceston. 10- 14 November 1997
I'I<ORARILITY ANALYSIS OF ROCK AND SOIL SLOPES
B x e d on the experiences and case studies of slope failures.
Kirsten (19x3) developed a scale in which the failure probability
o f slopes w a s given for a range o f intervals between 0 and 100
per ccnt.
CONCLUSIONS
A comprehensive probability analysis computer package was
tlevcloped to provide a powerful tool for geotechnical engineers
to conduct the probability andysis of rock slopcs undcr complex
geological conditions. Five types of probability distribution were
used in this package to simulate the basic input data. Two
realistic cases were selected to conduct thc probability analysis
o f rock slopes bascd on the developed package. The calculated
results indicated that the failure probability was significantly
affected hy tlic asymmetry ol the distribution of the basic input
data. In most cases, as long iis the distribution functions are
peakiness or kurtosis the failure probability obtained by the
cinpirical distribution is close to the normal distribution. The
rcsults from the probability analysis can provide yeotechnical
ciigincers a quantitative confident level for assessing the slope
stability wlicn the basic input data have certainly unconfident
tlegrcc. I t is bclicved that tlic application of thc probability
;in;ilysis to the assessment ol' pit wall stability will not only
supplement tlic conventional stability methods available to
georcchnical cnginccrs but ;ilso bring significant financial
Ixiictils to open pit mining.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thc author gratet'ully acknowledges the permission of BHP Iron
Orc managcmcnt to use company data. Thanks are also extended
to Dr I4 Guo for his constructivc comments.
REFERENCES
Hishop. A W. l9SS. The use of tlic slip circlc in the stability analysis of
u cI. ):7- 17.
slopes, ~ ; c ~ o l e c ~ / r f l i yS(
HcIget. G, 19x2. Probabilistic dope design for open pit mines, Rock
Mec./icorr~..v. .SLI/I/I/, 12: 163- 17X
J;iiibu, N. 1977. Slope stability cotnputations, in Embtinkmenl Dttm
Enx:riicvi.in,q. (Eds: R C Hirschfeld and S D Poulos), pp 44-86
(Wiley).
(8)
Kirsten. H A 1). 1'9x3. Significmice of the probability of filure in slope
cnginceriiig. 711r Civil €n,qii~c~cr itr Souih Africro. 25( 1 ): 17-27.
McMahoii. H K, 19x5. Soine prxtical considerations of the estimation
of she:ir strength ofioints aiitl other discontinuities. in Proceedin,qs
Inwriicitiiinul Synposium I.'iint1timenrtrls Rock J i i r n ~ . ~ .(Lulea.
Sweden). lip 475-485.
McMahon. H K 1988. Geotechiiic;il design in the face of uncertainty.
A u . w o / i m Civil Eiixineerinx 7irirr.rtrcrions. CE30(3):93-IOS.
151
DAWEI XU

Miller. S M 1984. Probabilistic rock slope engineering, H(wtrrc~liI(qiorr. Sariria. S K 1079. Stability analysis 01 ciiibankinents and slopes. J
US Army Corp of Eng. /\.SCE, IO5( 12) I 5 1 I - 1 S24.
i ~ . i t/hi:
C ; ~ ~ i i r i ~ i . l ~ i iE112 l

Morgenslern. N R and Price. V E 196.5. The analysis of llic stability of Spenccr. E 1073. Tlii tist line ci-itcrion iii ciiihnnkirient stability analysis,
general slip surface. Georechniyite, 1.5:70-93. C;i’il/rt llIllC/UC. 23( I ) : K -100.

Moss. A S E and Steffen. 0 K H 197X. Geolechnology mid probability in Kcad, J I< L l W 4 . 1 1 1 4 ~iii~ilysis and iinccil.iiiity i i i open pit mine design.
open-pit mine planning. in Proceedings I / I h G i i i r n i o i t ~ v ~ ~ ~ rMi11
lrli I I ~ IL~ :I . Iv ~O ~~ V II’ir M I ~ I I I I Contrrertre,
iii I J ~ ~ ~ ( . ~ ( , [ J’” ~ pp I YJ- I 43.
wid Mcriill Coiigrexr. Hong Kong, pp S43-590. (The Aiistralasixi Inslitiite of Mining ;iiid Metallurgy: Melbouriie)
Nguyen. V U and Chowdhury. K N 1984. Prohabilistic analysis of
mining spoil piles - two techniques compared. I i i r Kook Mech .Fer
(;eoniecli Absir. 2 I (6):303-312.

152 Launceston, 10 - 14 November 1997 Mining Geology Conference

Using Rock Mechanics Classification to Reduce Ground
Instability in Amethyst Underground Mining
J C Koppe', A Zingano' and J F Costa'
ABSTRACT
Rraziliiin ainethyst production is mostly obtained from underground
mines in the southernmost part of the country. involving approxiinately
6O(X) miners and generating an income of US$ 20 million per yeor.
Amethyst-hearing geodes arc hosted by Cretaceous continental flood
bxalts of the Serra Geral Formation. The economic zone occurs i n the
massive (colonnade) intermediary section of the Sjio Gabriel Rasnlto.
The tunnels and stopes follow the occurrence of geodes Ie;iding to ;in
erratic and complex layout. A ground control survey reve:iled excessive
roof convergence. Topographic results show excessive roof deforination
and some roof falls have already been reported. To understand the ground
conditions, prevent roof falls and better define the pillar dimensions
detailed geoiricchanical mapping was carried out using lhc scanline
method. Uniaxial compressive strength tests provided complementary
information for rock inus classification. Results of the geomechanical
classification were used to modify the mining layout taking into account
the roof and pillar geomechanical characteristics. Retreat pillar mining
minimised ground instahility.
INTRODUCTION
Location
The amethyst deposits reported in this study cover an area of
approximately 16 000 ha with more than I O 0 0 drifts and a total
production of 300 t of amethyst per month. These dcposits are
located in the Medio and Alto Uruguay region in the
southernmost part of Brazil (Figure I). There are approximately
6000 workers directly involved in the operation of these mines
generating ii gross income of US$ 20 million per year (Koppe
and Costa, 1996).
FIG1 - Location map.
I. Mining Engineering Department. Federal University of Rio Grande
(lo SUI,Av Osvaldo Aranha 99/.504- Porto Alegrc - Hr:r/d - 9003S-
190.
Mining Geology Conference Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997
Geology
Thc Alto Uruguay geode-type amethyst deposits arc hosted by
continental Ilood hasalts belonying to the Serra Geral Formation
of Cktaceous age. 'The v o l c ~ ~ n succession
ic is reprcscnted by a
sequence u t nine basaltic to andesitic continental lavnl flow with
t h i n eolian arenite interlayers. The economic zone is confined to
the iiiasstve (colonnade) interrnediary section of the Sio Gabriel
H:lsalto.
Geologicill and structural mapping of the mineralised area
indicates that thc mineable m i c is restricted to a 2 to 3 m thick
horizon within an elongated zone that broadly delineates the tlow
'plug' of the basaltic unit. Within these mineralised zones there
is an inner core of densely clustered amethyst-bearing geodes.
The outer parts of mineralised zones contain significantly fewer
geodes tilled with quartz, amethyst, calcite, zeolite, gibbsite and
;ig;ile crystals (Correa, 1995).
Mining
Mining operations essentially involve the removal of the soft
overburden tiillowcd by the development of the main ;icccss drift
horizontally into [lie mineralised basalt layer. Mining is partially
inechaniscd and uses a rudimentary system for energy
distribution and water drainiigc. Light air compressors provide
energy to the pneumatic hammers required for drilling. Black
powder blasting is required to avoid damaging the quality of the
geodes. The waste muckpile is shovelled into small mine trucks
which transport the material to waste dumps adjacent to the main
entrance. The waste material consists of basalt and geode
fragments o t different granulotnetry. The valuable geodes are
carcl'ully rcmoved from the host rock by hand hammers.
Current ground instability
Pillars and underground opening dimensions were previously
dcsigned on the basis of mining experience and intuitive
pi-:ictices. Engincering methods based on geomcchanical rock
mass characterisation wcre never applied to the mine design.
The drives were tleveloped without any prior planning and the
stopes were developed following the rich mineralised parcels.
The lack of an appropriate mine plan created an inappropriate
layout with serious consequences for ground stability.
Given the ground stability problems reported in these mines. a
program of coniprchensive peotcchnical mapping was initiated in
order to:
I. identify unstable ground.
2. classily the rock mass, i ~ n d
3. propose ;in adequate design for the underground openings
and pillars.
This paper prcscnts the results of the rock mass classification
and proposes ;I new mining layout compatible with the
geoinech;inical characteristics of the mineable horizon.
hangingwall and the footwall.
PROCEDURE
Preliminary studies in the m i i recorded signilicant brittle
dctormation and Ioof falls rcwlting in zones of critical instability
153
 J C KOPPE, A C ZINGANO and J F COSTA

(Koppe ef al, 1993). To minimise the roof falls and also to !IO" and their freclticncy was mcasurctl at I .q joints per metre.
properly design pillars and underground openings detailed The joint frequency was used to measurc RQD by the method of
geomechanical mapping was carried out. Field and laboratory Priest ;iiid 1 ludson ( 1976):
work consisted of the following steps:
I. underground surveys measuring pillar and opening widths.
Detailed measurcments were taken at tunnel intersections
because of the increase in the roof span; where h i s the mean frequency oI h e discontinuiiies. RQD
was estimatcd at 98 per cent using Equation I which classilied
2. mapping the discontinuities using the sciinline method the matcrial as high quality i n terms 01' resistance.
(Brady and Brown, 1985);
3. uniaxial compression strength (UCS) tests on samples from
the zones where the scanline method was applied;
4. estimating the rock quality designation (RQD) following
the Priest and Hudson ( I 976) equation; and
5. application of two geomechanical classifications to the host
rock.
Scanlines were used following the criteria of mapping the left-
hand side of the drifts at the mid-point between roof and tloor.
Sample locations lor UCS tests are displayed in Figure 2.
These samples were collectcd at the main entrance, half distmce
from the entrance and close to the mining face along the main
drift. The samples were collected in zones without apparent
fractures avoiding the use of explosives to extract the material.

FIG1 - Rose diagram of joiiit orient;itions

UCS results arc summarised in Table I . The average strength

FIG2 - Map locating the underground tunnels (continuous line) and ihe
sampled locations for UCS tests (black dots).
is 103.1 Mpa. The values obtained !'or each of the parameters
used in calculating the KMR arc mnmarised in Table 2.
Combining the rcsiilts o f structural mapping with measured lJCS
and calculated RQD, results i n a RMR o f 74. Ratings for e;ich
parameter iire assigned from tables developed by Hicniwski
( I 973).

GEOMECHANICAL CLASSIFICATION TAHLE 1

Utriuxinl cotiipre.s.sioti ..strength t c s t s it1 basalt satnplcs.
Two methods for rock mass classification were used, namely
rock mass rating (RMR; Bieniawski, IY73 and 1976) and rock
quality index (Q; Barton et al, 1974). To define the RMR six
distinct rock propcrties are required. These rock properties take
into account rock mass physical properties and also the
orientation of the joints in relation to the orientation of the
opening. The parameters required include UCS, RQD.
permeability of the rock mass, joint spacing, joint characteristics
and their orientation in relation to the axis of the tunnel. The
value calculated for the RMR is in the range 0 to 100.
The scanline mapping revealed closed joints with low
roughness and persistence (approximately 1 m). A few
discontinuities of less than 1 mm were filled with calcite. Joint
spacing was observed to range from 0.1 m to 1.0 m. Two
predominant joints sets were recogniscd. The azimuth of the
predominant joint set was measured at 250' and of the minor
joint set 20' (Figure 3). The dip of these joints range from 45" to

154 Launceston, 10 - 14 November 1997 Mining Geology Conference

I

The second procedure used for rock classification is the rock
quality index or (Q) system of Barton er nl (1974) which uses the
following parameters: (i) number of joint sets (Jll), ( i i ) joint
roughness (Jr), ( i i i ) joint weathering (JJ, (iv) water tlow (J,) and
(v) a factor related t o existent tension in the rock niiiss. the stress
reduction factor (SRF). The rock quality index ( Q )is defined as:
(2)
RQD was again determined by the method of Priest and
Hudson (1976). Barton ei a / (1974) contains tables detailing
appropriate parameter values for J,, , Jr, JiI, J, and SRF. Table 3
summarises tlie values assigned to each of the remaining five
parameters required in calculating Q. The resulting vnlue of Q is
9.8 which classifies the rock mass in the group of resistant and
stable material (good quality rock) according to Hartoii er a1
(1974). The Q value confirms the RMR classification.
TABLE 3 Although the mineralised horizon was classified as good
Indices assipled 10 parariierers reyrrired iti rock quulir): index
cak:lclarioll.~.
I .o
SRF 2.5
Good quality rock allows excavations to stay unsupported for
several months or even years depending upon the selected span.
The actual mining layout (Figure 2) shows that the span of the
openings vary significantly resulting in situations where the
pillars are as narrow as 1 m. This erratic layout may lead to
future instability. The hanging wall, contr;iry to the mineralised
horizon, is highly fractured making it difficult to classify the
material properly. Geomechanical classification was not carried
out at the hanging wall rock mass.
EXCAVATION DESIGN
A new mine layout was proposed in order to minimise ground
instability and roof falls based on the rock mass classification
results. Considering the past mine practices and the available
equipment ;I major modification to the current mining method
was suggested. The pillar mining method was recommended.
This method involved developing several par;illel 5 m wide drifts
divided by 3 3 m wide pillars (Figure 4). The pillars were
Mining Geology Conlerence Launceston, 10 - 14 November 1997
R O C K MECHANICS CLASSIFICATION
o WATER WELLS
- WATER DRAINS
FIG4 - Plan view for the proposed mine layout
designed to take into account tlie rock pressure calculated by the
tributary ;ires method and its resistance based on the rock mass
classification (Hieniawski, 1984). The new mine layout
improved the safety of the mining operations without affecting
the operational costs.
CONCLUSIONS
To address the problem of ground instability and roof falls a
monitoring program and ;I geomechanical rock mass
classification were carried out. Two rock mass classification
methods were used. namely rock mass rating (RMR) and rock
qu;ility index (Q), to classify the inineralised horizon as rock of
good quality. The hanging w;ill was extremely fractured and
classified as poor rock.
qtiality, rock haphazard mining development generated zones of
roof and pillar instability. The current mine layout required
modification i n order to improve underground safety. A new
mine layout wiis proposed. taking into account the
geomechanical characterisation of the rock niass ;IS well as
operational and financial aspects. The efficiency of the proposed
mining method h x not yet been evaluated and will require
continuous roof and pillar monitoring during its implementation.
The additional information ohtained from the monitoring
program based on measuring roof convergence will he used to
control ground stability.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Financial support for this work was provided by CNPq
(Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cientifico e
Tecnol6gico), FLE (Fundaqiio Luis Englert) and PADCT/FINEP
(Program de Apoio ao 1)esenvolvimento Cientifico e
Tccnologico - Fin;inciadora de Estudos e Projetos). research
organisations in Brazil. Thc authors thank Andrew Richmond
for his comments and proofreding this paper.
REFERENCES
H;ii.ton. N I<. Lien. K and Lundc. J 1974. Engineering classification of
rock III:~SSCS 101- the design ot’ tunnel support, Ro( k MechiniL.s.
0:189-239.
Hictiiawski. Z T. 1073. Engineering classification o f jointed rock masses,
7i.cttr.s S o i t r h Afr.iwri Itisr Civ /..tip, I5:335-344.
Hietiiawski. Z T 1076. Rock in;is classification in rock enginccring. b~
h p h ~ ~ t ~frw i ~ rock
t i eti,qittc~~ti t i , ~ , (Ed: Z T Hieniawski) I :97-
I06
( A A l3;ilkeni:i: Cipe Town).
155
I J C KOPPE, A C ZINGANO and J F COSTA

Bieniawski. Z T, 19x4. Rock niechrmic.v desixri LI rninIrr,q c i r i d f i t r i t i c / ~ t r ~ ,
272 p (AA Balkemn: Rotterdam).
Brady. B H G and Brown. E T, 1985. Ri1c.k Mec~/rrrrirc~.cfirr Ud?rxritiirid
MItiItig. 527 p (George Allen and Unwin: London).
Correa. T E. 1995. Geologia e crittrios de prospecc;9o para os dcspositos
de ainetista do Alto Uruguai. MSc dissertation (unpuhlished).
Mining Engineering Department. Universidadc Federal do Kio
Grantle do SUI. Hmzil.
Koppe. J C and Costa, J F C L, 1996. Environmental issues and social
effects of the amethyst underground mining in southeminost Hruzil.
in /'nrcwdinx.c of SWkTMPY6. (Ed: R Ciccu) pp I 1 13-1 I 2 0
(Marghcrita di Pula: Cagliari).
Koppe. J C: Costa. J F C L: Jahlonski. A . Hrcssani. L A; Azainbol:i, M
A; G;ivroiiski. J I):Sa1v:idoretti. P :ind .Muller, B. 1993. I'Ioposiqdcs
de solusc?cs tcciiic;is dc ciigeiiharia p x i inclhorin das condiqics dc
segurmqa e higieiic tlo [I:ihalho eiti y i i n p o s de ainetista. Mining
Eiigiiieering Dcpt iiiterii:il technical Icport, Fetler:il Uiiivcrsity 0 1 Kit>
Graiide do SUI. Porto AlegIe. Brazil.
Priest. S L) and Hutlsoii, J A. 1976. Discoittinuity spacings in rock. / , I [ J
Rock Mec.hcirric..vMiri S c ~ c ~ / r c ~ . 17:
v , 135-I4X.

156 -
Launceston, 10 14 November 1997 Mining Geology Confererice
Structural Geological Modelling for Geotechnical Investigations
at BHP Iron Ore, Newman, Western Australia
J Ronaszeki'
ABSTRACT
Structural geological modelling is a process which results i n a
3D computer model that represents the essence of the geological
and structural understanding of an area and is presented i n a way
that is directly useable, typically by internal customer groups.
HHP Iron Ore operates a number of open cut iron ore niines i n
the Pilbara Region of Western Australix The largest mine is the
MI Whaleback Mine located at Newman close to the southern
margin of the Pilbara Craton. The structurally complex Mt
Whaleback Mine is the largest metalliferous single pit open cut
mine in Australia with over 1 .G billion fonnes of original iron ore
resource. Additional to the Mt Whalehack Mine, ii number of
satellite open cut iron ore mines are operated by BHP Iron Ore
(BHPIO) in tlie Newman area. BHPIO also operates the Yarrie
mine approximately 400 km north of Newman at the northern
edge of the Pilbara Craton
Most of the BHPIO mines are located in the Archean-
Proterozoic Hamersley Province that overlies the Archean
granite-greenstone terrain of the Pilbara Craton. The orebodies
are considered to be the result of supergene enrichment of the
approximately 2.5 Ga Brockman Iron Formation and the slightly
older Marra Mamba Iron Formation.
Folding represents the most prevalent and penetrative
structural element in the Newman area. Four folding phases have
been identified regionally (FI, F2, F3. Fs), while :I more local
folding deformation (Fj) developed mainly in the Mt Wh;ileback
and Orebody 29 mine area.
A northeast trending. southeast dipping, 45 km long, high
angle. normal fault zone, the Whaleback Fault Zone, cuts
through the Mt Whaleback mine resulting in ;in approximately
1400 m gap in stratigraphy. Additionally, two large, low angle,
normal faults, the East Footwall Fault and the Central Fault, are
present at tlie Mt Whaleback Mine. During the formation of
supergene orebodies, up to 40 - 45 per cent volume loss occurred
resulting in local non-tectonic deformation in the orebodies.
I. Principal Geologist. B H P Iron Ore, PO Box 6.55. Nrwrmin WA
67.53, Australia.
Mining Geology Conference Launceslon. 10 -
The nectl for structural geological modelling to support slope
stability investigation has been highlighted by a major wall
t'ailure in August 1'9x9 on thc South Wall of the Mt Whaleback
Mine. Three slope failures I'ollowed shortly after (September
I99 I, February I992 and July 1992) on pit walls designed in the
1980s. All failures were structurally controlled. therefore
improving srructurd geological understanding plays i i major part
i n optimising pit slopes f o r RHPlO. Structural geological
modelling has been systematically and successfully used at
I3llPIO since I992 when the company placed a major emphasis
on developing in-house expertise.
A Strucrural Geology Group in Newman supports all the
operiitions. After establishing ;I project, all previous data are
reviewed and :I structural geological data collection program is
established. During the structural modelling phase, all relevant
structural geological data ;ire evaluated from all sources
including structural mapping, diamond core evaluation and
reverse circulation drilling interpretation. Stratigraphy, structural
elements, structtml style and deformational sequence are
identified. All relevant data iirc digitised and transferred into
data bases. interpretation is facilitated by using state of the art
Silicon Graphics workstations iind Vulcan software. 'I'he product
o f structural interpretation are 3D open or closed surface models
o r solid structural block modcls that can be viewed ;ind sliced at
any orientation.
3D sri-uctural computer inodelling resulted in ;I manyfold
increase i n speed in structural interpretation. The model can be
kept up to date and a lot of 'what if' scenarios can be investigated
quickly :ind cos^ -effectivcl y.
14 November 1997 157
158 Launceston, 10. 14 November 1997 Mining Geology Conference
Drilling and Geophysics

Session Chairperson

Garxy McArthur
Aberfoyle Resources Limited
Applications of Downhole Electromagnetics in Extensional
Exploration in the >NickelMines of Kambalda
A Wellington'

ABSTRACT billion y e m old. This sequence was intruded by gr;initoids after

I'orination ; i d thcse granitoitls now comprise a large proportion
Kmnbalda is loc;ited within the Yilgarn Craton of Wester11 Australia,
specifically in the Norseiuan - Wiluna greenstone belt. Nunierous nickel o f tlie Yilgiirti. At least four I)IIIISCS of deformation contribute to
sulphide deposits have been inined at Kainbalda with I I niiiies currently tlie structurC of tlie area, ;ind two phases of metamorphism have
operating. For several years. ;I program of in-mine geophysics has been occurred (Cowtlen and Rohcrts, 1990). Metamorphism has
operating at Kainhalda. with downhole electroiiiagnetics ( D I E M ) one of reached upper greenschist to lower amphibolite facies.
the key techniques used. Three case studies illustrating the uses of The Kanibalda Nickel deposits ;ire distributed within a 100 x
DllEM i n niines are presented here. In the first example. the Helmut
30 kin are;i. with deposits loc;itcd within discrete fault blocks of
Soiith deposit was discovered as the result of an extensional exploration
program. The first drill hole i n the program intersected ore width and f:ivourablc stratigraphy. Economic deposits Iiiivc been
grade mineralisation at around 760 in depth. Two suhscquent holes discovered in the following blocks: Kambalda Dome, Tramways,
intersected suhgrade mineralisation. DHEM surveys were completed in Wirlgcimooltha Dome. Fostei- area and Golden Ridge. Similar
each of these three holes. with anomalies recorded indicating that a large deposits ;ire also found to the North (cg Leinster deposits, Mt
conductor was located directly south of the first hole. The next hole Keith. 1.loncymoon Well) and i n the Forrestania Greenstone Belt
intersected this target. for an intersection of 21.6 i n at 3.5 per cent Ni. to the West. A location plan o f Kambalda is presented in Figure
DHEM continued to play a role ;IS the exploration program proceeded. I.
providing drill hole targeting based on anoiiialous responses recorded i n
each drill hole. I n the second example from Carnilya Hill, old drill holes KAMBALDA
were surveyed with DHEM in order to search ;i large section of
prospective contact for massive ore pods. An off-hole ;inonialy was
- fKALGOORLIE
NICKEL MINES
NICKEL SMELTER AND PROSPECTS
detected and subsequent mining discovered a siiiall but high-grade pod of LEQEND
ore which was extracted for a considerable profit. C:iriiilya Hill ha$ WMC TENEMENTS
limited reserves and discoveries such as this, assist in keeping the mine __-
. ~. t - -
0 NICKEL MINES
operating. In the third example froin Victor. a prograin of drilling
intersected thin ore profiles in an interpreted fliinking position. Without
iiiassive ore close hy. these intersections probably do not constitute .-' CARNILYA
HIU
economic inineralisation. DHEM surveys of three holes did not detect
any conductors. The areii is now regarded as sterilised of significant
inassive ore and exploration efforts and dollars can be focused in other
m a s . These three exaniplcs demonstrate the type of siicccsses that can
he achieved through the use of DIEM.

INTRODUCTION
Several years ago, i t was renlised that the large resource of drill
holes at Katnbalda was being under utilised. A successful
program of borehole geophysics had been itnplemcnted for
exploration around the mines. so wliy not d o the same for in-
mine exploration'? T h e result of this question was ;I number of
geophysical experiments conducted :it the Kambiilda nickel
mines. T h e success of these experiments prompted the
deployment of ;I full-time mine geophysics team on-site.
Surveys are now routinely conducted at e x h of the I I operating
mines of Kambalda Nickel Operations. This paper details the
results from one technique which has been incorporated into in-
mine and near-mine exploration at K;itnbalda; the technique of
downhole clectromagnetics (DHEM). Brief introductions to the
regional setting and stratigraphy are presented, followed by ;I
review o f the deposit geology. A description of the DHEM
technique follows, and an explanation o f wliy i t was chosen as ;I
potentially useful technique. Three case studies are then
presented to illustrate the way in which DHEM is used at
FIGI - Location plan of the Kaiiihalda area showing the positions o f the
Kambalda. qcrating nickel niines. WMC mining and exploration lexes are also
shown. Hcliiiut South, Carnilyn Hill and Victor are Iabelletl (case studies
KEGIONAL SETTING :ire presented f r o m each of these mines).

The Kambalda nickel deposits lie within the Norsetriati - Wiluna

Greenstone Belt in the Yilgarn Craton of Western Aubtralia. The STRATIGRAPHY AND DEPOSIT GEOLOGY
host sequence is a volcanic and seditnentary packasc around 2.7
~ ~ ~~ ~ ~~ Stratigraphy
I. WMC Resources Ltd. Kanib;ilda Nickel Operations. Post Office. ..I he str;itigr;iphic
soquencc ol [lie K;itnbalda district 1 5 ;is follows
K ; ~ ~ n b aWA
l h 6442.
(bee Figure 2). The hasal unit is the Lunnon 13asalt. which is o l

Mining Geology Conference Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997 161

A WELLINGTON

tholeiitic composition and, of at least 2000 m thickness. Above
this is the Silver Lake Peridotite ultramafic unit, iit the base of
which arc located the nickel sulphide deposits. The deposit
characteristics will be discussed in detail later. l'he Silver Lake
Peridotite consists of one to three flows (Stone, 1007) between
30 and 100 m thick. Metamorphism and alteration have been
extensive but igneous textures such as cumulate and spinifex
textures are sometimes preserved. Alteration of ultramatics
commonly results in either; talc dominant or serpentine dominant
lithologies.
The contact between the Lunnon Basalt and the Silver Lake
Peridotite is often covered by sulphidic sediment. Such
sediments are generally only present in unmineralised tlank
environments.
Above the Silver Lake Peridotite is the Tripod Hill Member;
another ultra-mafic unit. This unit is up to 700 m thick and
composed of numerous thin flows 0.5 to I O m ,thick (Thomson,
1989). This sequence is essentially unmineralised. Above tlie
Tripod Hill Member is a thick sequence of hasalts and sediments
Ore zones are typically composed 01 three ore types; massive,
matrix ;ind disseminated ores (see F I p c 3). Massive oIc is
present on the basal contact and is dclined ;IS ore with greater
than 80 per cent sulphide. Sulphide species present ;ire
pyrrhotitc, pentlandite. pyrite, chnlcopyritc plus other minor
species. Magnetite and chromite can also be present i n
signiticant proportions i n massive ore. Nickel grade in massive
ore varies substantially hetween deposits and within deposits.
High tenor examples, such as Victor'. have nickel grades i n
'
massive ore as high as 23 per cent, while low tenor orebotlies,
such as llelmut. have Nickel grades i n massive ore of six to eight
per cent
BARREN
ULTRAMAFIC

i
DISSEMINATED
(Devon Consols Basalt, Paringa Basalt, Black Flag Beds). The ORE
Av 1.5% Ni
entire sequence is intruded by dolerites and granitoids. 'l'he
complete stratigraphic column is presented in Figure 2.

ZIRCON
WAMBALDA STRAlTGRAPHY MATRIX ORE
Av 3.5% Ni
(GE DATING TRES
-7-7-7-7-1-7 ME
--- ---
MA
MEROUGIL
FORMATION MAGNETITE-
6500 RICH MATRIX
ORE LAYER 4- PYRITE SELVAGE
6000 LAYERED
BLACK MASSIVE ORE &FOLIATED PYRITE
FLAG Av 10%Ni LENSES
BEDS
6500
4---SPINEL-RICH
1 LAYER
CO*D~*,lR 5000
FOOTWALL I1
-
I*D.I"*CIIW
WLCllrru BASALT
G.W"OS STRINGER
4500 J '

0 u)
4000
PARINGA
BASALT
3500

E%
:tl
-
3000
KAPAl SLATE
DEVON CONSOLS -.-
BASALT 2500
I----,.. L

I
1RVM"lLl
KAMBALDA mcwDcn FIG3 - Iklailcd stratigraphy of ;I rypical orc prolilc.
KOMATllTE 2000
SLLMllAlS
"11.11

1500

LUNNON
BASALT
L 2
FIG 2 - Stratigraphic column of the Kainhalda area
Deposit geology
Nickel sulphide deposits typically occur within trough structures
in the footwall basalt, where sulphides accumulate. The range of
dimensions of the deposits arc given by Marston and Kay ( I 980).
Deposits are up to 3000 m long, 300 m wide, generally less than
5 m thick and consist of between 0.5 and ten million tonnes of
ore.
1000 Above the massive ore, a layer of niatrix ore generally exists.
atrix ore is defined as having hetween 40 and 80 per cent
-500 sulphide, with the remainder generally being ultramafic rock.
Above tlie matrix ore is generally a 1;iyer of disseminated ore.
Disseminated ore is defined as having less than 40 per cent
sulphidcs within ;in ultramafic rock. Thicknesses of
disseminated ore can be highly variable between deposits and
within ;I single deposit. Nickel grades within disseminated orc
are generally not sullicient to allow mining without some
massive or matrix ore being present.
The Kambalda deposits are complicated by the later intrusion
of felsic and intermediated dyke swarms (generally referred to :IS
porphyries). These dykes oitcn intrude along the
basalt/ultramatic contact, obliterating the ore.
IN-MINE GEOPHYSICS
The starting point tor most geophysical programs is to identify
the physical properties of tlie target to be identified, in this case,
B nickel sulphide orebody. Once the physical properties are

162 Launceston, 10 - 14 November 1997 Mining Geology Conference

 APPLICATIONS OF DOWNHOLE ELECTROMAGNETICS IN EXTENSIONAL EXPLORATION
known, :I contrast between the target properties and host
sequence properties must be found. The physical properties of
the nickel sulphide orebodies are as follows.
high density,
mid to high magnetic susceptibility,
high conductivity, and
minimal seismic velocity contrast with host sequence.
From the above physical properties, one might expect
electrical, gravity and magnetic methods to be ;ippropriate in
searching for these deposits. However, neither gravity or
magnetics are particularly appropriate due t o their low resolution
and the small size of the orebodies. In addition. the basalts and
ultramatics ;ire both reasonably dense and the ultramatics have
high magnetic susceptibility. The relatively small size of the
nickel sulphide unit also makes direct detection by either gravity
or magnetics difficult. This can be demonstrated by constructing
a standard section with and without a sulphide body present. and
then calculating the magnetic or gravity response of each.model.
Even when a vcry large (750 m dip extent, 40 in thickness)
sulphide body is added to the section, the response does not
change noticeably for either gravity or magnetics (see Figure 4).
M d c l data olmpgnetic profile ovcr komsliitc hosted nickel sulphidr%
UPPcr Basal Komaliitc Nickcl I3a<alt h-0 003
b:isaltr Flow k-0 05 Sulphidcr
k=O 001 k=O 187
Modcl data o f m a i n c l i c profile over komsliilc flow wilh no nickel sulphidrs.
0-1 Komaliilc Basalt k-0 003
basalt Flow k=O.OS
k-0 001
FIG 4 (a and b) - Theoretical inagnetic response calculated oveI two
synthetic sections. One section has a vcry large nickcl sulphide unit (a)
while the other does not (b). There is very little difference hetwcen the
c:ilc~latedresponses for sections a and h.
This leaves electrical methods as the most likely to be useful i n
directly detecting the sulphide bodies. The conductivity of the
mineralisation is up to 100 000 times higher than the host
sequence, so electrical methods are the ideal technique to use. In
particular, downhole electromagnetics (DHEM) is the technique
identified as the most likely to detect nickel sulphide
mineralisation. A detailed description of the DHEM method can
be found in Eadie and Staltari, 1987. A brief summary of the
technique follows.
Mining Geology Conference Launceston. 10 -
DHEM involves transmitting an oscillating electric current into
ii wire loop positioned close to the area of interest (surface loops
are the most common, but underground loops have been used).
,.
I his I-csults i n ;in oscillatin? magnetic field being generated,
which i n turn generates a curl-cnt in any conductors present in the
ground. The oscillating nxignetic tield generated by these
currents is detected by the receiver probe which is positioned in a
drill hole. A protile is built up by taking measurements of the
ch;ingc i n inagnctic lield with time at a number of st;itions along
the hole. If conductors are present, an anomaly (either a peak,
trough or combin;ition) will iippear on the profile. From the
shape of this anomaly. the SIK and approximate position of the
conductor can often be determined. More conductive bodies
produce longer decays, and their anomalies can be recorded at
later delay times. In simplc tcrms, high conductivity bodies
produce ;inomalics on late time decays (referred to ;is 'late time'
responses)
In-mine geophysics currently performed at Kamhalda can be
grouped into two main c;itegorics: extensional exploration
iiround the existing deposits and re-evaluation of previously
mined ;ireas. Typically, down plunge extensions of nickel shoots
;ire not completely drilled out before mining commences, so
exploration continues through tlic life of the mine.
Use of Dl IEM surveys in extensional exploration can increase
tlic efficiency of drilling programs in a number of ways:
Drill spacings can be increased as DHEM has a large search
radius mound the drill hole (this search radius depends on the
hize and conductivity of the target).
When an anomaly is detected. a vector toward the
mineralisation can be given through detailed modelling,
which can tocus the drilling program quickly to the desired
target.
When mineralisation is iiitcrsected, DHEM surveys can give
a i indic;ition of the size ol the body and its attitude.
I n addition to this, areas where no anomalies arc detected can
he identified a s having minimal potential therefore lowering
drill priority.
Re-evaluation ot old areas th;it have been mined previously is
another area where DHEM c;in assist in locating ore hlocks. In
structurally complex areas. i t i s common for pods 01' ore to be
rcinobilisctl away from the main ore surface. Such pods arc
dillicult to target with drilling but can often be detected via
DHEM surveys from existins drill holes. If an ore block is
loc;itcd, i t is generally close to existing development and can be
extracted at minimal cost.
CASE STUDIES
Helmut South
The Helmut South prospect i s located down plunge from the
Helmut shoot. i n the Tramways area South of Kambalda (see
Figure I). Helmut is a large but relatively low-grade orcbody,
composed ol' generally matrix and disseminated ore. Helmut
Soiith is ;I similar deposit, hut with a larger component of
massive ore.
Drilling to the south of Helmut had appeared to constrain the
deposit, as ii traverse of holes intersected subgrade mineralisation
and a shallowing of the trough plunge. A drill hole (TD5747)
was planned to test the contact IS0 m down plunge of the last
suhgrade intersection to estahlish if the trough steepened or
mineralisation could he itlentilicd. This hole intersected
mineralisation of economic width and grade at a depth of more
than 760 in. When drilling holes to these depths, accurate
targeting is vital, to minimise the number of barren holes drilled.
DHEM surveying was identified as the best way to provide such
targeting.
14 November 1997 163
 A WELLINGTON

-_ - - .- __
The DHEM log of TD.5747 indicated that tlie mineralisation
HELMUT
continued predominantly to the south, with some continuation to OREBODY
the east of the hole, so a wedge was drilled testing the contact 40 7
m to the east of TD.5747. This hole intersected a subgrade
intersection, with only a small associated EM response. Though LEGEND
only of a low level, the response indicated the strongest potential
RECENT DRILLING
was to the South. A new hole TD.5073 was started 60 m to the
south and 40 m east of TD.5747. This hole intersected subgrade
mineralisation but a large off-hole DHEM response was detected.
! ._
-
(DOWVIIOLE INIFHSECTIONSI

PORPHYRY
O L :
This was a high amplitude, late time response indicating a large LI ORE POTENTIAL METRES

and highly conductive body (see Figure 5 ) . A recommendation 514100rnN

was made to wedge to the west, with the resulting liole
intersecting 22 m of ore including 6 m of massive ore. 'l'lic
DHEM survey of this hole indicated a further continuation of the
body to tlie West. with this interpretation proven to be correct by
two subsequent holes (Figure 6 shows a plan of the drilling after
four holes had been completed and Figure 7 is a cross-section at
5 I39.50N after the two subsequent holes were drilled).

513950rnN I

,I'*I
.

FIG6 - Plan of Helrnut Soiith after four drillholes had been c~implctcd
DHEM vcctors have been depicted with :wows The anomaly above was
recortled 111 tlie hole I;ibellcd S/G and T115073Wl was drilled as a result.
I
7 0 7 8 0 The resultiiig intcrscctioii confirmed tlic Dl-IEM interpretation 1h;it ;I
, ,,*.,,,,, . I , . , , , . , I . , , . , ,, . , , , , , . , . , ,,,,., signi1ic:iiit conductor existed to the west Two nuinhers appear next to
each tlrillhnle. The lirst is the down hole length of the intersection. ;uid
the secoiid IS tlie grxle of the ~ntersection For exaniple. TDSO73W I 11.1s
FIG S - DHEM log of drill hole TDS073. A large negative response is f 2o In.6 metres ;II \ 5 per cent nickel.
;in ~ ~ ~ t e r s c c ot ~
present between 780 and 870 in. This was interpreted to be produced hy
nlarge conductor located west ofthe hole. The horizontal axis show:.
metres form the collar of the drill hole. The verticd :\xis scale is i i i
microvolts/amp. The numbers at the end of each trace refer to the dec:iy
channel.

Drilling has continued on several sections further south, with

DHEM interpretations providing vectors to assist targeting. To-
date, intersections have generally been large thicknesses of
matrix and disseminated sulphides of ore grade.
In the case of Helmut South, the use of DIIEM surveying
provided encouragement to continue an exploration program
after two subgrade intersections had been obtained. With liiniied
geological encouragement and a very deep target, tlic explor;~ion
program [nay well have been abandoned. But the geophysical
signs were highly promising and more holes were drilled. This
led to the discovery of a significant orebody, which is now
estimated at between half and one million tonncs. In addition to
this, accurate targeting of the drilling program led to a reduction FIG7 - Cross-section of Helinut South lookiiig nonh. Two nuinhers
i n the number of holes required to deline the deposit and provide appear next to e:ich iiiters~cti~in.The first 1 5 the down hole length of the
substantial cost savings. intersection, nntl the second IS the grade ot tlie intersection. For exaiiiplc,
TD5073W3 has a11~iitersectionof five iiictres at seven per cent nickel.
Carnilya Hill
Carnilya Hill is a mature nickel mine nearing the end of its life deposit's reserves Ii;ive Ixen ne;ii.ly depleted. Continued
(location is shown in Figure I). Commenced in 1980. the production is posuble hccnuse of timely discoveries of high-

164 Launceston. 1 0 - 14 November 1997 Mining Geology Conference

 APPLICATIONS OF DOWNHOLE ELECTKOMAGNETICS IN EXTENSIONAL EXPLORATION

grade ore sources. This material can be blended with the

extensive low-grade resources that cannot be economically
extracted on their own. Locating these high-grade pods is the
major challenge for in-mine geophysics at Carnilya I l i l l .
Carnilya Hill is a structurally complex deposit. with high-
grade pods often located in structural 'jags' i n the footwall
contact. Numerous 'jags' exist. but not all are mineralised. They
are a difficult drill target, because of their small s i x , but are very
rewarding it' they can be found because of their high-grade.
Furthermore, a drill hole may pass within ;i few centimctres of ii
pod of ore with no indication o f that pod recorded i n the drill
core. On the positive side, many of these holes do allow
geophysical testing of large sections of prospective contact.
Mxiy such holes exist at Carnilya Hill, so a program of DHEM
surveying was commenced to locate high grade-pods of ore that
had been missed by previous drilling.
An initial area of 120 m strike length was selected and nine
holes were logged with DHEM (a level plan showing tlie drill
holes i s presented in Figure 8). Three anomalies were detected: FIG9 - DHEM log ol'CAN3- I80 There is a response bctwccii IS and 35
in holes CAN 3-98. CAN3-180 and CAN3-185. The anomaly in ni iiiterprctcd to indicate an oft-hde conductor. The h o r i m i t a l axis
CAN3-98 indicated a very small pod of ore and was not shows incircs forin tlic collar of the drillhole. The vertical axis scnle is in
considered significant. The anomaly in CAN3- I 8 5 is modelled inicrovolts/:iinp. The nunihers :it the end of each trxe refer to the decay
;is a small off-hole conductor and is most likely to be the floor c1i;iiineI.
pillar of an old stope. The third anomaly (in CAN3-180, see
Figure 9) was considered significant, and could not be explained
by any known geology (Figure I O is a cross-section of the area).
A body of relatively low conductivity, and around I O x 10 in i n
size was indicated by the data. The body appeared to be close to
the 327 Mill Hole, and an inspection of the site revcalcd a small
amount of low-grade disseminated ore in the wall. l h i s provided
significant encouragement to commence mining, given that any
development cost could be covered by the value of the contained
nickel in the disseminated ore. A drive cut was taken in this
position, revealing a small amount of massive ore. A second
drive cut revealed massive ore 1.5 m wide extending from the
floor to the backs. Driving continued for several more cuts. The
eventual size of the block was similar to that predicted by the
geophysics and the block was extracted at consideriible profit.
With interest rekindled in the area, other similar disseminated ore
faces were mined leading to other high-grade blocks being
di scovercd,
FIGI O - Cross-scctionof the showing hole 3- I80 and the position of the
IIHEM n n o i n d y . Old stopes ahove the hole are shown. Thc coinplexity
0 1 the I,:isnlt/iiliraiii;iiic contact is also evident.

discovery paid t'or all the previous geophysical programs at

Carnilya Hill many times over. I t is also fair to say that without
the input of geophysics this ore block would not have been
found, as the area was previously thought to be mined out.

FIG8 - Level plan of the 320 decline area at Cnrnilya Hill. The three
holes which had recorded anomalies are shown. The pod of massive ore
adjacent to the 327 mill hole was located by a DIIEM siirvey of
hole 3-180 and subsequently mined.
This discovery was precisely the type required to keep
Carnilya Hill operating, and as such was a success for the in-
mine geophysics program. In fact, tlie profits from this one
Victor NO8
The Victor mine is located on the Kambalda Dome (see Figure
I ) . Victor is ii tnature mine, but with significant potential for
discovery ot' new ore surlaccs. One such surface is the NO8
surkice, which is located on the flank of the niiiin channel.
Drilling h x l yielded several plwnising intersections to-date. The
surface i s o f p;irticular interest because i t is only ;iround 50 m
from current development. Mineralisation on tlie NO8 i s
generally disseminated with rare massive ore on the contact. The
distribution and size of thcsc isolated massive ore pods will
probably determine the viahility of mining the surface. A recent
program of three holes was drilled into the southern section of
the NO8 with typically t h i n intersections of disseminated
mineralisation obtained. Suhsequent DHEM surveys did not
detect any significant conductors. As a result, it can he

Mining Geology Conference Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997 165

 A WELLINGTON
concluded that there is no massive ore of significant size close to
1 the holes. In this case, DHEM has been used to ‘sterilise’ this
section of contact so exploration efforts can be focused
el sewhere.
CONCLUSIONS
The three case studies presented above demonstrate that the use
of DHEM in and around the nickel mines at Kambalda has
greatly assisted extensional exploration. In the case of Helmut
South, DHEM provided encouragement to persevere with an
expensive exploration program. Subsequent drill holes, targeted
with DHEM, discovered a large orebody.
In thc case of Carnilya Hill, a small pod of high-grade ore was
found by DHEM surveying and was mined for a considerable
profit. The timely discovery of this pod provided additional
high-grade tonnes and rekindled interest in that area of the mine,
leading to other discoveries.
In the case of Victor NO8 surface, the effective sterilisation of
an area enabled exploration efforts to be focused elsewhere.
166 Launceston. 10 -
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author would like to thank WMC lor permission to publish
this paper. 1 wc;uld iilso like to thank acknowledge the
contributions of [lie following people; Greg Turner, Nick Euton,
Geoff Chapman, Ben Palich, Vikash Sing11 and Paul Mutton.
KEFERENCES
Cowden. A C and Rohens, r) E. 1990. Koiii;itiitc hosted nickel deposits.
Kairihalda. i n < ; d o g ! of Ilrr minoni/ depp0siI.y of A m i r c i h (urd
P q m i Nen, 6‘rirrreci (Ed: F E Hughes) 567-58 I. (The Australasian
Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Mrlboiirne).
Eddie. E C and Staltari. G . I9R7. Introduction to downliolc
electroiiiagneticiiiethotls. hphroriofr (;wp/iy,vic,y, I8:247-2S4
Marstoii, K J and Kay. H I).1980. The distribution. pctrology and
genesis of nickel ores ;it the Juan coinplex, Kainbalda, Western
Aiistralia. Ecoiiofuir ( ~ ( J / ( J K )75:546-.5(15.
~,
Stone. W E, 1997 K N O Geological Inducrion 1.iandbook. WMC
intcrnal docunient. Unphlishcd.
Thoinson, H, 1989. I’etrolopy and stratigraphy of some texturally well
preserved thin kotnatiites from K;iinhalda, Western Australia.
Mtipiziw. I26:249-26 I,
Geo/o,~icrr/
14 November 1997 Minlng Geology Conference
Optimising the Drilling Budget with Geophysical Logging
G N Fallon’ and P K Fullaga?
ABSTRACT
In resource definition and mine development, major capital expenditures
are committed on the basis of sparse information and even in production
surprises such as bad ground are not uncommon. Drill holes constitute
the principal source of information about the orebody and its
environment and optimisation of drilling implies maximising the yield of
useful information per dollar expended. Geophysical borehole logging
provides new flexibility for optimising the drilling budget.
Economic benefits can flow from geophysical logging at all stages of
the mining cycle. The most commonly cited benefit is substitution of
diamond delineation drilling with cheaper percussion or reverse
circulation drilling in cases where geophysical logs can substitute for
core. This approach can deliver an attractive direct saving in drilling
costs (and time) if drill meterage is unchanged. or a potentially greater
indirect benefit from better ore control if more holes are drilled within
the original drilling budget. More ore contact intercepts per dollar can
translate into lower dilution and enhanced ore recovery, thereby
increasing revenue as well as reducing mining costs.
Substitution of diamond drilling with percussion drilling is not always
feasible. However, geophysical logging of diamond holes is often highly
advantageous in its own right, both for geotechnical characterisation as
well as ore delineation. Operational advantages of logging include data
objectivity. speed. of interpretation and reduced core handling and
analysis costs. Geophysical logging assists mining engineers by
providing a continuous measure of in situ rock strength, even over
intervals with poor core recovery.
The additional expense of geophysical logging in blast holes can be
justified in terms of more accurate ore boundary delineation and rock
strength evaluation. Precise ore boundary delineation permits refinement
of charge placement, to minimise dilution and maximise recovery.
Detailed knowledge of rock strength can enable optimisation of blast
design. Rock strength can be evaluated in real-time via analysis of drill
perfonnancc data recorded with measurement-while-drilling (MWD)
technology.
To successfully apply geophysical logging in mines, its technical,
operational and economic viability must all be established. This entails
verification of the existence of appropriate physical property contmts,
investigation of the best way to integrate the geophysical results with the
mining method and an objective assessment of the value of the resulting
mine performance benefit.
Geophysical logging is already well established in many mining
operations. The greatest impediments to its wider utilisation at mines
are: lack of appreciation of geophysics by most mine geologists,
engineers and managers; limited interpretational aids; and the necessity
to re-enter completed drill holes. In this paper we endeavour to address
these issues by informing mine geologists about potential applications of
geophysics, by illustrating automated interpretation of geophysical logs
and by highlighting the importance of emerging MWD and logging-
while-drilling (LWD) technology.
INTRODUCTION
As metalliferous commodity prices continue to decline in real
terms (Eager, 1992), mining companies must examine ways to
reduce operating costs at an equal or greater rate to remain
internationally competitive. Eager suggests that the problem
demands innovation rather than savage cost-cutting campaigns.
Mine management has a critical role to play, nurturing
innovations with the potential to improve mine performance.
I. Formerly CMTUUniversity of Qld, now at MIM Exploration. GPO
Box 1042, Brisbane. Qld 4001. Australia.
2. Formerly CMTUCSIRO Division of Exploration & Mining. now at
Rio Tinto Exploration. PO Box 1641. Milton. Qld 4064, Australia.
Mining Geology Conference Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997
The advent of geophysics at metalliferous mines can Constitute
an innovative step towards enhanced competitiveness. Rock
types, ore boundaries, rock strength parameters and (sometimes)
grade can be inferred via analysis of geophysical data.
Geophysics is already used to enhance ore recovery, improve
safety performance and cut costs at the mining operations of
some companies, including Outokumpu (Berry, 1994). INCO
(King, Fullagar and Lamontagne, 1994). WMC (Williams, 1996).
MIM (Thomson, Young and Sheard, 1992), and others in South
Africa (Campbell, 1994) and Scandinavia (Wanstedt, 1993).
Many more companies still stand to benefit.
Geophysical methods can be classified into two broad
categories: borehole logging, for determination of in situ physical
properties of the borehole wall rocks; and geophysical imaging,
for mapping features at tens or even hundreds of metres from the
sensors. Geophysical imaging applications include in-mine and
near-mine exploration, orebody delineation, hazard detection,
and rock mass characterisation. Imaging methods can be applied
from the pit floor, or underground from individual holes or
roadways, between holes, or from hole to roadway. Examples
and further information on mining applications of imaging are
given by King, Fullagar and Lamontagne (1994). Campbell
( I 994), Fullagar and Livelybrooks ( 1 994), McCreary er a1 ( 1992)
and Fallon. Fullagar and Sheard (1997).
In this paper we concentrate on the benefits of geophysical
logging for optimising expenditures on ore boundary delineation,
rock mass characterisation and grade estimation during mine
feasibility, development and production phases. Borehole
logging probes are available to measure a wide range of physical
properties including density, electrical conductivity, magnetic
susceptibility, sonic velocity, natural radioactivity, chargeability
and porosity. The selection of probes is governed primarily by
the geological environment and the application. The
petrophysical probe suite is complimented by a number of probes
which can measure borehole geometry and orientation.
Ultimately the value of any downhole information is governed by
the accuracy of its spatial location.
Geophysical logging of percussion holes can deliver a direct
cost benefit as a partial replacement to diamond drilling.
Sometimes the visual interpretation of logs is adequate, eg to
define the limits of massive sulphide mineralisation from a
conductivity log. However, in order to realise the full benefits of
geophysical logging, including speed and objectivity of
interpretation, the wiggly lines must be converted into a form
that can be readily exploited by mine personnel (McCracken,
1993). Automated conversion of a suite of petrophysical logs into
appropriate geological, geochemical, or geotechnical parameters
is commonplace in the petroleum and coal industries (eg
Baldwin, Bateman and Wheatley, 1990; Coudert, Frappa and
Arias, 1994). Recent studies by Urbancic and Bailey (1988),
Wanstedt (1992), Emilsson (1993). Nilsson (1993, and
McCreary and Wanstedt (1995) have illustrated similar
applications into the hard rock domain. These authors explored a
range of techniques, including application of simple scatter plots
and ‘if’ tests, principal component analysis, factor analysis,
discriminant analysis, and neural networks. Such automated
interpretation of petrophysical logs has the potential to lessen the
demand for diamond drilling, relieve geologists of much routine
lithological logging and (in some cases) to reduce assaying costs.
A new algorithm, LogTrans, was developed during a recent
AMlRA Project (Fullagar et af, 1996a). The development of
167
 G N FALLON and P K FULLAGAR
LogTrans was prompted by a desire for an intuitive,
computationally fast and readily adaptable procedure, which
generates a measure of confidence in its interpretation. LogTrans
is best dcscribed as a generalisation of scatterplot interpretation,
eg Emilsson (1993). whereby geological identity is inferred on
~
the basis of clustering of petrophysical data. An example of a
LogTrans auto-interpretation of data from Pasminco’s Rosebery
mine is presented below.
The potential of borehole logging to contribute to rock mass
characterisation has been largely ignored to-date. Sonic velocity
in particular is sensitive to rock strength. A sonic log offers
distinct advantages over conventional testing of individual core
samples insofar as it provides a continuous record of rock
character in situ, even if core recovery is poor. Similarly, drill
performance monitoring of blast holes using MWD technology
can provide a basis for optimisation of blasting pattern and
charge sizes.
WHAT ARE THE BENEFITS OF GEOPHYSICAL
LOGGING?
Substitution of diamond drilling
Geophysical logging of delineation holes is already delivering
cost and time savings at a number of mines around the world, eg
Fullagar and Fallon (in press). Statements of the cost benefit
flowing from geophysical borehole logging are usually couched
in terms of the amount of diamond drilling which has been
replaced by a combination of percussion drilling and logging.
The direct saving is approximately $30 per metre. This estimate
includes an allowance for the amortisation of the initial capital
outlay (between $10 000 and $150 000) on a geophysical logging
u
2N16
2N17
FIG 1 - Stylised natural gamma logging in blastholes at Scuddles mine (modified after Fullagar e; ul, 1YY6d). Natural gamma alone accurately defines
limits of sulphides, but does not distinguish sphalerite from pyrite.
168 Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997
system, and the day-to-day operating cost, in the range of $0.20
to $5.50 per metre (Fallon and Fullagar, 1995. Table 4. I ; Fullagar
et af, (1996a). Table 4.10). Hence the capital cost of a logging
system can be equated approximately to replacement of 3 km of
diamond drilling with percussion drilling.
The inherent problems associated with interpretation of
percussion chips are inaccurate or smeared boundary locations
and potentially contaminated samples. In combination these
increase the uncertainty of the intercept thickness and grade.
The introduction of geophysical logging at a small incremental
cost can help significantly reduce the uncertainties. This is
illustrated in Figure 1. where a natural gamma log is compared
with rock chip logging in a blasthole ring at the Scuddles
underground polymetallic mine. The natural gamma activity
may be inversely correlated with the relative abundance of
massive sulphides, but additional petrophysical properties would
be required for discrimination of economic from non-economic
sulphide.
Beyond the basic cost advantage, the percussion drilling plus
geophysical logging approach offers other attractions, principally
objectivity and speed. Geophysical logs are objective and
consistent provided appropriate data acquisition procedures arc
followed. Human subjectivity and inconsistency can pose real
problems for geological logging in mines, especially those with a
high turnover of personnel or a long mine life. Percussion
drilling plus logging offers increased speed during both drilling
and interpretation, since analysis of the logs can be automated.
Time scales could be further compressed via introduction of
geophysical LWD technology, permitting ‘real time’
interpretation of petrophysical logging as drilling proceeds.
The benefit of diamond drilling substitution can be realised
either as a direct cost saving, if the same number of metres is
drilled, or, what is often more attractive, as a budget-neutral
i
*\
\
\, ’
Mining Geology Conference
 OPTlMlSlNG THE DRILLING BUDGET WITH GEOPHYSICAL LOGGING
increase in drill holes. The superior control arising from
additional ore intercepts can translate into substantial
performance improvements via reduced dilution (planned or
unplanned) and enhanced ore recovery. McCreary and Wanstedt
(1995) calculated a 50 per cent increase in intercepts at
Noranda’s mining operations if only 30 per cent of the life-of-
mine resource definition diamond drilling was substituted with
percussion drilling and geophysical logging. The introduction of
percussion drilling plus logging option allows the mix of drilling
to be optimised to suit the circumstances.
In the context of diamond drill substitution, it should be
stressed that it is rarely possible or desirable to completely
replace diamond drilling with percussion drilling plus logging,
not least because interpretation of the geophysical logs is usually
based on control data derived from core. The question is then
how much diamond drilling can be replaced without any sacrifice
in terms of mine performance? The answer to this question will
be site dependent. The critical issue is whether the logging data
can deliver adequate information to substitute for conventional
core-based geochemical and geotechnical data. The information
derived from the geophysical logs will not be the same as that
from core, but depending on the circumstances it may prove to be
superior. equivalent, adequate, or inadequate for the purpose.
The amount of core drilling which can be foregone in favour
of more economical drilling plus logging expands enormously if
grade can be accurately inferred from petrophysical logs. For
somc ore systems this is feasible: natural gamma activity is an
effective indicator of uranium grade (eg Conaway and Killeen,
1978). magnetic susceptibility provides a measure of iron grade
in magnetite deposits such as Malmberget (Virkkunen and
Hattula, 1992), while conductivity correlates closely with grade
for some base metal sulphide deposits, eg Enonkoski nickel
deposit (Hattula, 1992). In other cases, the point by point
correlation between a petrophysical parameter and grade may be
erratic, but grade rangc may be reliably inferred over intervals of
a few metres. This is illustrated below for Rosebery mine.
In addition to reducing dependence on core drilling, grade
estimation from geophysical logs shortens turn-around times and
obviates the need for core handling and storage. Geochemical
precision is sacrificed to a greater or lesser extent, but for ore
reserve modelling the loss of precision is compensated to a
degree by the increase in the ‘support’ volume: geophysical
measurements over a depth interval are representative of a
volume of rock at least two orders of magnitude greater than the
core volume over the same interval, owing to the radius of
excitation of the downhole probes.
Structural and rock mass information can also be recovered
from percussion holes via geophysical logging. Acoustic
televiewers and borehole cameras cannot be surpassed for
mapping of individual fine structures, but the detection of
broader fracture zones need not involve such sophisticated
probes. Seismic velocity and attenuation are the most widely
used petrophysical parameters in geotechnical applications
because they are sensitive to rock stress, strength. and degree of
fracturing. Sonic logging can signify fracturing as a reduction in
the compressional velocity or as a pronounced attenuation of
high frequencies (King, Pandit and Stauffer, 1978). The
relationship between sonic velocity and mechanical parameters
such as hardness and uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) can be
established empirically for the relevant lithologies at a mine site,
eg McNally (1990).
Sonic logging enjoys distinct advantages over conventional
testing of individual core samples insofar as it provides a
continuous record of rock character in sifu. In conventional core
testing procedures it is difficult to avoid biasing sample selection
towards competent intervals; weak zones, which ultimately may
prove to be the most critical for purposes of mine design, are
poorly represented duc to core fragmentation and loss. Full
waveform sonic can provide shear velocity in addition to
compressional velocity, eg Hatherly er a1 (1997). Poisson’s ratio
and the three dynamic elastic moduli can be calculated from the
Mining Geology Conference Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997
two velocities and density data (eg Campbell, 1994). These
parameters provide a basis for detailed geomechanical modeling.
At minimum, sonic logs can be used to optimise thc selection
of core samples for testing and calibration. However, during
project feasibility there is great potential for mapping
geotechnical parameters in three-dimensions, providing a greater
than normal degree of control for mine design, using sonic logs
recorded in surface delineation holes. The main disadvantage of
sonic logging is that it is restricted to water-filled holes.
Depending on geological conditions, density and electrical
parameters can also provide structural and rock mass information
from percussion or diamond holes. The dipmeter tool can
determine orientation of fractures as well as bedding via analysis
of the high resolution resistivity logs recorded simultaneously at
between three and eight electrodes around the probe
circumference. eg Fullagar et a1 (1996b). Such information can
be critical for mine planning applications, given the influence of
fracture orientation on pit slopes, ground support, and blast
design.
Logging of blast holes and ground support holes
Provided fast interpretation is guaranteed (within one hour after
logging the hole), blast hole logs can provide a basis for
optimisation of blast designs or fine tuning of ground support.
Geophysical logging in blastholes represents an additional cost
outlay, justified if it reduces the risk of extracting waste or
leaving ore. Arguably the greatest return is obtained when
internal dilution is the dominant problem. At lnco’s Stobie Mine
near Sudbury, Canada, highly irregular rock clast inclusions
within the ore can lead to erroneous delineation of the ore-waste
boundary in vertical retreat mining stopes. Logging of blast
holes with simple conductivity probes has proved extremely
effective in accurately defining the contact, permitting refinement
of charge placement to reduce dilution and enhance ore recovery.
The net benefit from reduced mining costs and increased revenue
at Stobie Mine was estimated to be C$4 million in 1993 (King,
Fullagar and Lamontagne, 1994). This represents an excellent
example of how geophysical logging can contribute to ‘the
minimisation of ore loss and dilution’, nominated as one of the
two foremost priorities in a study of thc metalliferous mining
industry’s future research needs by Scott, Gurgenci and Slifirski.
( 1992).
Drill performance is directly affected by rock strength.
Monitoring of drill performance in blast holes can provide an
immediate measure of blastability, and hence permit optimisation
of blasting patterns for each bench or stope. Likewise, MWD of
ground support holes can allow dynamic adjustment of support
design, eg establish the integrity of anchor points for cable bolts.
This has been demonstrated at the Kushiro colliery in Japan
(ltakura et al, 1997). If the ore itself is mechanically distinct
from the host. MWD data can be interpreted to define ore
boundaries, as shown by Schunnesson (1990) at the Zinkgruvan
base metal mine in Sweden.
Geophysical logging of diamond holes
Geophysical logging of cored holes can be extremely valuable.
Objective, consistent geophysical logs can be used qualitatively,
as aids to conventional geological logging, or quantitatively, as a
basis for estimation of grade or rock strength. The scale of
interpretation of geophysical logs can be freely adjusted from
centimetres to tens of metres. Automated interpretation of logs
can highlight the depth intervals which warrant most careful
geological interpretation and thus optimise the effectiveness of
hard-pressed mine geologists. Moreover, geophysical logging
can bridge gaps across intervals with poor core recovery; this is
especially advantageous in the context of rock mass
characterisation.
169
 G N FALLON and P K FULLAGAR

APPLICATION OF GEOPHYSICAL LOGGING AT Grade-based interpretation of borehole logs

ROSEBERY MINE, TASMANIA Visual inspection of the logs indicated that y-y and n-y responses
The polymetallic Rosebery orebody located within the Cambrian are generally low in ore, while susceptibility and conductivity
Mount Read Volcanics in western Tasmania was nominated by tend to be high. The n-y and y-y logs exhibited the strongest
I
Pasminco as its in-mine geophysics test site for AMIRA Project correlations with grade, and hence were potentially the most
P436 (Fullagar et al, 1996~). At Rosebery Mine the priority useful for discrimination of ore from waste and of high-grade
issues were: from low-grade. This observation prompted introduction of a
derived parameter, the reciprocal gamma product, defined by:
ore-waste discrimination (ore boundary delineation),
ore continuity,
RGP = 1 / (nvyy) (1)
grade estimation, and
hangingwall failure (rock mass characterisation). The RGP is closely related to the density-gamma quotient
The ore mineralogy is dominated by sphalerite, galena and introduced by Wanstedt (1993).
chalcopyrite, whilst the gangue contains pyrrhotite, pyrite, A classification based on zinc-equivalent grade was developed
magnetite, chlorite, sericite, and silica. Initial laboratory scale as a basis for automated interpretation at Rosebery Mine. This
petrophysical studies indicated that Rosebery massive sulphide approach had much to commend it, both because the
ore is dense, very conductive and chargeable and variably geochemistry exhibited a greater degree of consistency with the
magnetic. Its physical properties are largely governed by the petrophysical logs than did the geology, and because mine
reserves are based on a dollar value model rather than grade per
relative abundances of pyrrhotite, sphalerite and pyrite. Mining se. Rosebery management were not prepared to disclose their
is predominantly via the open stope method, with minor bench formula. except to say that zinc is a dominant component. For
cut and fill. demonstration purposes, the AMIRA project team devised a
Assessment of the drilling specifications and costs for J lens at simple formula for zinc-equivalent grade, with weighting factors
Rosebery (Table I ) established that there is scope during reserve based on the 1995 average annual commodity prices for zinc,
delineation for substitution of diamond drilling with percussion lead, copper, gold, and silver:
drilling plus logging. Percussion drill rig depth capacity (-130
m) precludes diamond hole substitution at the resource definition ZnS= %Zn + 0.47*%Pb + 2*%Cu + 1.3 1 *ppmAu +
stage, which requires holes -600 m long. A budget-neutral 0.017*ppmAg. (2)
increase in the number of reserve delineation holes (percussion)
This expression takes no account of variation in metal
would improve the overall reliability of the orebody modelling, recoveries, mixed concentrate, iron penalties, spot price
and enhance understanding of the ore continuity in particular. variations, and other metallurgical or economic factors. At
Even corrections of order 0.5 m in the external ore boundaries Rosebery, the logarithm of RGP exhibited a positive correlation
would significantly reduce the level of planned dilution. with zinc-equivalent grade (Figure 2). flagging the potential for
petrophysical grade estimation.
For interpretation, four grade classifications were devised, viz
high, medium, low and waste. Each class was divided into high-
iron and low-iron sub-classes, given the influence of iron content
on metallurgical recovery. The cut-offs documented in Table 2
were chosen with reference to the parameter histograms.
Resource Reserve Blast Holes
Definition Delineation
Drill Type Diamond Diamond Percussion TABLE 2
# of Holes 40 250 3850 Definition of grade classes.
Total Metres
Cost Estimate
24 400
$2 318 OOO
23 750
$ 1 781 OOO
115500
$2 887 OOO
p c n p t i o n 1 Code I Zn equivalent (%) I Fe (%) I
NB: dollar estimates are not inflated

Blast hole logging is also attractive, to permit accurate

placement of charges and stemming relative to ore boundaries.
Precision charge placement could be especially beneficial on the
hangingwall contact, to reduce the frequency and severity of
hangingwall collapse. MWD could prove doubly effective in this
context, defining the contact and providing a measure of the
strength of the hangingwall in real time.
A program of borehole logging was undertaken in reserve
delineation and blast holes within the J lens with an OMSLOGG
system in November 1994. Results from four underground In order, ultimately, to generate ‘grade class’ logs from
diamond drill holes (R5427, R5428, R5430, R5437) and four geophysical logs, it is necessary to petrophysically characterise
underground blast holes (viz E-17, E-19, E-20, E-21) were each grade class. This entails selection of a suite of
representative control holes. The petrophysical characteristics
analysed subsequently. The shallow inclinations of the boreholes for each grade class can be summarised in terms of the means
restricted the logging suite to parameters measurable in dry and standard deviations of each parameter over the Iota1 depth
holes: natural gamma (n-y), gamma-gamma (y-y) (inversely interval of that class intersected in the control holes. These
related to density), magnetic susceptibility, and conductivity. statistics can provide a basis for automated interpretation of
geophysical logs from other boreholes.

170 Launceston, 10 - 14 November 1997 Mining Geology Conference

 OPTIMISING THE DRILLING BUDGET WITH GEOPHYSICAL LOGGING

Rosebety R5437: Zn equivalent & loglO{RGP)

50
I

95 75 35.75 45.75 55.75 65.75 75.75 85.75 1

depth (m)
CompPriron of Zncquivaknt gn& (ai&Jim) with R5437 logIO(RGP)

FIG 2- A comparison between the Zn-equivalent grade, based on core assays, and the logarithm of the reciprocal gamma product (RGP), derived from the
natural gamma and gamma-gammalogs. in borehole R5437 at Rosebery Mine (after Fullagar et ul. 1996~).The degree of comspondence provides
A ‘rock-ore’ log generated by LogTrans for one of the control
holes, R5437, is shown in Figure 3; the original colour version of
this diagram was produced using program Logview, written by
the GSC, Ottawa. Only intervals interpreted as medium or high-
grade are regarded as ‘ore’. The visual impression is very
encouraging, since a finite number of ore and waste intervals
have been inferred. Confidence relates to the ‘ore’ or ‘rock’
designation, not the individual grade assignment. Almost
without exception, when the confidence index (CONF in Figure
3) is high, the interpretation is correct. Exceptions can plausibly
be attributed to depth errors.
The success rates for the four control holes were as follows: 76
per cent of the 1318 data points from ‘ore’ zones (HGHF, HGLF,
MGHF, MGLF) were correctly interpreted as ore and 87 per cent
of the 2952 data points from intervals of ‘rock’ were successfully
classified as such. This is a very satisfactory result, especially in
view of the variability of Rosebery ore (Aerden, 1994). Of much
greater potential significance than these statistics is the
observation that at Rosebery not only can auto-interpretation of
geophysical logs discriminate ore from waste. but it also offers a
means (in the form of the RGP parameter) for differentiating
high-grade from low-grade (Figure 2). This augurs well for
substitution of some diamond drilling with percussion drilling
plus logging.
CONCLUSION
Geophysical borehole logging is not a panacea for mining
operations but should be viewed as an additional tool in the on-
going struggle to improve overall performance. The magnitude
of the benefit it delivers will be determined by site-specific
factors such as the mining method, orebody mineralogy and
geometry and logistics.
The most common rationale for logging is to permit
substitution of diamond drilling with percussion drilling; the
degree of substitution is governed by the extent to which
information derived from geophysical logs can replace core-
based geological, geochemical, and geotechnical data. The
benefit may be direct, as an immediate cost saving and/or it could
be indirect, in the form of an improved orebody model (or
geomechanical model) constructed within the original drilling
budget from a larger number of drill intercepts. At the Rosebery
Mine it has been demonstrated that substitution of some diamond
reserve delineation holes with percussion holes is feasible: ore
boundaries and grade range in J Lens can be interpreted from
natural gamma, density, susceptibility, and conductivity logs.
Geophysical logging of blast holes to define ore boundaries
and/or rock strength, constitutes an additional cost, but can often
be justified in terms of reduced dilution, enhanced ore recovery,
or improved safety. MWD has great potential in this context,
where rapid turn-around is essential.
The value of the detailed, in riru information derived from
geophysical logging of diamond holes often justifies the cost.
For example, sonic velocity logging of resource definition holes
during mine feasibility assessment could reduce the risk in mine
design by providing the basis for a detailed 3D geotechnical
model of the orebody and its environment.
The keys to greater acceptance of geophysical logging at
mining operations are:
incrcased awareness on the part of mining geologists,
engineers, and managers of the potential of geophysics to
cost-effectively reduce the risks inherent in operational
decisions;

Mining Geology Conference Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997 171

G N FALLON and P K FULLAGAR

R5437 LogTrans Interpretation

Grade fnterp. Ig(susc)

(tn equiv.) Ore Bndries mV
A. .
N d
8 8
r

ROCK

ORE
R@E

LOW
LGLF ROCK

LOW

U
s
v
ROCK
%

ROCK

ROCK 2f

LOW^ ROCK^ o-‘

FIG3 - Automated interpretation of Rosebery diamond drillhole R5437 (modified after Fullagar er ul, 1996~).A good correspondence is evident between
Zn-equivalent grade intervals, based on core assays (Table 2) and the LogTrans rock-ore interpretationbased on geophysical logs: NG - natural grunma.
GG - gamma-gamma. Ig(susc) - log(base10) magnetic susceptibility. and Ig(RGP) - log(basel0) reciprocal gamma product (eqn I). ‘Ore’ denotes zones
interpreted to have Zn-equivalent grade exceeding eight per cent. CONF is a measure of the degree of confidence in the LogTrans interpretation.

172 Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997 Mining Geology Conference

 OPTIMlSlNG THE DRILLING BUDGET WITH GEOPHYSICAL LOGGING
. rapid interpretation of multi-parameter logs and presentation
of results in a form which is meaningful to mining engineers
and geologists; and
integration of logging and drilling.
Integration of logging and drilling is highly desirable to
obviate the need for re-entering holes, to shorten time scales, and
to simplify logistics. Slimline measurement-while-drilling
(MWD) drill monitoring technology is already available and
logging-while-drilling (LWD) technology for real-time recording
of petrophysical parameters has been developed for the
petroleum industry. Automated interpretation of geophysical
logs has been demonstrated by prediction of grade ranges at the
Rosebery Mine using program LogTrans; an effective
presentation of the results was achieved with program LogView.
Finally, we hope this paper will contribute to the awakening of
interest in geophysical logging by mining personnel, to allow
more operations to benefit from the flexibility it offers for
optimising the drilling budget.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work has been undertaken by the CMTE in collaboration
with the companies sponsoring AMIRA Project P436: Aberfoyle
Resources, Acacia Resources, CRA, MIM Exploration,
Normandy Mining, Outokumpu and Pasminco (Rosebery).
Results are published with the permission of these companies.
The authors particularly thank Mark Berry and the Rosebery
Mine staff for their support and encouragement.
A special vote of thanks must be expressed to our colleagues,
Drs P Hatherly, B Zhou and X Luo, CSlRO Exploration &
Mining, who worked with us on other aspects of the P436 Project
and who contributed indirectly to the results presented here. The
contributions from Dr J Mwenifumbo, GSC, Ottawa, in acquiring
the data shown in Figure 1 and from Dr D Emerson, Systems
Exploration, in measuring and analysing laboratory petrophysical
data, are greatly appreciated.
Finally, Eila Kangas of MIM Exploration deserves full credit
for her skillful drafting of all the figures.
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Geophysical Trials at Scuddles: Centre For Mining Technology and
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174 Launceston, 10 - 14 November 1997 Mining Geology Conference

Diamond Drill Core Versus RC Chips: The Real Sample Chapter 2
M D Goodz' and D J D'Astoli2

ABSTRACT
I n 1993 a detailed review of drill sample quality was conducted through
twin and triplet drill holes using open hole. crossover subreverse
circulation (RC) and diamond drill methods.
Advances in face-sampling RC methods demanded a further review of
the validity and reproducibility of drill sample data. A program was
undertaken to drill three RC holes using the latest technology (new face-
smpling bits. dust suppresscrs. cyclones and compressors). Volumetric
and inass studies were undertaken to review sample recoveries. Modal
analyses on indicator minerals were logged to interpret the relative
degree of mineralisation.
Ambiguities in the results were immediately apparent and the
consensus was for follow-up twin diainond holes using HQ3 coring
tubes. The most inineralised RC hole was selected for the first twin
diamond hole. This RC hole (MS 313) encountered one intersection of
>0.47 g/t; in contrmt the diamond hole (MS 342) had nine intersections
:It >I g/t.
Results at hand show definitively that face-sampling RC drilling is not
eptable zs a method of exploration for gold deposits of the Woods
Late Devonian Maryrvillc Complex
Point type.
Furthermore it is demonstrated that RC drilling should not he used for
~ exploration of high-grade gold vein deposits related to highly
any [ y p of
fractured o r porous hostrock. or areas of previous ininiiig activity.
Methods are proposed for reviewing of rates of s;imple recovery,
distribution and cross-contamination.
Coinparisons also show that in limited rnctreagt: reconnaissance drill
programs. diamond drilling is more similar to percussion in per metre
costs. than it is credited with. and always provides more hang for the
buck. FIG I - Morning Star Mine locat~tlI I O km east-northeast o l Melbourne
in the Wallialla synclinoriuin.

INTRODUCTION
T h e Woods Point - Walhalla Goldfield produced 155 tonnes of
gold (>5 000 000 ounces) between I860 and 1992.
Surface mining was suspended about 186X in favour of deep
shaft mining o n quartz reef lodes associated with diorite dykes.
Surface drilling programs and techniques were reviewed between
1984 to I992 and found that diamond drilling was the only
x c e p t a b l e method (Goodz and Frith. 1993; Wroe and
Rosenhain, 1984).
Subsequently, new face sampling RC hammers have replaced
cross-over subs and it was agreed that a 500 m program be
carried out to re-assess this method with a Samplcx hammer.
Twin-hole diamond drilling was complcted in December 1996.
Geological overview
T h e Woods Point goldfield is related to a series of mafic to
intermediate Middle-Devonian dykes which intruded the Siluro-
Devonian stratigraphy of the Melbourne Trough in the eastern
portion of the Lachlan Fold Belt (Figure I ) .
During the Late-Devonian, the dykes underwent brittle
deformation which resulted in the formation of both extensional
and shear vein systems.
I. Managing Director. Goodz & Associates GMC Ply Ltd. PO Box 700,
Mansfield Vic 3722.
2. Managing Director, D' Astoli Drilling Services Ply Ltd. Private Bag
No 2, Mansfield Vic 3722.
At the Morning Star mine. the 'diorite' dyke is a complex
multi-stage intrusive rock having more than ten s e p m t e phases
of which the hornblende diorite and hornblende-biotite diorite
phiises are said to comprise 80 per cent of the total body.
T h e Morning Star dyke is approximately 600 m long by 100 m
i n width at surface and varies t o 7 5 0 m long by 80 m wide o n No
I 6 I,cvel. I t has ;I known depth of >1 100 m. At its strike
extremities, the dyke is documented to pinch down to between 3
;ind I O rn wide. T h e dyke dips GO to 8O"W and has been
sinistrally rotated to form a SCI-ICS of reverse fault steps with u p to
2 0 in displacements on each step. This gives an overall apparent
dip of 78'W. T h e major historic production stopes are based o n
quartz-gold-sulpliide veins within the 'Ilat-conjugate' reverse
t s an average spacing o f 30 metres.
f ~ ~ i lon
Modelling of drill hole intci-cepts shows a vein spacing of 5.0
to 27.5 in with substantial auriferous stockwork developments at
inllcxion points in the fault systems. Gold grades are
proportional to fracture density. intensity and sulphide content.
Mineralisation
Appendix 1 identities the main mineralisation - altcriition facies
and their respective gold grade association. Economic gold
contents arc found in four host situations:
I, quartz veins with arsenopyrite k sulphosalts;
2. quartz stockworks with disseminated sulphides within the
wnll rocks;
3. sulphide stockworks with arsenopyrite dominant; and
4. primary cli;ilcopyrite-pyrl.liotitc massive sulphides in fresh
undtercd dyke.

Mining Geology Conference Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997 175

M 11GOODZ and D J D'ASTOLI
The quartz vein mineralisation is fault-hosted and historically
averaged >24.5g/t gold over a 1.8 m mining width. The qriartz
and sulphide stockworks grade between 2 and I O g/t gold, hut
have no record of historic production. 'rhcy occur ;it tlie
inflexion points of fault systems and also at zones of intersection
and merging between faults. These zones are up to 6 m wide and
may be peripheral to a major quartz vein. Primary massive
sulphides mineralisation is found in the northern mafic phase of
the Morning Star dyke and is currently being investigated.
Alteration
The alteration assemblage associated with gold mineralisation is
sulphide-mica-carbonate. This is highlighted in the higher-grade
zones with total sulphide > I .5 per cent (arsenopyrite pyrite), IS
per cent green mica (fuchsite) porphroyblasts, carbonate (7 to 1 S
per cent - ankerite dominant).
In the weathered surface zone, this assemblage becomes
oxidised to limonite-kaolinite- carbonate^ The weathered profile
becomes decomposed to a porous subsoil. The alteration facies
tends to 'soften' the diorite to a media which generates high
volumes of dust upon hammering and is readily scoured by air or
water abrasion. This results in high sample losses due to any
type of mechanical action [similar effects in underground
miningJ (Goodz and Frith, 1993; Vallee, 1992; Palcy, 1992).
RC DRILL PROGRAM
Wilson Drilling of Cobar, NSW were contracted to undertake tlie
RC program using a UDR 650-2 rig fitted with a 250 psi/750 cfm
compressor on a twin-steer bogie-drive truck. The down hole
assembly used was a 136.5 mm OD SDS RC50 hammer with
twin-hole face return. The drill string used was 114.3 mm OD
Rcmet rods.
Fifteen potential drillsites had been prepared with a higher
level of road construction to ensure access by a rubber tyre
mounted vehicle. Intermittent rain and snow prevented the
drillrig from reaching any of the sites. New sites were selected
along the main road to the mine. A traxcavator was required to
tow and position the rig even though it was on the mine road.
Methodology
The face hammer RC samplcs were collected in one metre
intervals. The hole was blown clear each metre into the splitting
cyclone which provided two sample splits that were bagged
directly form the cyclone discharge. Every six metres, the
addition of a drill rod was followed by the hole being blown clear
prior to resumption of drilling.
Each cyclone split was weighed at the drill site. Alternate
cyclone splits were selected for sampling, to ensure no cyclone
effects. One split was sent directly to the assay laboratory for
total preparation for tire assay analysis. The corresponding split
was used for site review including logging. A portion of the site
split was continuously wet panned in a gold dish for logging of
rock type, mineralisation. alteration and quartz volume
distribution.
As the holes progressed, reviews were made on the sample
recoveries. There were a variety of problems which became
immediately apparent and resulted in the suspension of the
program after only three of the 15 proposed holes had been
completed.
Problems with RC drilling
The main problems were:
1. sample recovery,
2. sample losses/gains (= cross-contamination).
176 Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997
3. cyclone splitting.
4. (liiiiil)iicss of'cl;iy-ricIi ground,
S. fr;icturc densitylcnvitics, and
6. technical problems (rod diametcrlcoinpression).
Despite repeated :issur;ince from tlic contract drillers th;it ;111
was i n order. i t w x obvious that saniI)Ic recoveries were erratic.
The hammer overbreak created a hole diameter of 150 mni OD.
I n cornpiirison the rod string diameter of only I 14 mni cre;ited a
cavity o f I X mm iirountl the string (42 per cent hole diainctcr
being open cavity).
Computations
Wilson Drilling quoted tlic maximum tiole diameter tis 5.5 inches
( 139.7 riini). From site review and cxcavation, i t was believed
that the avcl.age true overbreak hole cli.iincter was 150 mni. This
has 21 vxiation of' IS pci- ccnt in anticipited sample loss. 'l'hc
formula used was:
R(%) = M / [SG * n :% r2 * 111
Where K(%) is per cent recovery; M is sample mass; SG is
specific gravity; r is tlie core radius aiitl 11 is the interval length.
Sample weight correction factors were taken at the m;iximum of
all ranges. For these calculations. SG's of 2.3. 2.5 and 2.65 hiive
been used for depths of in. 5 to IO m iind >I0 in. Note the true
SG value of this diorite is 2.96: Iiciice this study has undcr-
estimated tlic potential s;iinple loss by I7 to 34 per ccnt ('lliblcs
I and 2 ) through vxiiition o f SG (Bevan. 1993).
TWIN HOLE DIAMOND PROGRAM
The tlianiontl drilling commenced ;it tlie same time as the f'iice-
sampling RC program. The nature ot tlie skid-mounted Hoylcs
37 rig allowed i t to be towed through [lie snow iind positioned on
all proposed sites. As the RC holes were on the mine access
road. this resulted in the twin hole drilling being delayed u n t i l
the diamond rig was leaving the site. Twin diamond drill hole
MS 342 commenced i n December 1996. four months after RC
hole MS 3 I3 had been completed.
The complete diamond rig and skid mount assembly wiis 5.2
in x 2.3 i n and 5 tonne i n mass. The down hole assembly used
was a I . S 111 HQ core barrel fitted with split tubes and a Longyear
Series 0 HQ3 imprcgnatctl bit.
Rod specitic;itions were: HQ drill rod O D (88.9 mm), ID (77.8
mm), hole diameter (96.0 mm), HQ3 core diameter (63.5 mm);
NQ drill rut1 O D (69.9 mni). ID (60.3 inm),hole diameter (75.7
mm), NQ3 core d i m e t e r (47.6 mm).
Mud and lubricants were found t o he necessary to ensure
recoveries. High viscosity mud prevented washing of the clay-
rich decomposed, mincralised zones in the lateritic profile.
Austrol colloidal polymer was used i n the wcathcred profile and
a liquid polymer i n tlie fresh rock.
Twin holes MS 342 I MS 313
Howevei- to tletinitively iisscss [lie face-sampling hammer
method, twin HQ3 hole (MS 342) WAS drilled adjacent to RC
hole (MS 313). The holes were sited 2.7 in apart with par;illcl
orientation. The following contrasts (Table 3) were identified:
At the 3.0 i n depth the MS342 encountered a 1.3 in wide
stope cavity with ii heavily mincraliscd hanging wall. RC
hole MS 3 I 3 did not intersect either.
Volume per cent of quartz intersected was diametrically
opposite between the methods.
Interval lengths o f mineralised quartz zones were
substiintially narrower in drillcore ( 5 . I m versus 12.0 in;
I . I in versus 3.0 ni) [smearing].
Mining Geology Conference
 ~

DIAMONI)DRILL CORE VERSUS RC CHIPS

HobD
Interval
(m)
ALS
walght
1 1 1
.ample
lab

01 mine
Split
sample M=ds.palp
i semp4e
I i l s a m+p b ~
(weighed (weighedat w r e d i f a c t o r
- I
Comctsd SpcMc
mine sile) (unique lo specihc told ALS + Qravhy (be&
CalculaW R u o v n y
Actual Ruovury =
%(awreded total I
CalnWed nnmery)
l~adatedushgSG6hhde ~1oOxmntpmh.sled Gnda Roch
d= 15) (kg) (%) (pn)
MS313 Oool 1.25 1 05 0 77 2 02 2: 40 6 498% 084 G
MS313 01-02 2.58 2 15 1 77 4 35 2: 40 6 1071% 046 G
MS313 0203 6 85 15 90 2: 40 6 39.16% 007 D
MS313 03-04 12 8 21 07 2.6! 466 4502% 001 E
MS313 04-05 5 6 11 ea 2.: 40 6 29 26% 002 D
MS313 0506 4 4 838 2.! 442 18 96% 013 D
MS313 08-07 9 10 20 72 2.! 442 46 88% 005 D
MS313 07-08 7 8 15 03 2.! 442 340076 002 D
MS313 0809 6 8 16 67 2.5 442 37 71% 003 D
MS313 0 8 1 0 75 10 16 92 2.t 442 42 81% 001 D
MS313 1011 95 5 14 68 2.a 468 31 37% 003 E
MS313 11-12 8 10 5 19 18 2.6: 46 8 40 08% a01 E
MS313 12-13 10 9 20 60 2.6: 468 44 02% coo1 E
MS313 13-14 11 5 10 21 30 2 61 468 45 51% <001 E
MS313 14-15 15 15 3030 2.6: 46 6 64 74% 001 E
MS313 1516 16 14 5 32 40 2.6: 468 69 23% 002 c
MS313 18-17 15 14 30 10 2.E 468 64 32% 001 E
MS313 17-18 11 11 23 50 2.6: 46 8 5021% oca E
MS313 18-19 20 18 3900 2.6: 468 83 33% 002 E
MS313 19-20 10 11 23 80 2 6: 468 50 43% 005 D
MS313 20-21 14 5 18 3490 2.85 468 74 57% COO1 c
MS313 21-22 18 14 32 70 2.6: 468 69 8% 001 E
MS313 22-23 16 5 14 5 3060 2.6: 468 65 38% 001 E
MS313 23-24 13 13 27 60 2.6: 468 58 97% 001 E
MS313 24-25 12 5 14 27 40 2.65 468 58 55% 001 D
MS313 2S26 16 5 14 5 34 70 2.85 468 74 15% 002 D
MS313 2 8 2 7 14 16 31 70 2.65 468 87 74% 001 E
MS313 27-28 13 11 24 40 2 65 468 52 14% 003 E
MS313 28-29 12.8 13 11 5 12.00 24 80
- _- - __ .
2.65 -4.6-8 -_____ 52 99% 010 E-
MS313 29-30 16.1 16 5 14.50 2 65 466 65 38% 001 E
MS313 30-31 17.5 17 5 14.72 2 65 468 88 65% oca E
MS313 31-32 12.8 11 5 14 72 2 65 46 8 58 80% 001 E
MS313 32-33 19.5 17 18.72 2 65 46 8 81 67% 001 E
MS313 33-34 24 22 17.72 2 65 46 8 89 15% 002 E
MS313 34-35 17.8 17 5 23.22 2 65 46 8 87 65% 001 E
MS313 35-38 20.6 18 19.72 2 65 46 8 ea 15% 001 E
MS313 36-37 15.8 12 5 16.72 2 65 46 8 69 49% 003 E
MS313 37-38 16.9 15 17.22 2 65 468 72 91% 001 D
MS313 38-39 22.3 21 20.72 2 65 468 91 92% 041 B
MS313 39-40 16.6 15 5 15.22 2 65 46 8 67 99% 0 13 A
MS313 4041 21 19 19.72 2 65 46 8 87 01% 001 B
MS313 41-42 15 13 25.22 2 65 468 85 84% 003 C
MS313 42-43 17.7 16 5 21.22 2 65 468 83 16% <001 E
MS313 43-44 21.2 19 17.72 2 65 468 83 16% coo1 E
MS313 4 4 4 5 16.4 14 20.72 2 65 46 8 79 32% eo01 E
MS313 4546 10.4 7 15.72 2 65 46 8 55 81% 001 E
MS313 16-47 21.3 18 26.72 2 65 46 8 conlaminated 102 61% coo1 A
MS313 4 7 4 20.5 18 5 20.22 2 65 46 8 87 01% 004 B
MS313 4 8 4 9 20.9 16 5 19.72 2 65 468 88 79% 002 B
MS313 49-50 15.4 13 21.22 2 65 468 78 25% 007 A
MS313 50-51 19.1 17 5 17.72 2 65 46 8 78 68% 001 c
MS313 51-52 14.2 12 5 16.22 265 468 6 5 m 377 A
MS313 52-53 18.2 17 5 18.22 265 468 79 96% 034 A
MS313 53-54 8.04 65 13.72 2 65 468 u)5ox OM A
MS313 54-55 27.5 28 31.72 2 65 46 8 mtamneled 128 54% 017 A
MS313 55-56 18.6 18 19.22 2 65 468 80 81% O M A
MS313 5857 16.7 13 5 17.22 2 65 46 8 72 48% 001 B
W 1 3 57-58 15.5 15 5 16.72 2 65 46 8 68 85% 001 B
W 1 3 58-59 19.8 17 5 24.72 2 65 468 95 13% a01 E
MS313 5 9 6 0 17.7 16 5 19.22 2 65 468 78 89% <001 E
MS313 6 0 8 1 15.2 14 16.22 2 65 466 67 14% 047 B
MS313 81-62 17.5 15 5 19.72 2 65 468 79 53% 002 E
MS313 6263 21 19 5 21.72 2 65 468 91 26% 003 E
MS313 63-84 10.3 9 11.72 2 65 468 47 05% cool E
MS313 81-65 22.2 20 23.72 2 65 46 8 98 12% 001 E
17 5 17.72 2 65 46 8 78 68% 001 E
MS313 8588 ... 19.1

Mining Geology Conference Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997 177

M D GOODZ and D 1 D'ASTOLI

2
TABLE
Average recowries for drill holes MS31-3 - MS31.5.

AVERAGE VALUES FOR DRILL HOLE MS3l3

PERCEm-
DRlU SAMPLe ALS LAB 8Rn RECOVERY
HOLE I ~ R V A L~ M SAMPLE
T SAMPLE CORRCCMW PERCENT UcLuDmo
ID nubn ha hp FACTOR hp RECOVERY ROCK CODE E
US313 0 5 587 560 490 027 2583% 21 03%
Us313 5-10 732 670 800 082 2807% 3607%
US313 1034 1428 1370 1293 O M 59 19% 6531%
US313 3 0 6 8 1790 1618 1754 172 7735% 76mx
Ms313 066 1509 1393 1446 116 84 41% 60 29%

COST ANALYSIS
I n this program, no matter how the costs are analysetl, diainond
drilling has a lower per nietre cost than RC. Final cost per metre
of NQ / HQ drillcore averaged $1 18 to $122. The cost of f x c -
sample RC per metre recovered was S22X.
The actual rcaliscd costs of these programs are listed in Tahle
4. The cost of follow up review o f the RC results was not
incorporated i n thc drilling costs. howcver triplicate interval
sampling, relogping. excavation 01' holes to measure tIue
diameters and statistical ;inalysis 0 1 SG/holc diiimcter effects
would have significantly increased tinal per metre outgoings.

TABLE
4
Cost c.oinp(iri.sori hetweeir drill riiethods.
RC Face Diamond
Hammer' HQ3NQ3'
Drilling/metre $28 $82.50
Sample diameter (mm) I50 60147
Cross-contamination Metres drilled 174 801
Down time (hours) 1I 58
Cross-contamination was believed to be endemic in this RC (cost) $9 50 $7.20
program. Although difficult to measure it was apparent wlien Sample lost (m) 78 25
Loss correction factor 45% 3.1%
either of the following occurred: intervals with greater than 100
per cent recovery; and intervals with unusual quartz volumes Technical handling costs
[smearing]. Days 5 51
Note: if the supposed maximum hole OD was 139 mm (5.5
inches) as suggested by RC contractors, along with corrected SG 2.5 Geol Assist 0.25
(2.96 for 'E'), then the statistics worsen in that 40 per cent of all 1.5 Geol Assist 0.25
$17 20 $4.40
intervals have >IO0 per cent recovery (ie cross contamination)
and that the average recovery of non 'E' rock type in Consumables $2.20 $8.90
intersections only rises from 55 to 57 pcr cent! Mobilisation $43.20 $0.90
Therefore we have reported an average recovery of 55 per cent ( I S.50)
for all rock types excluding 'E'. The minimum range factor Site preparation $5.60 52.50
yielded an average of only 36 per cent. Special polymer additives $7.80

Assaying costs'
Equipment review Samples 210 360
Costlm $19.80 $4.05
It is proposed that the compressor provided with the drillrig was
never adequate to perform to the necessary level for complete Cost per metre drilled $125 50 $1 18.25
recovery of sample. Further compounding this problem, the
contractor selected too narrow a rod string at 114 mm, thereby Real cost per metre of
exacerbating the volume to be sealed outside the rods. This sample recovered ($228.18) ($ 122.03)
would mean that the back pressure required to optimise sample
recovery was never achievable in the weathered profile. It is lotcs: Down time; $150 (I), $100 (2); (3) laboratory servicc
advised that the minimum size recommended for this type of harges for sample preparation, assaying and freight RC
work is a 350 psi1900 cfm compressor. 1S.001sample; COR $9.001sample.

178 Launceston. 10 14 November 1997

~ Mining Geology Conference
 DIAMOND DRILL COKE VERSUS RC CHIPS

Although these were short shallow programs, the comparison
is critical to junior exploration companies who fund only 500 to
1000 m drill programs in the hope of intersecting a positive
indication of mineralisation. The higher mobilisation cost of RC
rigs is a burden in this area.
The reflection of cost per inetre recovered is tlic
juiidainerital reality tlint you must p i y f o r ivliat
you do iiot receive'.
MINERALISATION ANALYSIS
Mineralisation analysis should be more important than cost,
however dollars speak louder than geologists. The hottom line
was that RC drilling gave one assay greater than 0.47 g/t gold. In
contrast. the diamond drillcore yielded nine ass;iys greater than
I .o g/t gold.
Mineral distributions (quartz and sulphides) were significantly
different between the methods, with the diamond results showing
narrow higher grade mineralisation, whereas the RC results
suggested broad zones of insignificant grade.
I n the case of high grade gold vein deposits. where the nugget
efl'ect is considered signiticant. sample quality (eg intact
drillcore) is most important (Goodz et al, 1997; McCarthy, 1995;
Gilrnsey, 1993; Lee. 1989).
Structural analysis of the core (Gaboury, 1997) indicated a
conjugate wcst-dipping reef (Figure 2). which the next four
diamond holes all intersectcd. Diamond hole MS 342 had
identilied a completely new mineralised zone. With the four
subsequent diamond holes. this zone now represents an Indicated
and Inferred Resource of 520 000 tonnes @ 2.4 glt gold.
On RC drill results alone. this area might never have been
drilled again!
CONCLUSION
Diamond tlrilling provides an intact, complete geological sample
with far less on-costs than RC drilling. It identilied a new
resource where RC drilling had suggested that no further
cxploration be undertaken.
Although RC drilling has ;L low up-front per metre cost, the
relative quantity and quality of the recovered sample is always

iiw om

P
1

WlUlTMOlEROANUElULSK 70oH North Facing Section I7 67e Corridor1

Rc hole 6 3 1 3 6 Iwin diamnd hole 6 3 4 2
*mlZ 5116 MO 11s P l y i I
m1L Laa llrill 118m
, 4 diamnd holes intersected ne* West d i D p e r f
m 801 iw #1*511,:0 VIC 1122 ws359 Shows later i n t e r c w t i n the section
p __ ~ w.IY..Ymn*ur. m

Rti 2 the 700 NF north-facingsection showing twinholes MS313 (RC) and MS342 (tlia~nond)and later confinii:ilory hole MS3.59(dialnoid) outlining the
position ofthe new west-dipping reef.

Mining Geology Conference Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997 179

 M D GOODZ and D J D’ASTOLI

I questionable. T h e new face sampling drill bits have improved
the return. but concealed the sample quality.
It is recommended that all project managers review
I compressor capacities (and operating efficiency), rod string
diameters, the reactive and erosional nature of’ their geological
profile, and recovered sample weights. It is also recornmended
, that for each program, at least o n e collar should b e excavated to
measure the true hole diameter.
RC drill methods are not suitable for high grade vein gold
deposits. Nor in scenarios where the geological profile is highly
decomposed, numerous jointdcavities are related to the
mineralisation, the water table is shallow, o r the
topography/relief/weather affect access.
Diamond drilling still remains the only method to provide
structural control, adequate sample recovery and quality.
, 157- 16 I (The Austr:il:isinn Institute of Mining ; I I ~
( ‘ f i t i / c n 3 i r c c ~lip
Met;illuIgy: .Melhmirne)
McCarthy. P L. 1905 Tlic incaning of cxploration drilling res~~lts 111
Victorian reef deposits presented :it B;iII;irnt University Sylnposllllll
serlcs: B;1llamt, 01)
P;iley. N. 1902. Errorb i n s:iiiipling rock Ir:igmentation froin Imagcs 111
I’,ric.iices i i i !lie Miiirr(i/.r /du.\.rry
P r i i f w i / i t i ~ . r .Y(iiiip/i~i,y
S 1-97. (The A u s t r ; ~ l ; iInstitute
~ f J ~ l / ~ 8 1 ’e.~ ! pp
l l ~ ~ ~ ~ of Mining :lnd
Met:illurgy: Melhourne)
Vallee. M. I002. Guide to the evolnation 01 gold deposits. CIM Spc.1 i d
KJ/UIJW45, 2991) (Canadian Institute 0 1 Mining. MetalluIgy and
Pet r~ileuiii:Montre:iI).
Wroe. J A and Rosciihain, P H, 1984. Uepiirt on Percussion Drilling on
the Morning Star Dyke. Freepon Ausrr:ilia. (unpublished) C O I I I ~ I I I ~
report.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Mount Conqueror Minerals NL is acknowledged for providing Alteration / Grade Range
the sample data. D’Astoli Drilling Services provided the Mineraliition (AspDpy) (aver 0 . h )

diamond twin hole free of cost. R . Baldry of Wilson Drilling for Dyke-Hosted
his technical review of the RC drilling.

REFERENCES
Bevan, Peter A, 1993. The weighting of assays and the importance of
both grade and specific gravity. CIM Rulleiiri Kilume 86. N o 967.
pp 88-90,
Gaboury. D. 1997. Practical rncthods for correlating diamond-drill core
intersections: Applications to complex vein-type orebodies. CIM
Bullerin. 90( 1008): 135-138.
Gxnsey. G. 1993. Ore reserves and reconciliations in an orebotly
containing coarse gold in P roceedinp Iniermiriiind M i u i q Gedog.v
Conference. pp 207-212, (The Australasian Institute of Mining mid
Metallurgy: Melbourne).
Goodz, M D, and Frith K A, 1993 The Kea1 Sample: Variations between
dust. chip and core drilling in Priicwdinxs Intenrtrfioiitrl Mitiitig
Geoliixy Cot!ferefrce, pp 19-23. (The Australasian Institute of Mining
and Metallurgy: Melbourne).
Goodz. M D, Harvey-Kelly, F E L. Cusack, CJ and Kentwell. DJ. 1997.
Discovering New Orebodies, in ProcecditiR.r Volume 3rd
Iiiiernirrioncil Mining Geiiliigy Conference. pp 73 -XO(The kdiment-Hosted I
Australasian Institute of Mining mtl Metallurgy: Melbourne).
Lee, T, 1989. Drilling . Continuity - Mine Planning in The A u s I M M
QuMz-Sulphide Vcins <lorn from Dyke Contact
>IOm fromDyke Conlac1
0.5 to 30
< 0.01 1

180 Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997 Mining Geology Conference

Exploration, Environment and
Computing

Session Chairperson

Mark Berry
-
Pasminco Roseberg Mine
Goonumbla: 25 years, four deposits, 52 prospects
and still drilling . . .
M Arundell’

INTRODUCTION EXPLORATION HISTORY

The Central West of New South Wales is emerging as ii
significant metallogenic province. The development of
Northparkes Mines (North Limited) and the Cadia H i l l deposit
(Newcrest) are establishing NSW a s ii highly prospective
porphyry copper-gold province. Exploration in the iireii has been
further buoyed by the Ridgeway discovery by Newcrest near
Cadia. The fact that the Ridgcway prospect was discovered 300
m below surfrice under Tertiary basalt cover indicates that surface
prospecting can no longer he considered alone as an adequate
method to find significant new deposits.
I. Scnior Geologist. Nonh Ltd. Cnr Clarke arid Alluvial Streets, Parkes
NSW 2870.
Copper mincralis;ition was initially discovered by Geopeko in the
Goonumbla district by A I kin spaced roadside scout auger
tlrilling program conducted i n 1976 (Jones, 1985: Figure I ) .
Exploration had been conducted by Gcopeko (now North
Limited) in the Parkes arc;i since 1972. Further drilling
tlclineated the Endeavour 22 (E22) deposit (Figure 2).
Recognition ot the distinctive alteration associated with porphyry
mineralisation indicated a new porphyry Cu-Au province had
:\Is0 been lound. Twenty years of intensive exploration and
drilling i n the area has led to the discovery of three other
economic deposits - E26, E27 and E48. As wcll as these
deposits. ;I number of significmt mineralised centres or prospects
hwc hecn discovered that iii-e currently suheconoinic or the
suhjcct of on-going exploration.

Mesozcu x OepOSlt

0Devman I Prospect
a Silurian - Fault
lntwwe
0W o m b i n v w i c s
0GoonuntbVdcarucs
0Nelungaloo Volcanin

Mining Geology Conference Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997 183

 M ARUNDELL
I
Monzonite x Deposit
Monzodiorite IProspect
0Wornbin Volcania - Fault
Goonumbla Volcanlcs
FIG2 - Northparkes Mines geology.
In November 1992, North Broken Hill Pcko Ltd (now North
Limited) approved the development of the Northparkes Mines
project encompassing the Cu and Au deposits ;it E26. E22 and
E27. Project development commenced with open cut mining of
oxide Au ore from E22 and E27. With exhaustion of oxidc Au
reserves, mining of oxide Cu-Au ore commenced from the E22
and E27 deposits. Currently, sulphide Cu-Au ore is being mined
from open cuts at E22, E26 and E27 and underground at E26.
The E48 deposit, which was discovered in 1992. is scheduled to
be mined later. A mine life of up to 20 years is expected, with
the project commencing operations in May 1994 and current
production of five million tpa. The current resource and reserve
estimates for Northparkes Mines as at June 1996 are given in
Table I .
PREVIOUS WORK
A number of workers have contributed to the understanding of
the Goonumbla mineralised system. The first detailed account of
the geology of the Goonumbla deposits was by Jones (1985)
which summarised Gcopeko’s work in the area. describing the
regional geology as well as providing an account of the three
main Goonumbla deposits discovered to that time (E22, E27 and
E26). A more detailed review of the regional geology of the
Parkes and Goonumbla area is given in Clarke and Sherwin
(IYYO). A summary o f mineralisation discovered in the
Goonumbla area is presented by Heithersay et NL (1990) and a
detailed description of the E26 deposit is provided by Heithersay
(1986) and Heithersay and Walshe (1996). House (1994)
described the distribution of gold mineralisation at the E26
deposit. Squires (1992) described the geology, alteration and
184 Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997
I M Tnnnes I cu %
Reserves
Oxide C d A u
Proved - E22E27 33 0.x I
Sulphide Cu/Au
Proh;ihlc - E22E27 22 .-- 0 70
1’rob;iblc - E26NE4S 66.8 I .40
Total reserve 92 3 1.21 0.54
Measured - E22/E27 oxide 0.70
Indicated - E22E27 si11 hide 343 0.70
Iiidicaretl - E22E27 SUI hide 90.2 1.30 0.50
Total resource 125.4 1.13 0.53
mineralisation of tlie E27 deposit. Wolle (1994) completed work
on the geology, alteration and chemisrry of the E48 deposit illid
this has been complemented by tlic work of Howland-Rose
(1996) on the vein paragenesis and timing o f mineralisation of
tlie E4X deposit. Hooper el rtl ( 1996) documented the
exploriition history and geology of tlic E48 deposit. A study on
the volcanic facies of 11ic Goonumbla Volcanics around the
Northparkes mine site was completed by Hall (1993). This work
is currently being extended throughout the Goonumbla area hy
the PhD work of Hollamby (l9Yf1). A number of unpublished
Department of Mineral Resources reports by GeopekolNorth
Limited on exploration in the Goonumbla region are also
available. Internal compmy reports on exploration and specilic
reports on the mineralised centres remain confidential.
GEOLOGY OF THE GOONUMBLA AREA
The Goonumbla Volcanic Complex (GVC) was classified by
Schcihner ( 1977) a s part of the Rogan Gale Synclinorial zone
(Figure I ). The GVC was originally subdivided into the
Goonumbla Volc;inics arid Wombin Volcanics (Jones, 10x5).
Kecent work by ;I variety of workers including I M l (1993) and
Sherwin (1996) would suggest that tlic sequence should no1 be
divided and that the Wombin Volcanics represent the fractionated
end member of the Goonumbla Volcanics.
The Late Ordovician Goonumbla Volcanics are regarded by
Heithersay (199 I ) to have erupted from shallow submarine to
partly emergent volcanic centres. He noted that the volcanics
show a range in composition from shoshonite through latite
(trachyantlesite) to trachyte. Volcanic breccias, volcaniclastic
sediments and reel(?) limestones are prevalent interbedded with
true volcanics on the llanks of these centres. A prominent
circular to ovoid feature, notable i n regional magnetics and
approximately 25 kin in diameter, has been interpreted by Jones
(1985) to represent the remnants o f ;I collapsed caldera formed
from explosive eruptions. Hall ( 1993) suggests that the ‘caldera’
formed by block subsidence and clownsagging rather than
’ pyroclastic activity. He cited the lack of pyroclastic deposits in
the area a s suggestive that effusive rather than explosive
volcanism was dominant within the Goonumbla area. However,
Hollamby ( 1996) suggests that the textural evidence from drill
core samples indicates an explosive mode of derivation for the
material. Further detailed work on reconstnicting the
paleovo1c;inology of the Goonumbla area is currently in progress.
A series of mineraliscd monzonite porphyries have intruded
the volcanics of the GVC. The geochronological work of
Mining Geology Conference
 GOONUMBLA 2.5 YEARS. FOUR DEPOSITS, S2 PROSPECTS AND STILL DRILLING.. .
Perkins et al (1990) indicates that the intrusives are coeval with
the Late Ordovician volcanics (approximately 440 Ma).
lntrusives i n the area vary from diorite through to syenite. The
Endeavour 31 stock, which crops out east of the E20 and E48
deposits, is distinguished by biotite and lesser hornblende
phenocrysts, and is approximately 1.5 km by I kin in plan
*
dimension ;it the surface (Heithersay, 1991; Figure 2). This stock
has previously been interpreted to be the parent for the
mineralised porphyritic pipes such as at E26, which are thought
to occur around its margins (Heithersay, 1991). However, recent
work by Arundell (1995) would indicate that the location of the
Altona Thrust to the west of the E3 I stock would prevent the E3 I
stock from occurring proximal to the E26 and E48 deposits. A
separate intrusive body nominally called the E26 stock, albeit
geochemically indistinguishable from the E3 I stock, is proposed
to be the parent stock for the E26 and E48 deposits.
Mineralised quartz monzonite porphyries (QMPs) crosscut the
E26 stock. and represent focused late-stage release of magma
and volatiles concentrated on the margins of the stock
(Heithersay, 1991). Subvolcanic emplacement of tlie intrusives
is suggested by their line-grained nature, bre
presence of pebble dykes (Heithersay, 1994). The QMPs tend to
be pipe-like in shape at E26 and E48 and vary from SO to 200 m
in diameter. The mineralisation at E27 appears to be associated
with a QMP but the intrusive relationships are difficult t o
determine (Squires. 1092). The high-grade zone of
mineralisation at the E22 deposit occurs at the intersection of two
QMP dykes striking NW and NE. The individual deposits are
characterised by differing levels of intrusive emplacement and
also by their level of preservation (Heithersay. 1996). At E26
and E48, mineralisation is very narrow and approximately 50 to
IO0 metres below surface, suggesting that the complete porphyry
system is preserved at both deposits. The deposits :it E22 and
E27 however, are considered to be signiticantly eroded, with only
the middle and deeper parts of the porphyry system preserved.
Post-mineralisation monzonite to syenite dykes, locally termed
zero porphyries, crosscut mineralisation. These are subvertical
and tend to follow prominent structural trends.
I-leithersay (1991) notes that a large copper anomaly ranging
from 1000 to 4000 ppm blankets the E3 1 stock, with local copper
highs associated with quartz monzonite porphyries. He also
states that the QMPs disrupt an annular zinc geochemical pattern
centred on the E31 stock and that i t appears that the quartz
monzonite porphyries have overprinted the Cu and Zn halos
associated with the E31 stock.
The host sequence of volcanics and associated volcanics at
E22. E26, E27 and E48 dip gently to the southeast and lie on the
western limb o f the Milpose Syncline (Jones, 1985). The vertical
to near-vertical attitude of the quartz monzonite pipes suggests
that deformation has not affected the deposits (Jones. 1985).
Few major faults or shears have been mapped on surface,
although significant structure has been interpreted from detailed
aerial and ground magnetics conducted over the area. A major
north-south trending structure (the Endeavour Linear. llooper c t
(if (1996)) has been defined, along which many of the major
deposits lie. I t is thus suggested that there is some structural
control to QMP emplacement (Hooper et al. 1996). The top of
the E48 deposit and the base of the E28 deposit are displaced by
a major shallow east dipping fault known as the ‘Altona Thrust’.
However, the relative displacement associated with this structure
and its lateral extent are largely unknown and thus i t is currently
referred to as ALAS (Altona Low Angle Structure). Small
shears, faults and post-mineralisation dykes tend to be
subvertical, striking NW-SE and NNE-SSW and ;ire often
associated with Pb-Zn mineralisation (House, 1994).
PREVIOUS EXPLORATION
Surface prospecting in the Parkes area is hampered by the
presence o f recent cover sequences concealing much of the
Mining Geology Conference Launceslon. 10 -
Ordovician volcanic and intrusive sequence. Gcopeko’s
cxperience trom the Tennant Creek area meant that geophysical
tcchniques, pxticularly magnetics, were applied routinely to
explore under regolith cover.
Since grid drilling was pi-ohihitively expensive. drilling
t;irgcted on geophysical targets was the preferred technique. The
discovery of the E27 deposit which shows a classical magnetic
‘doughnut’ signature enabled ii geophysical niotlel to be
developed for regional exploration. The rim of the ‘doughnut’. a
magnetic high, w;is thought to be because of potassic alteration
(biotite - magnetite +/- K-feldspar) of the volcanic pile encircling
the mineralising haematitic monzonite porphyry (relative
magnetic low). Thus. many magnetic lows were targeted for
drilling which met with variable success. In more recent times,
tlie E48 deposit can be claimed as a direct result of drilling a
‘look a like’ magnetic target to the E27 signature (Hooper et al,
1996).
vA I :I O U S electrical geophysical techniques have been applied
with limited succcss. A major IP survey was conducted over the
Goonumbln area i n the early- 1980s initiated by Chevron who
were ;I joint venture partner ;it the time. Their experience in
North America susgested that IP would be an cxcellcnt technique
for tindins other porphyry copper deposits. However. the low
sulphide content of the Goonumbla deposits, particularly
compared with tlie regional pyritic propylitic alteration, means
that electrical geophysics is not a good technique for the direct
detection of mineralisation. The presence of highly conductive
material in tlie cover sequenccs also meant electrical techniques
Iixl great difficulty penetrating the cover sequence and thus any
response illat may have been associated with mineralisation
would be subtle, it’ present at ;ill.
Regional gravity delines tlic Goonumbla circular feature very
well. However, within the circular feature. gravity hiis not been a
uscful exploration techniquo. The mineralised monzonite
porphyries have a negligible hulk density contrast conipared with
tlie volcanic pile they intrude. Also. the low sulphide content
means little bulk density contrast is associated with the
mineralising event. To complicate matters, the variable thickness
o f low density regolith matcri;il, both transported and it, s h ,
provides an excellent gravity contrast with the basement,
nieaning that removal of this layer through modelling is difficult.
Kegion;il RA13 drilling has been conducted on 400 in centres,
;IS :I minimum, within the Goonumbla circular f e m r e . This
work was primarily completed to gather bedrock geological
information. Thus, only hottom of the hole samples were
rctained and analysed. Profile sampling was not conducted nor
wiis logging of tlie ‘transported’ material from each hole.
Fortunately. a lor of this matcriiil has been retained in storage and
in recent years lias been logged and analysed revealing a
complex regolith development in the Goonumbla area.
In an ewluation of the exploration that has been conducted
over the Goonumbla area i n ilie last 25 years. one could easily
conclude that the area lias been well explored and thus needs no
further work. This could be true of an area where no significant
niineralisation has been discovered. However. evaluating the
cxploratiori conducted in light of thc proximity of the
Northparkes mines operation indicates that significant potential
I S present.
I t is thus suggested that thc Goonumbla area has been under-
explored. Twenty-five years of exploration has not meant 25
years of systematic regional exploration and evaluation. For
many years. work (ie money) was purely focussed on drilling out
the deposits. Vcry little effort over the period has been directed
at collectins a regional geological and geochemical cl;itaset. This
h a s largely heen because of the lack of funds available to conduct
regional exploration. Emphasis has been on the direct detection
of miner;iltsation. particularly through geophysical techniques,
I-ather than systematic regional exploration.
14 November 1997 185
 M ARUNDELL
I
I estimated that i t will takc i n the order o f live years to complete.
CURRENT EXPLORATION
’ Goonumbla is a mature exploration area in terms of years since
the initial discovery. I t would he reasonable to say that the easy
discoveries have been made. With 400 m centres RAR drilling
over most of the Goonumbla area and 100 m centres in the near
mine environs. i t would appear that the chance of linding
significant mineralisation is slim. The question is ‘how do we
make a difference today‘? How d o we find something different
that has not previously been found?’
The current exploration ‘difference’ could he described i n
terms of the following ‘motherhood’ statements:
The current Goonumbla exploration eKort is clearly focussed
on defined targets - E26.
Exploration programs are conducted systematically and
thoroughly.
A holistic, multi-disciplined approach is being taken to the
evaluation of areas integrating data through the use of CIS.
Exploration geoscientists are working iis a team with
emphasis on co-operative decision-making.
However, these statements d o not adequately express the
changes in exploration philosophy that are currently hcing
applied.
Probably the major change has been the adoption ;ind
application of regolith exploration techniques. Soil sampling is
now conducted after a thorough regolith interpretation of an area
is completed. Airborne radiometries are combined with aerial
photography interpretation and previous drilling to dclincate
areas of relict landform over which soil sampling can be carried
out. When data are interpreted, extreme care is taken io
discriminate samples according to the landform sampled. Areas
of transported cover are initially drilled with wide spaced aircore
drilling and profile sampled. The base of transported cover is
determined from this work and thus the style of sample
compositing determined. Follow-up work on these areas is
prioritised based upon prospectivity ranking, the depth of cover,
and alteration and mineralisation intersected in the initial drilling
campaign.
Detailed ground magnetics has previously heen conducted
only over areas of perceived greater prospectivity. Thus small
grids were established over individual prospects. Rapid
sampling GPS controllcd ground magnetics (RSGM) h;is now
been conducted over all of the Northparkes Mines mining leases
and not just selected airborne magnetic targets. This has led to
the generation of new anomalies not apparent in the airborne
magnetics which are being drill tested. In areas where RSGM is
considered not to be cost-effective, detailed helimag has been
conducted. Note that the approach is to cover ‘target areas’ not
just specific targets or prospects. T h e approach to exploration is
being balanced between detailed work in the near mine area and
regional data collection in the peripheral tenements.
Exploration on the mine leases and in the near mine area is
being approached with an aggressive stance. The cost benefit of
discovering mineralisation proximal t o current infrastructure is
enormous. New techniques are being trialled in an effort to
directly detect mineralisation. Also, the re-interpretation of
historic geological, geochemical and geophysical data is being
integrated with new data collected from underground and open
cut mapping and drilling in order to better understand the
Goonumbla mineralised systems and thus refine the exploration
model.
This aggressive approach in the near mine area is balanced
with a systematic approach to regional exploration. The
collection of a ‘basic geochemical data layer’ over the complete
Goonumbla tenement package is the first objective of this
regional work. This is not a short-term program since i t is
I 186 Launceston, 1 0 -
A staged program of soil sampling hiis now been completed c~ver
tlie G o o n m h l n tenements. Approxini;itely 16 000 samples h;ive
been collected a s part o f this work. Aircore drilling over selcctcd
priority ;ireas of transported cover h;is been initiated. This
‘balanccd’ approach is only possible hecause management is
committed to exploring i n the Goonumhlii area. Funding must he
sustained ;it current levels i n order to continue this work.
Sometimes it seems that we get a littlc lost in periphcral issues
that distract us from oui- primary t;isk - finding orebotlies.
Esoteric discussions on tlie formation of regional terrains will not
directly lint1 i i n orchody. Geologish in ofIices pontilicatin; on
the source of rnincralising Iluids will not find ;in orchody unclcr
their dcsk. A cluestion t1i;it is often asked but often poorly
answcrcd is: ‘Whcre is the next orehotly?’ Probably the most
often coined iinswer is: ‘Where you lind it’ Perh;ips a hetier
answer to (his question is: ‘Under the t l i - i l l rig!!’
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This piper is publi\hed with the permission of North Limited iind
the Northp;irkcs Joint Venture. Reviews from Peter Benjamin,
Paul Harbon, Rod l’oxon, atid Elisabetti Morgan benefited tlie
content o f the paper enormously. Cixig Weldon kindly dral’tcd
the figures.
REFERENCBS
Arundell. M C. IOW. E4X clcvelopmciit - Exploration Data Review,
Niirlli Lld / i i ~ e r i i i iMeiiii/.
/
Clarke, I aiid Sherwiii. L, (ctls) 1990. Geological Setting o f gold ;ind
copper deposits 111 the P~irkesarea, NSW, 9.5- 136. Geol Surv NS W
Records 23.
Hall, M. 1993. The Stratigraphy and P:il;ieovolcnnology of the Lite
Ordovician Goontinibla Vqlcanics. Gooiiunibla. NSW. BSc (lions)
Thesis (unpublished), Monash Univerairy. Melbourne.
Heithersay. I’ S, 1086. Endeavour 26 North copper-gold deposit.
Goonumhla, NSW - Ipiragenesis ;ind alteration zonation. i n
Pii/dicii!ioii.s o/ rlie / - < ! / I C M M / Coii,~re.cs. Mi/ 2. Gcviloxy fitid
(Ed. I:, A 13erkinan). pp I8 I - I X9 (The 13th Congress of
E.ipliir(irioii
the Couiicil of Miiiing and Metalliirycal Institutions: Melbourne;
:ind The Auslfiilxian Institute o f Mining and Metallurgy:
Melhouriie).
Ilcilheixiy. I‘ S. O’Nctill. W J. V:III tler Heldcr. I: Moore. C R mid liarlion,
P C. I900 Gooiiuinhl;i porphyry copper district - Entle:ivour 26
North. Endeavour 22 :id Endeavour 27 copper-gold dcposils iii
(;P(J/o~J o/ tlic. MIiici.tr/Dc~pi.cits,J/ Air.crrciliii iind A i p i d NCW
G i i i i i c v i (Ed: F E I lughcs), pp 138.5- I 7 O X (The Australasian Insliiute
of Mining and Met:illurgy: Melbourne).
Heithersay, I’ S, 199 I The slioshonite-associated. Endeavour 26 North
porphyry copper-gold deposit, Go~iiiunibla, NSW, PhD Thesis
(unpublished). AusIrali:ui National Uiiivcrsity, Canberra.
Heithersay. I’ S, 1994 The Central West New South Wales Copper-Gold
Province. i n Ow /Irpiisir Studies ( i i i d hplorutioii Models. Miisre,
o / ’ E ~ ~ o i i ~ i Ccwlrixy
i~iIc Cour.ce M(inuri/ I , pp I . 1-1.26. Centre for Ore
Deposit ;ind Exploration Studies. Pan I
Heithersay. P S and Wdshe. J L. 1996. Endeavour 26 North : a porphyry
copper gold i n the Late Ordovici;ui, shoshonitic Goonuiiihla
Volcniiic Coinplex. NSW. Australia. / ; ( . o i i Geol, Y0:/506-/532.
Hollainhy, J. 1996. The Mincralised Ortlovician Gooiiumbla Volcmiic
Complex. Lachlan Fold Bell, New South Walcs: A
p:~l;icovoIcaiiological:uid palaeogeogfiiphic reconstruction. First S I X
monthly report - PhD Research Prrilcct (unpublished). Moimh
University. Melhourne.
Hooper. B. Heithersay, P S, Mills, M B, Lindhorst. J W and I’reyberg, J,
1996. Shoshonitc-hosted Endeavour 4X porphyry copper-gold
deposit. Nonhparkes, central New South Wales, Ausr I €iir//i Sci.
43:27wn8.
House, M J. 1994. Gold Distribution at tlic E26 Porphyry Copper-Gold
Ikposit. Goonumbla NSW. MEconGcol Thesis (unpublished),
University of T:isinnni:i. Hobart.
14 November 1997 Mining Geology Conference
 GOONUMBLA: 25 YEAIG, FOUR DEPOSIlS. S2 PKOSPECTS AND STILL DKILLING

Deposit. Goonumbla NSW. MEconGeol Thesis (unpublished).
University of Tasmania. Hobart.
Howland-Rose. J S. 1996. Fluid evolution at the Endeavour 48 Porphyry
CU-Au Deposit. Pnrkes. NSW. RSc (Hoiis) Thesis (unpublished).
Ilniversity of Newcastle.
Jones. G J. 198.5. The Goonumhla Porphyry copper dcpohits. New South
Wales. C . ~ l l Geol.
I RO:59/-6/3.
I’crkins. C. MeDougall. 1. Claoue-Long. J and Heithersay. P S. 1990.
40Ar/39Ar and U-Pb Geochronology of the Goonuiiihla Porphyry
Cu-Au deposits, NSW, Australia, Ecoti C;eri/.XS:IXOh‘-ISZ+‘.
Scheibner. E, 1973. A Plate Tectonic Model of the Pal:iewoic Tectonic
History of New South Wales. J (;eo/ S(ic.Ausr. 20.405-426.
Sherwin. L, 1973. Stratigraphy ofthe Forks - Hogan Gate district., NSIV
Gcol Sun: Rec. 1.5:47-101.
Sherwin. L. 1990. Nnrroriiinc I :?SO OOO Geological Sheet SISS/3:
Explanatory Notes. Geol Sui\’ NSW, Sydney, 104p.
Squires. V E. 1092. The Miner:ilization and Alteration o f [lie Endeavour
27 Porphyry Copper-Gold Ikposit, Goonumbla. New South Wales.
13Sc (lions) Tliesis (unpublislred), University of Sydney.
Wolle. R C, 1094. The Geology. Paragenesis mid Alteration
Geoclieiiiistry of the Ende:ivour 48 Cu-Au Porphyry. Cioonumbla.
NSW. I F k (Hoiis) lhesis (unpublished). University of Tasmania.
Hobart.

Mining Geology Conference Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997 187

I 188 Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997 Mining Geology Conference
Environmental Management of Sulphidic Waste Rock
at Mt Lyell, Tasmania
A M Robertson’, I M Stanley2, D Brett3 and R Dickson4

ABSTRACT matrix, transport these to ground and surface watcr, nnd affcct
The Mt Lyell Mine. situated in Queenstown on the west coast of
tlie itnmcdiatc and surrounding environment (CMA, 1092).
Tamiania. has a production history of inore than 100 yeat-s. Previous The Mt Lyell Mine is located in a high rainfall environment
niining activities have resulted i n suhstantial inoditications to ( 2 3 - 3 m/yr) on the west CO;ISI of Tasmania (Figure I ) and has a
environmental conditions at Mt Lyell and disposal of sulphidic waste history of mining activities over more than a century which have
rock across the lease has left a legacy of on-going cnvironnienlal impacts resulted i n substantial modificiitions to environmental conditions.
including acid drainage (AD). Disposal o t sulphidic waste rock across thc lease has left ii legacy
In I Y Y S Copper Mines of Tasinlrnia (CMT) was g r x w d iiiining lease o f on-going environmcntal impacts. AD emitted from
froin the Tasmanian State Government for redevelopment of Mt Lyell and underground workings and wastc rock dumps at the mine site has
indemnity from actions concerning pollution from previous occupation
and use of leased land. The Environmental Management Plan (EMP) for
severely impacted o n water quality downstream in the Queen and
the Mt Lyell redevelopment committed CMT to be responsible for waste King Rivers and Macquarie Harbour (Koehnken, 1907).
rock dumps generated from their activities and to ensure that
management is in-line with best practice environmental manageinent
principles. CMT commenced commercial production in I>ecembcr 199s
with sulphidic material from development of the underground Prince
Lyell mine reporting to a single waste rock dump constructed according
to a management plan developed in July 199.5 and superseded hy a
management plan for extension in May 1997.
The CMT waste rock dump currently has a total capacity of 220 000
ini and approximately 120 000 ni’ of rock have been placed 10-date.
Material reporting to the dump is placed in a densely conipacted state to
n controlled surface profile. The dump is clay capped and a final
revegetated soil layer placed on top. A rock pitched drain extends down
to a wetland area in order to remove storinwater and niiniiirise possible
soil erosion on the revegetatcd sections.
An integral pan of the inanagcment pl:in for thc waste rock dump
involves characterisation of waste rock to identify geochemical rock
types according to acid forming potential with provision for selective
placement within the dump. High-risk materials are selectively placed
and covercd within the core of the waste rock dump. whcre possible, to
control sirlphide oxidation.
Monitoring rquipinent has been installed i n the waste rock dump by
the Australian Nuclcar Science and Technology Organisation (ANSTO)
and an on-going monitoring program h s bccn established to tlcinonstrate
the integrity of tlie dump cover iis a barrier to the influx of atniospheric
oxygen into the dump.
The overall objectives of this program of work ;ire t o control the
oxidation of sulphidic w x t e rock in the waste rock dump. ininiinise the
risk of AD. prevent pollution of the aquatic environment and thereby
deinonstrate tlie integrity of the CMT waste rock dump iiinnagerncnt
strategy.

INTRODUCTION FIG I - Location of MI Lyell Mine operated by CMT l’ty Ltd

Acid drainage (AD) is an international problem which results

from the oxidation of sulphidic minerals (cg pyrite, FeS2)
exposed to atmospheric conditions from activities such as
mining. Sulphidic minerals are formed in the carth’s crust in a
rcducing cnvironmcnt. Thcy become unstable antl may react
when exposed to air and water in thc presence of bacteria such as
Thiobacillus ferrooxidans. l’hc resultant acidic solutions may
mobilisc metals such as AI, Cu, Mn and Zn from the surrounding
I . Copper Mincs of Tasinania Pty Ltd , PO Box X4. Queenstown Tas
7467.
2. Pavninco Metals EZ,PO Box 377D. Hobart Tas 7001
3 . Thompson antl Brett Pty Ltd. 6 Bayfield Street. Rosny Park Tas
7018.
4. University of Tasmania. Newnhani Drive. Newnham, L;uinceston
Ta 7248.
Somc 5.3 Mt o t sulphidic waste rock, at an average of ten per
cent pyrite, has been historically disposed of in more than ten
waste rock dumps across the surface of the Mt Lyell lease with
sciint regard for possible environmental impacts (EGi, 1993).
‘Tlic on-going legacy 0 1 A D from waste rock dumps and
underground workings contributes a calculated average of 2400
kg of dissolved copper per dkiy as well as other metal pollutants
to (lie downstream catchments (Clarke, I997a. l997b).
Modelling of the pyritic oxidation rates in the abandoned West
Lycll open cut waste rock dutnps by ANSTO has revcaled that
Icxhate from these dumps will continue to be a source of AD for
an estimated 600 years (ANSTO lYY4 a. 1994b).
The Mt Lyell mine ceased operation under the Mt Lyell
Mining and Railway Comp;iny (MLMRC) in Dcccmbcr 1994.
’l’hc Tasmanian State Government granted Copper Mincs of
Trismania I’ty Lttl (CMT), through its parent company Gold

Mining Geology Conference Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997 189

A M ROBERTSON er ( I /
Mines of Australia (GMA), a mining lease the following year for
redevelopment of Mt Lyell and indemnity from actions
concerning pollution from previous occupation iind use of le;ised
land. The Environmental Management Plan (EMP) for the MI
Lyell redevelopment has committed CMT to be responsible for
waste rock dumps generated from current and future activities
and to ensure that environmental management is in-line with the
principles of best practice.
CMT commenced commercial production in December 1995
with sulphidic material from development of the underground
Prince Lyell mine reporting to ti single wiiste rock dump
constructed according to a planned management strategy
(Thompson and Brett, l99S). This has since been updated to
cover the extension of the current waste rock dump t o provide
sufficient capacity for waste rock generated until the end of I998
(Thompson and Brett, 1997).
The C M T waste rock dump currently has ii total capacity of
some 220 000 m3 and approximately 120 000 m3 of rock lias
been placed to-date. Material reporting to the dump is placed in
a densely compacted state to a controlled surface profile. The
dump is clay capped and a final revegetated soil layer placed on
top. A rock pitched drain extends down to a wetland area in
order to remove stormwater and minimise possible soil erosion
on the revegetated sections.
The waste rock dump management strategy involves
characterisation of waste rock to identify geochemical rock types
according to acid forming potential with provision for selective
placement within the dump. High risk (ie high acid forming
potential) materials are selectively placed and covered within tlie
core of the waste rock dump, where possible, to control sulphide
oxidation.
In March 1997. ANSTO were commissioned by CMT to
install monitoring equipment in the waste rock dump. A long-
term monitoring program has been established to demonstrate the
integrity of the dump cover to minimisc water infiltration and
provide a barrier to the influx of atmospheric oxygen.
The objective of this paper is to provide a description of the
program of work carried out in the operation of the CMT waste
rock dump to control the oxidation of sulphidic waste rock,
minimise the risk of AD and prevent pollution of the downstream
aquatic environment. Details of the monitoring program set up
to investigate the integrity of the management strategy used for
the waste rock dump are also provided. However, long-term
monitoring data will be required to provide a full evaluation of
the performance of the dump.
SITE HISTORY
The CMT waste rock dump is built on a site that has been used
historically as a smelter slag heap and more recently as a waste
rock dump. The MLMRC managed the dump with inclusion of
waste lime from their slaking plant. Nevertheless. extensive
visible oxidation was evident at the dump prior to
commencement of the CMT operation, which was assessed ;IS il
source of acid drainage.
The slag material is highly permeable and the presence of the
slag heap complicated drainage control of the site. Rainfall onto
the heap or run-off from adjacent areas percolated readily into
the heap and included acid drainage from the MLMRC dump.
The drainage pattern actually deflected water from the llat area
to the cast of the dump to the slag heap, from where it infiltrated
through unknown materials to Haulage Creek in an uncontrolled
manner.
Drainage from the hills to the south was picked up by a table
drain on the old railway formation and directed to a culvert to the
south of the slag heap. Severe erosion from the hills and from
the base of the culvert outlet lead to washout of gravel and even
coarse boulders. The visual appearance o f the general area was
190 Launceslon. 10 - 14 November 1997
degratlctl and untidy :is well ;is being readily visible from the
Quccnstowii townsliip and tlie Lyell Ili~1iw;iy.
MANAGEMENT S'I'RATEGY
CMT Iiiis been y x i t c d indemnity Irom actions concei-ning
pollution from previous occupation and use of Ic;ised h i d .
Nevertheless, senior m;inagcmcnt Iiiis endorsed a pro-active
company environmentnl policy t o ensure that CMT ;ire
responsible for the effective environinental management ot all
site activities including the operatioii o f tlic current ~vasterock
clump.
Dump construction
Waste material reporting to the dump IS integrated into the stascd
construction of a terraced dump. Existing erosion problems 11;ive
been tackled by building ;I series 01 live metre benches ;ind ;I
rock lined drain which extends down t o ;I wetland area in ordcr to
remove stormwatci- and minimise possible soil erosion on the
revegetated sections. l3atters are constructed at 3H: I V ( I 8.5 'I) to
provide maximum stability and facilitate progressive
rehabilitation. Waste is piddock dumped onto a llat area until a
reasonable iircii is covered and the heaps are then flattened with ;I
towed vibr;iting roller ;itid compacted into one metre nominal
layers.
'ilit! efl'ectivencss of tliis compaction has been tested (I3E'P.
1996) i i n d results indicatc tlie mainten;incc of maximum air voids
ratios well within the ten per cent iccommcndcd to minimise
oxygen migration into waste rock (EGi. 1995). 'I'hc civil woi-ks
on the dump are being performed by MacWest Pty Ltd under
supervision of the CMT Mining Department.
Clay from the abutting hillside is u c d in construction of ;I 30
cm clay cap on the dump faces. The 1in;il revegetated surface of
the dump is a 30 cm layer of soil retrieved from CMT's lantll'km
or from construction of the 'Princess Creek tailings dams prior to
inundation. The overall objective is to create a waste rock dump
in accordance with the principles of best practice in
environmental management. A recent photograph of the CMT
waste rock dump is sliown in Figure 2 .
. - -
FIG2 - Picttirr of CMT waste rock duiiip showing completed bench.
storinwater rock dmin and iiatural regrowth.
Geochemical testing and selective placement
Management of the CMT waste rock dump involves
characterisation of waste rock to identi ly geochemical rock types
according to acid forming potential with provision for selective
placement within the dump. High-risk materials are placed and
covered within tlie core o f the waste rock dump with low-risk
Mining Geology Conference
 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEhlENT OF SULPHIDIC WASTE ROCK

materials forming the face of the dump profile. where possible. ;in;ilysis (medinn value) for tlie water exiting the wetlands into
i n order to control sulphide oxidation. Haulage ('1-eek over the two-year period is provided in Table 1.
The potential for waste rock to generate acid IS assessed
,.
l ypical water quality mediaii values for (a) leachate emmitted
routinely by CMT using the Net Acid Generation (NAG) test from a poorly managed histoi-ical waste rock dump and (b) King
(Miller and Jeffery, 1995; AMIRA, 1096; Miller V I al 1907) River water unimpacted by acid drainage are also provided in
established on-site in 1995 by EGi Pty Ltd. The NAG test Tiihle I .
involves addition of H202 to a pulvcrised waste rock sample to
oxidise reactive sulphide, prior to mensurement of pH and
titration of any net acidity produced by the acid gener;ition and
acid neutralisation reactions occurring in the sample.
The NAG testing has been routinely ciirried out i n tlie CMT
laboratory on lace samples from waste development. Five
geochemical rock types or risk categories were originally
identified from the NAG test work depending on thc amount of
net acidity produced. Type 5 samples have tlie potential to
produce the greatest iiinount of acidity per unit mass (ie > 50 kg
H2S04/t) and type I are non-acid forming. In practice, attempts
to correlate NAG data with rock characteristics to fiicilitatc
prediction of geochemical rock type on a day-to-day basis proved
diflicult due to the high variability of geoc1iemic;il rock type
identified in the NAG test. A summary of the NAG test data for
291 samples tested from various mining development areas
shown i n Figure 3.

70

60

50

-
Y)

0 40
I. All results showii in mg/l exccpt pH
E 2 . Typical w:iter quality for King lliver unimpacted by acid drainage
% 30
0 3 TSS = Total susl>ciidedsolids
20
4 ii/n = iiot av3ihide
10

0 The results in T:ible 1 indicate that sulphide oxidation is still

Decline I~WLWCI 16IOL.vd 16WLeveI
Mining Dsvolopment Area
FIG 3 - Sunini:iry 0 1 NAG lesi results for vorioris mining dcvclopiiicnt
mas.
NAG analyses of samples from the Prince Lyell underground
mine decline development have consistently returned high risk
geochemical waste. with rock Types 4 and 5 dominating. Low
NAG zones have been identified on 1680 and 1660 levels and
more recently the 1920 level where some development is taking
place. Waste material from these levels has been utiliscd, where
possible, on the outer layer of the on-going bench development at
the dump.
A quality control exercise on the NAG test was carried out by
the CMT Environment Department in December I996 and
identified problems associated with a shortening of the NAG test
method at the CMT Laboratory. The original NAG method set
up by EGi Pty Ltd was reinstated in January 1997 using only two
geochemical risk categories (low and high-risk). A ncw database
is being set up to find any correlation between visual sulphidic
content and risk category. Visual prediction of geochemical rock
type on a routine basis would facilitate selective placement on
the dump.
Dump performance
The performance of the CMT dump has been monitored for the
last two years by collecting monthly water grab samples from the
wetlands exit established at the toe of the dump. A typical
164OLoveI
apparent i n the dump and that this affects the quality of leachate
exiting the toe of tlie dump. However, as stated in the previous
section, CMT inherited a waste rock dump actively generating
iicid drainage and i t is likely that, notwithstanding the
rc1i;ibilitation work carried o u t by CMT, an impact on leachate
quiility will remain apparent tor some time to come.
I t is interesting to compare the quality of the leachate from the
CMT dump with that of one of' the historical waste rock dumps
(eg the Prince Lycll Shaft W;IW Rock Dump) at Mt Lyell where
lexhate p t l is typically around 2.4 and copper concentration is
iibout 150 mg/l. The leachate quality can he directly related to
poor or non-existent historical environmental management
practices and several decades ol'exposure to air and water.
I n contraht, thc CMT waste rock dump is being progressively
rehabilitated and i t is likely that the first stage of dump
development will be complctcly capped with clay and soil by
December 1997. This will limit water infiltration and provide a
barrier to the ingress of oxygen into the dump. When the cover
is completed it is expected that the quality of the leachate emitted
irom the toe of the dump will hcgin to improve, but this is likely
to be a slow process.
The raw data used to gencrate the median results shown in
Table I suggest that the quality of the water leaching from the
CMT dump has remained re1;itively constant over the two-year
monitoring period that the dump has been in operation. The
volume of water exiting the toe of the dump has been reduced
because of the initiatives used in the construction of the dump by
CMT. It is therefore possihle that the pollutant load being
emitted from the dump could nlso have been reduced. However,
this is very difticult to confirm, iis the slag material adjacent to
the dump is highly permeable and complicates drainage patterns
from the dump through to Haulage Creek.

Mining Geology Conference Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997 191

A M ROBERTSON er al
As a result of these findings and in pursuit of best practice in
environmental management, CMT commissioned ANSTO to
install monitoring equipment in the waste rock dump in March
1997. Specifically. the installation consists of ii series of
lysimeters and oxygcn probes positioned under the clay capping
in the dump. The equipment has been used to establish ini
ongoing monitoring program to demonstrate the integrity of the
dump cover as a barrier to limit water infiltration and oxygen
diffusion into the dump. The monitoring program has been set
up as a collaborative project with the Environmental Technology
Section of the University of Tasmania in Launceston.
The monitoring program is at a preliminary stage but carly
results indicate that the clay capping is performing well with
respect to limiting water infiltration and oxygen diffusion into
the dump. The monitoring program will continue in the long-
term and C M T expect to be able to use acquired data to
demonstrate the integrity of the environmental managcnicnt
strategy employed at the waste rock dump. This should then
facilitate government approval for future waste rock dumps and
eventual dump closure.
CONCLUSIONS
CMT was granted a mining lease for the Mt Lyell site in I995
and inherited a legacy of on-going environmental problems,
including AD from historical waste rock dumps. In direct
contrast to historical mining practices, sulphidic waste rock
produced by C M T in its current operation reports to a new waste
rock dump operated in accordance with the principlcs of best
practice in environmental management.
The CMT waste rock dump is being operated and
progressively rehabilitated according to a miinagement plan
which includes selective placement of different geochemical rock
types categorised by acid forming potential. The quality of the
water leaching from the C M T dump has remained relatively
constant over the two-year monitoring period that the dump has
been in operation and compares favourably with leachate water
quality from historical waste rock dumps on the lease. Reduced
flows and attenuation of pollutant loads are difficult to confirm,
as the slag material adjacent to the dump is highly permeable and
complicates drainage patterns from the dump through to llaulage
Creek.
Monitoring equipment has been installed under the dump
cover and is being used to assess the integrity of the dump cover
with respect to limiting watcr infiltration and oxygen diffusion.
Early indications arc that the cover is performing well hut long-
term monitoring data will be required to provide a full evaluation
of the overall performance of the dump.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank CMT for allowing the
information contained in this paper to he released. They also
express their appreciation to a number of current and ex-CMT
personnel who contributed to the environmental management of
the waste rock dump. The assistance of Terry McKenzie of
MacWest Pty Ltd in carrying out a high standard of ongoing civil
works at the waste rock dump is acknowledged.
* A lysimeter is a device used to measure the voluine of rainwater
penetrating the clay cap and infiltrating the waste rock dump.
102 Launceston. 10 - 14 November 1997
REFERENCES
AMIRA (Australian Mineral lndustries Kesrarch Association Lid) IW6.
Pro.icct 1’387. Mine waste man;i~eirient - Prediction :Ind
idcntilication of ;icid forming mine \v;~sfe.(EGi Pty Lid. I3aIn1;un.
NSW).
ANSTO (Australian Nuclrnr Science ;itid lechnology 0rl;anisation)
I9 9 4 ~A inodel for predicting pollut:iiit generation in the Mount
Lyell wactc rock Iicap. (ANSTO, LUC;ISHeights. NSW).
ANSTO (Aristraliaii Nuc1e;ir Science and Technology Organisation)
I994b. Monitoring hole installation and quantification o l oxidation
i n a mine wasfe dump at the Mount Lyell mine. (ANSTO. Luc;is
Heights. NSW).
Barrct Fuller & Parincrs (BFP) 1996. Copper Mines of l’asinania -
Keport on geotcchnical investigatioii using field densities \v;iter
replncenicnt method. (BFP. Moonah. Tasmania).
Cnliforni;ni Mining Association (CMA) 1992. / ’ W ~ I C I I O J I of /\(.rd
i f i Mirle
&’Jtf’rfilitl,y / ’ ~ I ~ ~ ~ l 111 / \filsIo, Mmti~erJieril (Eds: 1 P G
Hutcliisoii and K I) Ellison) pp 123- 199. (Lewis Publishers Iiic:
Chclse:~.Michipi. USA).
Clarke, N C, l097a. A D control strategies lor MI Lyell: On-site issiies.
Paper presented at the ACMRRIOSS Third Australian Workshop on
Acid Milie Drainage, Darwin, NT. July 1997, In Press (ACMRK,
Keninore. Qld).
Clarke, N C 1997b. Copper Mines of Txinania - Acid drainage and
raffinale treatincnt in the Haulage Creek Catehrnent (Imtech Ply
Ltd: Pcrth, WA).
Environinental Gcocheinistry Internation;tl (EGi) Pty Ltd 1993.
Modelling of water quality in the Quccu and King Kivers below the
Mount Lyell mine. (EGi. Balinain. NSW).
Environinental Geocheinistry International (EGi) Pty Lid 1999. Copper
Mincs of Tasincinia - Mt Lyell Mine. Asscssinent of The Acid
Forintng Potential of Wiste Rock ;iiid linplernentation of a Field
Testing Prograninic. (ECI.Balinain. NSW).
Koehnken. L, 1997 Mount Lyell Ileinediation Kcsearch ;ind
Deiiionstration I’rograni - Final Repoil Supervising Scientist Report
126 (Su]xn~ising Scientist, Canberra, ACT).
Miller. S D. Roberrson. A M and Donohuc. .I’ A 1997. Advances i n acid
drnin:ige prediction iisiiig the net x i d generation test. kiper
presented at flie 4th Iiiternation:il Conference on Acid Ilock
Drainage, Vancoiiver. RC. Canada. June 1997, In Press. (Venue West
Conference Services, Vancouver. BC. (hiada).
Miller, S D and Jcffcry, J J 1999. Advances in the prediction of ncid
gener:iting mine waste inaterials, i n /’,r~c.eediriar of’ rlre Secotrd
A u s ~ r ~ i l i t r rAcid
i Mirie D w i r i q e WorX.v/rop (Eds: N J Grundon L C
Bell) 1’1) 33-42 (ACIMRR: Keninore, Old.).
Thonipsoil & Brett t’ty Lftl. 199.5. CopprI Mines of Tasinani:i MI Lycll
Milie lktlcvclopincnt. Slag Heap W:iste Rock Dump Kepoi-t on
01)cr:iti~iii t o Closurc (‘lhoiiipson S. Drctf Pry Ltd. Hobnn.
Tmii:ini:i).
Tlioinpson 8~ Brett Pty Ltd 1097. Copper h4incs of T:ismania. Slag tlcap
W;iste Kock D I I I I IRepoit ~ on I’ropod Extensioii. (Thoinpsoii &
Brett I’ty Lfd. llohart. Tmnania).
Mining Geology Conference
Moving Broken Hill into the Third Dimension
P Kay'
ABSTRACT
Pasminco is actively addressing the optimal utilisation of the known
orehody at the Broken Hill mine. in addition to actively cxploring for
economic miner:ilisation in the region. As part of the policy of hetter
ritilising the known mineralisation a major upgrade of gcological systems
at the mine was initiated. The software chosen for this change was
Maptek's Vulcan, mainly because of the ease of IISC of this package.
Rather than hiiving numerous data sources i n wrying software packages
the mine aimed to limit interfaces and packages. The decision to upgrade
the mine's software was not taken lightly. especially i n view of the
mature stage of Broken Hill mining operations. However. the current
mine life of Pasininco Broken Hill mine is I I years, which I S longer than
inany new inines setting up in Australia today. Also. a inore
sophisticated system brings with it a better understanding of the
economic mineralisation, possibly extending the mine life further.
The process of nioving the Broken Hill databases into Vulcan was a
huge task which included. database transfer. digitising, wire framing,
modelling and eventually ore resource calculation. To ensure the validity
of the new ore resource accounting system. the existing system was run
;IS a duplicate for the introductory year. providing a comparison nnd if
necessary a safety net. The benefits of such a change. however, hecaine
apparent almost irnmediately. Area geologists realised the opportunity to
revise gcological interpretations in their areas of rcspoiisihility. enabling
thein to obtain a better understanding of orehody inorphology. Thrce-
dimensional an:ilysis provides an excellent method by which review of
ore targets both in the underground and mine lease explorntion m a s can
be made. As each new find of mineralisation enters the systein and
hopefully extends the mine life. the opportunities for further mineral
exploration in Broken Hill area by Pasininco are enhanced.
INTRODUCTION
Mining on the line of lode at Broken Hill commenced in 1883
and proceeded a t an industrial scale until the present day.
Systems associated with the recording 01- geological and planning
data associated with mining were, as a result. put in place well
before the development of the computer. An example of this is
the number of 'geological grids' which are perpendicular to the
strike of the orebody, but as a consequence are at varying angles
with the mine planning grids. The existing Pasminco Broken
Hill mine encompasses three prior mines in the Southern
underground operations, Southern Cross (SX). New Broken Hill
Consolidated (NBHC) and the Zinc Corporation (ZC).
Additionally, Pasminco operates an open cut mine at Potosi i n
the north and holds exploration leases to the north and south
along the line of lode. Total mill throughput from underground
and surface operations in the financial year ended 30 June 1997
was a record for Broken Hill at 2.7 million tonnes.
T h e ZC made use of computers as they became ;ivailable and
put in place the custom designed Orex system in 1981 Orex '.
was broadened to the previous SX and NBHC fields ;is they were
amalgamated. The basis for calculations in Orex remains the
1 : 5 0 geologically interpreted cross-sections at a 19.8 I2 metre
spacing, although other grids remain in use at the mine with
differing spacings and orientations. The key limitation of Orex
remained its use of sectional data representation, which did not
adequately represent ore outside of the thick, massive and
continuous mineralisation. T h e maturity of the mine has
necessitated the mining of lower-grade less continuous
mineralisation which requires three-dimensional analysis and
1. Superintendent Mine Geology. Puminco Broken Hill Mine.
Pasininco Broken Hill. Mine, PO Box 460, Broken Hill NSW 28x0.
Mining Geology Conference Launceston. 10 -
visualisation for adequate delineation. The question seemed to
remain at the mine, however: 'Why bother changing, the mine
has operated for s o long now and only has 1 I or s o years to
run'!'. The counters to this arc manifold and include:
I I years is longer than the mine life of most operations
commencing today i n Australia; I I years could readily
stretch to IS o r 20 or longer if better analysis tools were
;ivai l a blc.
improved aixrlysis is likely to improve mining design
practices ;ind improved ell'iciencies are likely to he achieved
along with production from more complex areas,
reinterpretation of the geology for input into Vulcan offers
the opportunity to obtain ii better understanding of orebody
morphology, leading to the generation of exploration targets.
The scale of the project for changing systems at ii mine like
Broken Hill. however, is massive. requiring a large time
commitment from all personnel in geology. The enormity of the
changeover may be realiscd by the fact that Pasrninco had site
licences tor Datainine by 1089. yet by 1097 had only managed to
inodcl two limited areas in this software tool, Western A Lode
(WAL) and the Potosi. A decision was taken on-site i n
September I996 to take a new strategy. Maptek's Vulcan was
chosen a h the prelkrred option, mainly because of i t s apparent
ease of use relative t o the alternatives, and a lesser requirement
lor an 'expert user' on-site. Corporate approval was obtained in
December 1906. ;it which time Vulcan was inst;illed at the
Pasminco Broken Hill mine by personnel from Maptek's
Adelaide ollice. Three-dimensional visualisation of the drill hole
database, encompassing around 10 000 drill holes for both the
mine and its leases followed. Improved visualisation of drill hole
string and assay data was re;ilised immediately. resulting in an
additional cxploration tool for the mine lease. For example,
;1reas that had been two scp;ir;ite but adjoining leases i n the past,
especially i n terms of data representation. became a single
resource. Exploration targets became apparent within the
combined datasets.
The mijor effort remained, however, of area geologists
painstakingly digitising every geology section from old working
transparencies. with in soiiie cases limited interpretation.
prticularly of ore horizons. Further effort then went into wire
framing, block modelling, plotting and linally ore resource and
reserve cstiination.
EXISTING SYSTEMS
The need to update Pasminco's ore resource accounting system at
Brokcn Hill was recognised by internal systems audits as early as
1900'. I t appears that at the time, the scale of the task of
clianging the system was rccognised and only limited efforts
were made to inodify the resources system. D;it;imine was
aviiilable on-site in 1989 and by 1996 the Potosi operation and
Western A Lode were modelled for resource estimation purposes.
Efforts were also made in terms of moving the systein into digital
format by scanning some geological sections into the computer
;Orex was tlevelolxd specilically for the Zinc Mine by Desmond
Fitzgerald and Associates, Melbourne.
:$ChrisAlford (Datiiininc)und Erlc Toh (Pmninco), Unpublished Internal
Pisminco Report, L);itaininelTechnicalSystems Review 7 August 1991.
14 November 1997 193
I I
I P KAY

e MINING AND GEOlOGlCAl IYITEM Of UNDERGROUND OPERATIONS

COMPUTER DESIGN AND DATA MANAGEMENT
r HARDWARE DISK STORAGE

I SOFTWARE

I BACKUP REGIME --

FIG I - Mining and geological system.

aided design package Microstation. The result of this incomplete
changeover on many fronts at the one time meant that a number
of systems were being partially maintained simultaneously. For
example, the hand drawn geological sections were being utilised
by the minc planning staff for stope and development drive
design: yet drill holes and mapping information was only
haphazardly updated onto these sections. Similarly, diamond
drill hole information was being automatically updated in
Microstation and Orcx, but mapping information was irregularly
updated in these computing tools. Vicwing the ore resource and
reserve and thc available systems was also difficult. Orex was an
appropriate tool for thick, continuous massive sulphidcs, which
characterise large sections of lead lode which have been sloped.
Much of the current mining and remaining primary ore resource
is in thin stringers down to 2 m in thickness with poor continuity
between sections.
The decision was made to move to Vulcan following
considerable consultation with company and outside pcrsonncl.
Vulcan had some comparative disadvantages, especially in tcrms
of on-site experiencc. but the 'front end' ease o f use of Vulcan
and its three-dimensional viewing tool. Envisage. made the
package attractivc to Pasminco. The relative case of use mciint
that there would be lcss reliance on an 'expert user', which was
rccognised as a key problem with existing systcms. Whilc
mining software had been on-sitc for a numbcr of ycars, the
difficulty o f use of the packages meant that the site required an
'cxpert user', who needed to devote most of their tirnc to
maintaining the ore rcsourcc systcms within software tools.
Within months of the introduction of Vulcan i t become obvious
that the package was useable. for cxamplc minc planning
cngincers wcrc using i t tor feasibility studies on data entcred by
geology, a situation that had not developed fully under packages
already available on-site.
THE DRILL HOLE DATABASE
The ZC custom designed Orex system provided only cross-
sectional representation of resource data. Fortunately the
Techbase drill hole database held the frill data set lor drill hole
surveys. Tcchbase is the public issue commercial program on
which Orcx is based. Tcchbase uses three storage arcx lor
assay, collar and sui-vcy data, which nliiy be output as an ASCII
text file tor input into Vulcan. For the ZCINRHCISX operations
thcse outpiit tilcs were as large as 42 meg;ibytes. Initial attempts
to usc the ASCII tile directly in Vulcan failed due to the tile
structure. Two options were available to solve this problem,
writing AWK scripts to modify the tliita or somehow modifying
the output from Techbase. Efforts wei-e directed at modifying tlic
Tcchbase output and eventually a .solution was obtaincd. The
ASCII tile output was rcady to import into Vulcan with only
hcader modifications and 21 ticld calculation on the dip 01' the
survey dat;~.
A number of diamond drill holes (;iiourid 200) wcrc not ahlc to
be rcprcscnted i n Vulcan because o l overlaps in data or and
apparent lack of assay data. Research into old core logs indicated
that assay data was available for m;my of thc holes in question,
but had somehow not made it into Techbasc. A similar prohlcrn
was recogniscd with numerous older drill holes (around 1940 -

194 Launccston. 10 - 14 November 1987 Mining Geology Conference


I950 vintage), whereby survey data wiis 180" out. fiillaciously
placing a new lens of ore out to tlie east of the mine. The issues
of overlaps, lack of hole assay data and incorrect survey data
were diligently addressed by tlie technical officer responsible for
the drill hole database.
Finally, representation of drill hole data for the underground
mining operation was available through Vulcan. New data from
drilling or re-assays was directed through lechbase into Vulcan
in the existing system on a temporary basis. These interfaces
will be removed eventually when an Access core logging system
is installed and Vulcan uses an Access database, probably later in
1997.
SYSTEM STRUCTURE
Pasminco runs two Sun Ultra work stations with Vulcan and has
three additional X term licences for the Vulcan soltw;irc. The X
terms are connected by licensed Retlections X software. A
number of personnel can potentially ;icccss tlatabascs
simultaneously, consequently systems were created to avoid
conflicts, reduce time required for updates and reduce space
requirements on the hard drives. The tinderground mine was
divided into five separate directories: the upper ;ircii (Upper),
Western A Lode (wal), Southern Cross (sx), Stope Database,
(stopedb) and Lower Lead Lode (111). all with access to the drill
hole database through symbolic link files. A similar arrangement
was created for the Potosi (potosi). Flying Doctor, (Ilydoc) and
northern leases (nlease) accessing a single drill hole database. To
make the system uniform a third southern database was created
with symbolic links from the southern lease (slease) directory. A
summary of the System is attached in Figure I .
Most geologists have a limited interest in becoming Unix
gurus. So aliases were created meaning that individuals need
only sit :it the machine and type a two or three letter code to
access their directory. ie sx for Southern Cross. Similarly, aliases
were created to initiate access to Vulcan by typing 'm' for the
mine. o r 'I' for the lease.
The centrally located drill hole data for the underground
operations is located in ii directory called 'minedrill' and as
stated above ;iccess to the database is via symbolic link files.
Hence. an uptlate of the data in 'minedrill' instantly means an
update of the data in all other directories. A large disk space
saving is also achieved by this arrangement as the large database
is only required in one rather than numerous locations. An
additional benefit is that the drill hole database is secure, any
unwanted changes to 'minedrill' are overwritten when 'minedrill'
is updated by the technical officer who has responsibility for the
database. The 'live' or most current version of the database i s
held in the technical officers directory which no other personnel
have reason to access.
DIGITISING
A major part of the move to three-dimensions at Brokcn Hill was
digitising every geological section. l h e geologist responsible for
an area was given individual responsibility for digitising. wire
framing and modelling the area in Vulcan in order to create an
ore resource for the area. The exercise of transferring to Vulcan
was compounded by the need to maintain the existing ore
resource system while the process was occurring. The duplicate
ore resource system included Orex for most of tlic mine.
Datamine for Western A Lode and Potosi and polygonal methods
for the leases.
Digitising into Vulcan was carried out throughout the mine and
leases. Some digital information, scanned sections in
Microstation and the ore block shapes in Orex. did exist to some
extent, prior to the installation of Vulcan. However, the existing
digitised information sources were of little use in the transfer to
Vulcan. Geologists were required to digitise the lode, low-grade
Mining Geology Conference Launceston. 10 14 November 1997
~ 195
MOVING BROKEN IllLL INTO THE THIRD DIMENSION
and high shape o f the ore lenses into Vulcan from the old
transparencies. The process was complicated by the lack of
recent data on the transparcncies. a 'clean up process' was
required on every section usins the up-to-date Vu1c;in drill hole
(1iir;ihase. Also digitised were the shears, mined out areas and
geological information. With [lie exception of the resource data.
however. ;ill tlat;i w:is entered ;is open strings for modelling of
surl';ices rather tlim solids.
Ti) facilitate tlic process ot digitking, a long section of the
ininc was printed and displaycd above the digitiscr. l'his long
section w x used to record progress by the geologists i n various
.irc;is of the mine, with goals recorded on the sheet. Use of the
digitiscr was schcduled for each geologist on every day of the
week. Inevitably there were teething problems with tlie use of
the tligitiser, particularly for those geologists not fmniliar with
the use of computers. The scale of this task and the organisation
required c;uinot be underestimated for an operation the size of
hsininco Rroken Hill mine.
I n many ciiscs interpretation of the available inlormation was
required, hcfore entry into tlic computer. through the digitiser.
The resource categories WCI-ccarefully entered on section as
closed polygons to enablc wire framing of solids for
geostatisticA motlclling a n t l eventually tonncs ;ind grade
calculations. Scanned imagcs did exist in Microstation, these
were of little or no use a s were digital outlines of the ore
resource i n Orex. The process really went back to first principles
in order t o ensure accuracy. A major benefit of this effort was,
however. the opportunity for eiich area geologist to obtain a clear
three-dimensional picture in their mind of the geology of their
;irc;i.
'I'hree resourcc categories were created with specific graphics
c(IcIcs:
Lode: ;I broad envelope around the mineralisation
usu;illy defined by lode rocks, orange with no
intill,
Low-grade: specilically the seven to ten per cent combined
Ic;id zinc rniiici-alis~ition,but loosely defined in
order t o corrcliite iirex between sections and
levels. pink with pink dot infill,
High-grade: tightly detined combined lead zinc mineralisation
above ten per cent. red with red dot infill.
Geostatistical block model were created within the confining
wire frames antl ;I resource and subsequently ;I resource and
reserve calculatetl. Mined o u t areas were entered ;is closed
polygons for the creation of wire frames to enable the subtraction
( i t these ;ire;is from the resource. For the first year ol' Vulcan the
mined out shapes were a conservative geological estimate, in
future years ;I precise mine planning will be used for the mined
shapes. Atlditioniil geological data was also entered as part of
tlie process. Open strings r;ither than polygons were used for all
no11 resource surfaces such ;IS shears and geological contacts.
The exercise of converting Interpreted transparency section to
digitised. then three-dimensional data provided an opportunity
for the geologists performing the task to reassess, reinterpret and
generally understand the mol phology of the ore lenses in their
respective ;ireas. 'This understxiding in turn led to the generation
ol' exploration targets with the ultimate gaol of extending the
mine life. Every ndditional year of mining means ;in additional
year of exploration and analysis further enhancing the mine's
potential into the f'uturc.
WIRE FRAMING
Once shapes were digitised into Vulcan, connecting the ore
resource sh;ipes became possible, this was probably the most
denimding and difficult phase of the entire project. For some
areas o f the mine with limited resources and simple shapes, wire
P KAY
framing was a simple, quick process. For the majority of the
mine. however, intense concentration and focus was required of
the geologists to connect the various lenses without crossing over
between ore occurrences. The wire frames were made in groups
of ten (about 200 metres) to facilitate the process and to allow for
ease of modification when new information becomes available.
A entire lens or lode, ie lead lode or one lens, was then modelled
by merging the wire frames in the area. Where mineralisation
clearly crossed areas of responsibility in the mine separate
models were created, with amalgamation occurring at tlie
resource accounting stage.
MODELLING
Three separate block models were created for each lens ;ind
occurrence of mineralisation in the mine area, lode. low-grade
and high-grade. Lode is defined as a boundary of lode rocks
around the mineralisation which is slightly outside the low-grade
where the mineralisation has a sharp contact with the wall rocks.
Low-grade is defined as seven to ten per cent mineralisation, hut
the practicalities of creating shapes around variable orebodies
make this a fairly loose definition. High-grade is the tightest
definition, where the material inside this string is above ten per
cent combined lead and zinc. The wire frame models act to
confine the assays within the models, thus using a combination
of geological interpretation and digital analysis to obtain an ore
resource. Statistics were generated by 'bounding' these models,
that is, assays were only used if they were exclusively within the
boundary in question.
BENEFITS O F A 3D MODEL
The benefits of a three-dimensional model became apparent prior
to the completion of digitising and modelling. Inspection of the
drill hole database in 3D led to the genesis of exploration targets
in the north and south of the Broken Hill field. One area in the
north had been investigated as two separate mineralised zones
because of different grids straddling the area. The potential of
the area as a single resource became apparent when viewed in
three dimensions.
The current focus of mine exploration is o n smaller
economically mineable ore bodies, rather than 'elephants', while
this may not seem as glamorous as previous strategies, it is likely
to extend the mine life. The painstaking effort required to
196 Launceslon. 10 - 14 November 1997
complete interpretation of areas and digitise inform:ition onto
sections gave tlic :irc;i geologists unique opportunity to
understand the geology of their area of responsibility. Similxly,
the use of existing mine data in a morc readily accessible format
provides for a hettcr understanding (it' the morphology of thc (11-e-
body. I t i s unlikely that all mineable i'esources in the mine area
have heen recognised and mined, p:ii.ticularly when thc highcr-
grades required l'or economic mining in prior times ;ire
considered. Should each o r any of thcse result in additional ore
;it appropriate grade. ;in extension of niine life is likely.
CONCLUSIONS
The process of transferring an old niinc into tlirce-diniension;iI
software o r any other system will always be fraught with
difliculties. problcms from imperial conversion, differing data
sources, nuinerou~grids designed to pi-wide local perpendicular
to strike cross-sections prior to the use of computers and the
reluctance of many geologists to dciil with the intricacies of
computers (coloured pencils are likely to remain an important
geological tool for quite some time yct).
For tlic Pasminco Broken Hill mine the time consuming
strategy of running tlie existing. outtluted, ore resource system
for the first year of the new system pi-ovided a necessary safety
net. On completion of tlie I997 resource, this proved a sound
strategy as part of tlie Southern Cross m i l needed to be reported
from Orcx.
The difliculties of wading through hundreds of sections and
plans stored in ancient, heavy to use. overloaded filing systems
should be ameliorated to some extent by the transfer to 1111-ee-
dimensional analysis. Similarly. new cxploration targets hec;iinc
apparent, through both tlie new system and the exercise of
changing over which i n time should provide resources to enahlc
production a t the mine beyond 2008. If this is the case the efl'ort
of 'Moving Hrokcn Hill into the Thii-d Dimension' will prove
more than worth w 11 i le.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The efforts of Colin Lutherborrow, Nicola McGunnigle. Kerstin
Drauns and Frann Sette were appreciiircd in making the transfer
to Vulcan work for the Pasininco Broken Ilill Mine.
Mining Geology Conference
 MONOGRAPH SERIES
I Detrital I leavy Minerals in Natural Accuinulatcs George Bnko. i962
2. I h e a r c h in Chemical and Extraction Metallurgy 1 3 : .I 7' Wooilc~ock. 1967
A 1; Jenkins
trnd G 114 CViIlrs
3. Broken I lill Mines - 1968 Ed: 114 Kadmtrnovicli i968
trnd .I 7' 1Vootlcock
4. Economic Geology of New Zealand Ed. G J Willi(itri.s 1974
5. Economic Geology of Australia and I'apua New Guinea - 1 Met;ils I i l . C' I, Knight 197.5
6 Economic Geology of Australia and Papua Ncw Guinea - 2 Chal Ed: D M 7i-trVc~s 1975
tirid D King
7. Economic Geology of Australia and Papua New Guinca - 3 I'etroleum Ed: H tl Leslie 1976
H .I Evans
rind C 1, Knight
8. Economic Geology of Australia and P;ipu;i New Guinea. Ed: C L Kniglir 1976
4 Industrial Mincrals and Rocks
9. Field Geologists' Manual

I " Edition Ed D A 13erkrirrrn 1982

2'Id Edition iind 1Y Ryall 1989
Yd Edition l.:d D A tlerktlitm 1989
IO Mining and Metallurgical Practiccs in Australasia W J T Woodcock 1980
(the Sir Maurice Mawby Memorial Volume)
11. Victoria's Brown Coal - A Huge l'ortunc in Chancery Ed: J T Woodcock 1984
(the Sir Willis Connolly Memorial Volume)
12. Australasian Coal Mining Practice Id C H 114arrrn 1986
1 I' Edition b'd C N Mortrn
2'" Edition ond A J Hargrnves
1993
13. Mineral Deposits of New Zealand lid: Dr D Keiir 1989
14. (ieology ofthe Mineral Deposits of Australia and I'apua New (.iuinea Ld: 1.' E H l c < ~ l i c s 1990
IS. The I k k s Speak 1-1King 1989
16. Hidden Gold - The Central Norseman Story J I ) Campbell I 990
17. Geological Aspects of the Discovery of K R Glasson 1990
Some linportant Mineral Dcposits i n Australia trnd .I H Rattignn
18. Down Under - Mineral Heritage in Australasia Sir Arvi Parbo 1992
19. Australasian Mining and Metallurgy Ed: J T Woodcock 1993
(the Sir Maurice Mawby Meinorial Volumc) and K l-lumiit~~n
20. Cost Estimation Handbook for the lid: M N'oukes 1993
Australian Mining Industry trnd 7'Lanz
21. History of Coal Mining in Australia Id: A J Ilurgr~irves, 1993
(the Corn Martin Memorial Volume) R J Kininmonrli.
C' I1 Martin
tind S M C Scrvwell

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 SPECTRUM SERIES
I. Making thc Mount Isa Mine, 1923 - 1933
2. llistory ofnrilling
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