Chapt. 7.

Multiplexing
¡ Multiplexing
Ê Two communicating stations does not in general utilize the full
capacity of a data link.
Ê For efficiency, it should be possible to share that capacity.
Ê We call such sharing multiplexing.

Ê Reasons of using multiplexing

 The higher the data rate, the more cost-effective the transmission
facility: Cost/kbps and cost of equipments per bps are reduced.
 Most individual data-communicating devices require relatively
modest datarate support: 9.6 to 64kbps would be enough for personal.
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¡ Three types of multiplexing techniques

Ê Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)
 The most heavily used for the radio and television broadcasting.
Ê Synchronous time-division multiplexing (TDM)
 Commonly used for multiplexing digitized voice streams and data
streams.
Ê Statistical TDM, asynchronous TDM, or intelligent TDM
 Seeks to improve on the efficiency of synchronous TDM by adding
complexity to the multiplexer.
¡ Difference Between FDM and TDM
FDM TDM

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¡ Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)
Ê Modulation
original signal modulated signal
(analog or digital) (analog)
Modulator
carrier(fsc)
0 f fsc f
Ê Transmitted TV signal

Modulated TV signal Magnitude spectrum

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¡ Generic depiction of an FDM system

Ê Transmitter

Ê Spectrum of composite signal (may be again modulated for

transmission))

Ê Receiver

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 Ê Example: FDM of three voiceband signals
 Spectrum of voiceband signal

 Spectrum of modulated signal

 Spectrum of composite signal(only a sideband of signals is included)

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¡ Two problems in FDM

Ê Crosstalk
 It may occur if the spectra of adjacent component signals overlap
significantly.
 In the case of voice signals, with an effective bandwidth of only 3100
Hz (300 to 3400), a 4-kHz bandwidth is adequate.
Ê Intermodulation noise
 Noise by the nonlinear effects of amplifiers on a signal in one channel
could produce frequency components in other channels.

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¡ Analog Carrier Systems
Ê The long-distance carrier system is designed to transmit voiceband
signals over high-capacity transmission links.
Ê The earliest and the most common technique for utilizing high-
capacity links is FDM.
Ê North American and int’l FDM carrier standards

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Ê The first level of the AT&T hierarchy(group signal):

 12 voice channels are combined to produce a group signal with a BW
of 48 kHz, in the range 60 to 108 kHz.
 The signals are produced using subcarrier frequencies of from 64 to
108 kHz in increments of 4 kHz.
Ê The next basic building block(supergroup signal):
 60-channel supergroup, which is formed by FDMing 5-group signals.
 Each group is treated as a single signal with BW = 48kHz and is
modulated by a subcarrier(= 420 to 612 kHz in increments of 48 kHz).
 The BW of the resulting signal is 312 to 552 kHz.
 Several variations on forming the supergroup signal(see pp. 204).
Ê The mastergroup signal:
 Combines 10 supergroup inputs.
 Any signal with a bandwidth of 240 kHz in the range 312 to 552 kHz
can serve as input to the mastergroup multiplexer.
 The mastergroup has a bandwidth of 2.52 MHz and can support 600
voice-frequency (VF) channels.
 Higher-level multiplexing is defined above master grp(Table 7.2).
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¡ Synchronous time-division multiplexing
Ê Synchronous TDM is possible when the achievable data rate
(bandwidth) of the medium exceeds the data rate of digital signals
to be transmitted.
Ê Multiple digital signals (or analog signals carrying digital data) can
be carried on a single transmission path by interleaving portions of
each signal in time.
Ê The interleaving can be at the bit level or in blocks of bytes or
larger quantities.

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¡ Generic depiction of an FDM system

Ê Transmitter

Ê TDM frames - One or more slots is dedicated

to each data source
- The sequence of slots dedicated to
one source, from frame to frame,
is called a channel.
-The character or bit interleaving
technique is used.
Ê Reciever -Synchronous because the time slots
are preassigned to sources and fixed.
- Waste of capacity is possible.

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¡ TDM Link Control
Ê Flow and Error Control
 Done by the channel basis.
 Mux and deMux does not need to take care about such control.
 An Example
y Configuration

y Input data stream(HDLC)

y Multiplexed data stream(HDLC)

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Ê Framing
 Because we are not providing flag or SYNC characters to bracket
TDM frames, some means is needed to assure frame synchronization.
 Added-digit framing technique
y Add a control bit(channel) for each frame(special pattern like 010101…).
y Search bit patterns in the control channel for frame synchronization.
Ê Pulse Stuffing
 The most difficult problem in a synchronous TDM: Synchronizing the
various data sources.
y If each source has a separate clock, any variation among clocks could
cause loss of synchronization.
y The data rates of the input data streams are not related by a simple
rational number.
 The outgoing data rate of the multiplexer, excluding framing bits, is
higher than the sum of the maximum instantaneous incoming rates.
 The extra capacity is used by stuffing extra dummy bits or pulses into
each incoming signal until its rate is raised to that of a locally-
generated clock signal.
 The pulses are inserted at fixed locations in the frame format so that
they may be identified and removed at the demultiplexer.

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¡ A TDM Example(11 sources to multiplexing)

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¡ Digital Carrier Systems

Ê North American and international TDM carrier standards.

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 Ê DS-1 Transmission Format

193 bits

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 Voice data transmission

y The original analog voice signal is digitized using PCM at a rate of 8K
samples per second.
y Therefore, each channel slot(i.e. each frame) must repeat 8K times per
second.
y With a frame length of 193 bits, we have a data rate of 8000 x 193 =
1.544 Mbps.
y For five of every six frames, 8-bit PCM samples are used.
y For every sixth frame, each channel contains a 7-bit PCM word plus a
signaling bit.
y The signaling bits form a stream for each voice channel that contains
network control and routing information. For example, control signals
are used to establish a connection or to terminate a call.

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  Digital data transmission
y For compatibility with voice, the same 1.544-Mbps data rate is used.
y 23 channels of data are provided.
y The 24th channel position is reserved for a special sync byte, which
allows faster and more reliable reframing following a framing error.
y Within each channel, seven bits per frame are used for data, with the
eighth bit used to indicate whether the channel, for that frame, contains
user data or system control data.
y With seven bits per channel, and because each frame is repeated 8000
times per second, a data rate of 56 kbps can be provided per channel.
y Lower data rates are provided using a technique known as subrate
multiplexing.
y For this technique, an additional bit is robbed from each channel to
indicate which subrate multiplexing rate is being provided; this leaves a
total capacity per channel of 6 x 8000 = 48 kbps.
y This capacity is used to multiplex five 9.6-kbps channels, ten 4.8-kbps
channels, or twenty 2.4-kbps channels.
y For example, if channel 2 is used to provide 9.6-kbps service, then up to
five data subchannels share this channel. The data for each subchannel
appear as six bits in channel 2 every fifth frame.

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¡ ISDN User-Network Interface

Ê Reading Assignment
¡ SONET/SDH
Ê Reading Assignment

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¡ Statistical TDM
Ê Dynamically allocate time slots on demand(statistical multiplexer).
Ê Because statistical TDM takes advantage of the fact that the
attached devices are not all transmitting all of the time, the data
rate can be lower than the synchronous TDM.
Ê The statistical multiplexer can support more devices than the
synchronous multiplexer if the data rate is the same.

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¡ Frame Structure of The Statistical TDM

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¡ Performance of Asynchronous TDM
Ê The data rate can be less than the sum of the input rates.
Ê There may be peak periods when the input exceeds capacity.

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¡ Performance of The Asynchronous TDM

Ê The solution to the overflow problem is to include a buffer in the
multi-plexer to hold temporary excess input.
Ê There is a trade-off between the size of the buffer used and the data
rate(processing rate) of the line.
Ê We would like to use the smallest possible buffer and the smallest
possible data rate, but a reduction in one requires an increase in the
other.

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¡ Modeling of The Asynchronous TDM
Ê Single-server queues with constant service time and poisson
(random) arrivals.
inputs
buffer server

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¡ Parameters for a statistical time-division multiplexer

Ê The mean number of arrivals λ = αNR in bps.

Ê Service time S = 1/M (time to transmit a single bit).
Ê Utilization ρ = λS = αNR /M = α/K = λ/M.
Ê Example 1.
 α = 0.5, N = 10, R = 1000bps, M = 5000bps.
 ρ = 1.0 which need infinite buffer size.
Ê Example 2.
 α = 0.5, N = 10, R = 1000bps, M = 7000bps.
 ρ = 0.71, q = 1.579

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¡ Performance Evaluation
Ê Buffer size and delay versus utilization

Ê Prob. of overflow as a function

of buffer size

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¡

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¡

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¡

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¡

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