AIR FLIGHT OPERATION MANAGEMENT

Lecture 4
Aviation Meteorology
Air Flight Operations Management
Aviation Meteorology

Review Aviation Weather Basics

Atmospheric Circulation System

Aviation Weather Hazards

Atmosphere
Temperature
Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the
molecules of a gas. The red molecules indicate warm
temperatures with relatively large speeds (greater kinetic
energy). The blue molecules represent cooler temperatures with
smaller molecular speeds.
Warmer Cooler
Molecules

High Kinetic Energy Lower Kinetic Energy

Density
Density of a gas is the mass of the molecules in a given
volume. If the total mass of molecules in that volume
decreases, the density decrease.

High Density Lower Density

Density
If the mass remains the same but the volume increases , the
density also decreases. The units of density are expressed in
terms of mass per unit volume.

High Density Lower Density

Pressure

Pressure is the force exerted by the moving molecules of the

gas on a given area. Pressure at a point acts equally in all
directions. A typical value of atmospheric pressure at sea level
is 14.7 pounds per square inch (1013.25 millibars, 29.92 inches
of mercury.
 Aviation Meteorology

TEMPERATURE DECREASES WITH HEIGHT

20
Temperature (degrees centrigrade)

10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Height (thousands of feet)

Aviation Meteorology

PRESSURE DECREASES WITH HEIGHT

16
Pressure on 1 sq in in pounds

14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Height (thousands of feet)

Aviation Meteorology

DENSITY DECREASES WITH HEIGHT

8
Weight of 100 cu ft of air (lbs)

7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Height (thousands of feet)

International Standard Atmosphere

International Standard
Atmosphere (ISA)

• Taken to be such that its

temperature is 15oC

• its pressure is 1013.2hpa, at

mean sea level

• the temperature lapse rate is

1.98oC/1000ft. (6.5oC/1000
meters)
Constant Pressure Charts

Pressure Pressure Altitude Pressure altitude is the

Millibars Feet Meters altitude indicated when
850 4,781 1,457 the altimeter setting is
700 9,882 3,012
29.92. If you set your
500 18,289 5,574
altimeter at 29.92 and
300 30,065 9,164
250 33,999 10,363 fly at 18,289 feet
200 38,662 11,784 indicated altitude, you
100 53,083 16,180 will be flying along the
500 mb constant
pressure surface.
 Constant Pressure Charts

700 mb Constant Pressure Surface

C 10,000 ft Constant Height Surface
10,000
D
Height of Sea Level
700 mb Surface Pressure

Sea Level
A B
Diagram shows the relationship between pressure on a constant
altitude surface and heights on a constant pressure surface. Notice
the solid line representing the 700 mb pressure surface. At point
C, the pressure at 10,000 feet is lower than 700 mb because the
height of the 700 mb surface is lower than 10,000 feet.
Altimeter Settings - Pressure Altimeter

Altimeter read
500 FT

Altimeter error due to change in surface pressure

Pressure and Wind

A line which connects points of equal values of pressure is

called an ISOBAR.
Pressure Gradient Force

Diagram
shows the Pressure at 2,000 feet MSL
conditions 27.92 in. Hg.
when the
temperature
of the land
and water
are equal
2,000 ft

Altitude (Feet)
Sea Level Pressure
29.92 in. Hg.
 Pressure Gradient Force

Pressure at 1. Heating causes

2. Pressure gradient 2,000 feet MSL mass above 2,000
force causes air to still 27.92. Hg. feet MSL to increase
begin to move from raising pressure at
high to low pressure, that level. Pressure
taking mass from at 2,000 feet MSL
column on the right. now 27.95 in. Hg.
Sea Level Pressure
still 29.92 in. Hg

4. Pressure gradient force

causes air to start moving 2,000 ft
from high to low pressure

3. Pressure falls at
surface due to loss of
mass aloft. Pressure
at sea level now
29.89 in. Hg.
Pressure and Wind

Weak or Flat Pressure Gradient

101
1 mb
101
4m
101 b
7m
b

Pressure gradients Strong or Steep Pressure Gradient

Vertical Motions

Convergency of surface H
wind in the low pressure
area causes upward motion

Divergency of surface
wind in the high pressure
area causes downward motion
Pressure and Wind

Wind is expressed in knot (kt) and wind direction. Wind

direction is described either in points of the compass or in
degrees from true north, and is always given with regard to the
direction from which the wind is blowing. For example, a wind
direction of 270o means that the wind is blowing from the west.
Pressure and Wind
Wind - Note that wind direction at airports is given in
degrees magnetic north whereas altitude winds are reported
in degrees true north.
Cloud Formation

The three requirements for cloud formation are

1. Water vapor - Clouds don’t form in dry air.
2. Condensation nuclei - such as dust and salt.
3. Cooling
• Contact of the air with a cold surface
• Adiabatic expansion
Cloud formations
Classification of cloud
• cloud high (CH): Cirrus (Ci), cirrostratus (Cs) and
cirrocumulus (Cc) occurring at 20,000 – 40,000 ft

Cirrus Cirrostratus Cirrocumulus

Cloud formations
Classification of cloud
• cloud middle (CM): altostratus (As) and altocumulus
castellanus (Ac) occurring at 8,500 – 20,000 ft, and
nimbostratus (Ns) occurring at 8,500 ft but sometimes up to
20,000 ft

Altostatus Altocumulus Nimbostratus

Altocumulus
castellanus
 Cloud formations

Classification of cloud
• cloud low (CL): cumulonimbus (Cb) at 2,000 – 5,000 ft,
cumulus (Cu) at 1,000 – 10,000 ft, Stratocumulus (Sc) at
2,000 – 5,000 ft, and Stratus (St) at 500 – 2,000 ft and
sometimes occurring up to 4,000ft

Cumulonimbus Cumulus Stratus Stratocumulus

Cloud Type

Low Clouds Middle Clouds High Clouds

<6,500 feet AGL 6,500 to 20,000 feet AGL >20,000 feet AGL

(ST) stratus (AC) altocumulus (CC) cirrocumulus

(SC) stratocumulus (AS) altostratus (CS) cirrostratus

(NS) nimbostratus (CI) cirrus

Clouds with Vertical Development

(CU) Cumulus (CB) Cumulonimbus

Cloud formations

Relationship of Cloud Forms to Flying Weather

CUMULIFORM STRATIFORM

Size of water droplet Large Small

Stability of air Unstable Stable

Flying conditions Rough (turbulent) Smooth

Continuous
Precipitation Showery
(of uniform intensity)
Good, except in
Surface visibility precipitation, blowing Visibility poor
snow or dust.
Aircraft icing Pre-dominantly clear Rime
Cloud amount

Layer Coverage Sky Condition

1 1/8 FEW
2 4/8 SCT
3 5/8 BKN
1/8 of
4 6/8 BKN Celestial Dome

Observer
Cloud amount

Layer Coverage Sky Condition

1 8/8 VV005
2 Not Seen

VV

Observer
 Scales of Circulations
10,000 General Circulation,
F F Monsoon Circulation
E
1000
E Jet Stream
D
Occluded Cyclone,
100 D Hurricane,
Space Scale (nm)

mesoscale C Front
10 Land/Sea breeze,
C
B Lee Wave
1
B Thunderstrom,
A microscale Downburst
0.1 A Tornado, Dust Devil,
Second minute hour day week month year Thermal, Turbulence

Horizontal dimensions and life times of a selection of atmospheric

circulations. Precise numbers for space and time scales cannot be given for
each phenomenon because of variations caused by such things as local
terrain, season, and large scale weather systems. However, the range of the
possible scales for each atmospheric circulation is clearly limited.
Simplified global
three-cell surface
and upper air
circulation patterns
 January
996
1020 1020

1002 1020 1032 1002

1014 1020 1014
1020

1014

ITCZ

1020 1014
1014

The Global Circulation System

 July

1008

1008 1002
1020

1014 ITCZ
1014
1020
1020
1026 1020

The Global Circulation System

Jet Stream

Introduction
• A permanent feature varying
in strength and location in
both hemisphere
• A narrow, shallow,
meandering band of
exceedingly strong westerly
winds found in regions
where there are large
horizontal differences in
temperature between warm
and cold air masses - such
band at least 300 nm long
Jet Stream

Introduction
• Usually found in segments
1000-3000 miles in length,
100-400 miles in width,
3000-7000 feet in thickness
• Speed 100 -150 kts
sometimes up to 300 kts
• Greater strength in winter
than in summer
• Mean position farther south
in winter and shifting north
in summer.
Jet Streams
1. Polar Jet
• situated at about 10 km AGL over the polar front
2. Subtropical Jet
• situated above the subtropical highs at about 13 km AGL
• often visible as a plume of moisture extending from the
tropics to the sub-tropical regions
Jet Stream

Schematic Representation of Jet Stream Core

Fronts

A warm front is defined as the transition zone where a warm

air mass is replacing a cold air mass. Warm fronts generally
move from southwest to northeast and the air behind a warm
front is warmer and more moist than the air ahead of it. When
a warm front passes through, the air becomes noticeably
warmer and more humid than it was before.
Fronts

A cold front is defined as the transition zone where a cold air

mass is replacing a warmer air mass. Cold fronts generally
move from northwest to southeast. The air behind a cold front
is noticeably colder and drier than the air ahead of it. When a
cold front passes through, temperatures can drop more than 15
degrees within the first hour.
 Fronts

Vertical section through a Vertical section through a

warm front showing air cold front showing air
movement, clouds movement, clouds and precipitation
and precipitation
Frontal Zones

Cold Front
Warm Air Mass Warm Front
Cold Air Mass
Cold Air Mass

AB C D

Cross sections through warm and cold fronts. Both fronts are
moving from left to right. The slope of a cold front is steeper
than the slope of a warm front. The dashed line indicates the
flight of an aircraft through both fronts.
Frontal Zones

L B

Gray areas indicate the distribution of clouds and precipitation

caused by an extra-tropical cyclone and its associated fronts in
the wave cyclone stage. White lines correspond to cross sections
 Frontal Zones
Warm Front Occlusion

Warm

D
C
Cool Cold
C P D

Grey areas indicates the Cold Front Occlusion

distribution of clouds and
Warm
precipitation caused by
an extra-tropical cyclone
and its associated fronts
in the occlusion stage Cold Cool
C P D
Squall lines

Fast moving cold front and

resultant abrupt lifting can
create a line of thunderstorms

The most severe weather conditions,

such as destructive winds, heavy
hail, and tornadoes are generally
associated with squall lines This symbol refers
to “squall line”
 Wind Shear
Cause of Wind Shear
• Microbursts Wind shear is best described
• Fronts and Shallow Lows as a change in wind direction
• Air mass Wind Shear and/or speed within a very
• Elevated Stable Layers
short distance.
• Jet Streams
300
30 Knots

200 20 Knots
Altitude (feet)

10 Knots
100 Aircraft descends to
5 Knots land through a later of
2 Knots vertical wind shear
0
Wind Shear

An important characteristic
of wind shear is that it may
be associated with a Storm Motion
thunderstorm, a low-level
temperature inversion, a jet
stream, or a frontal zone.
An aircraft that encounters Shelf Cloud
a headwind of 45 knots Updraft
with a microburst may
expect a total shear across Outflow
the microburst of 90 knots. Downburst
Wind Shear

Increasing Increasing
Tailwind Headwind

2
3 1
4

During a takeoff into a microburst, and aircraft experiences an

increasing headwind (position1), followed by a decreasing headwind
and downdraft (position 2), and finally a tailwind (position 3). The
most severe downdraft will be encountered between positions 2 & 3.
Together with the loss of airspeed due to the tailwind, it can result in
terrain impact or operating dangerously close to the ground.
Clear Air Turbulence

• Clear air turbulence A

(CAT) is that turbulence
which occurs in the free
atmosphere away from
any visible convective B
activity. CAT includes
high level frontal and jet
stream turbulence.
• CAT occurs more C
frequently within a few
thousand feet of the
tropopause, over
mountains, and in winter. Shearing-gravity waves
at various stages
Icing at Jet Operating Level
• Icing at high altitudes is associated with tops of cumulus
build-ups, anvils, and even some detaches cirrus.
• Clouds over mountain areas are more apt to contain liquid
water, hence, cause icing at high levels.
• Air frame icing becomes
less significant above
25,000 feet (moisture in
the atmosphere decreases
with altitude), except in
cumulonimbus clouds,
where supercooled
water droplets may be
carried to high levels.
Icing

Icing Type Outside Air

Temperature Range

Clear 0oC to -5oC

Clear or Mixed -5oC to -10oC

Mixed or Rime -10oC to -15oC

Rime -15oC to -20oC

Icing types and critical outside air temperature (OAT) ranges.

Note that these guidelines are approximate, especially in the
intermediate ranges between -5oC and -15oC. Also, rime ice
may occur at temperatures below -20oC.
Icing on tail leading edge Frozen
Contamination
in Engine
Icing

-20 -15 -5
0 Surface analysis chart during
1024 1028
1032
H 5 a wide-spread freezing rain
-15
event (shaded area).
-10 1024
A
10

15 1024

L B
*
SN - 5oC

* * *
20

* * *
-5 0oC
0

* RA 5oC
10oC

*
1004 1008 1012 1016 1020 15oC
FZRA

A
* - 5oC 0oC
B
Atmospheric electricity
The potential for aircraft strikes is high in the thunderstorm anvil, even after
the main thunderstorm cell has weakened in the dissipation stage. However,
the highest frequency of lightning strikes is at lower troposphere

To reduce the chance of a lightning strike in the vicinity of thunderstorms,

do not fly within +or- 5,000 feet of freezing level or, alternately, do not
fly in the layer where the OAT is between + 8oC and -8oC.
Volcanic Ash Hazards

The have been more than 90 reported encounters of volcanic plumes by jet
aircraft in the last 20 years. Many of those resulted in damage to the aircraft.
Volcanic clouds may extend to great heights and over hundreds of miles.
Pilots should not attempt to fly through or climb out of the cloud.
Dust

Be alert for low visibilities due to dust and sand over

semiarid and arid regions when winds are strong and
Tothe atmosphere
reduce isaunstable.
the chance of If the
lightning strike dust
in the layer
vicinity ofis deep,
thunderstorms,
doitnot
canflybe carried
within hundreds
+or- 5,000 of miles
feet of freezing form
level its source.
or, alternately, do not
fly in the layer where the OAT is between + 8oC and -8oC.