UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, JAMAICA

RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES (RES3001)

PREPARED

BY

FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND SPORT

VERSION 2.0
July 2013

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 Table of contents

Contents Page

Unit 1: Introduction to Research Methodologies 3

Unit 2: Literature Review 21

Unit 3: Methodologies and Procedures 36

Unit 4: The Report and Proposal 68

Unit 5: Application of Statistics in Research 80

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 UNIT 1: Introduction to Research Methodologies
1.0 Unit Objectives

On completion of this unit, students should be able to:

Analyze the concept of research

Evaluate the benefits of research

Distinguish among basic, applied and action research

Evaluate the application of ethical principles in research.

Identify potential research topics and research questions/ subtopics

What Research Is All About?

Research is any organized enquiry carried out to provide information for the solution of a
problem. (Emery and Cooper, 1991)

Characteristics of Research

1. Research challenges the status quo that is, the traditional way of doing things.
2. It is creative or productive
3. It applies systematic procedures
4. It employs the scientific method to answering questions. The scientific method is empirical
(verifiable by observation, experiments or experience), logical, generalising, replicable and
public not private.
5. Research begets research. The resolution to one problem situation always reveals additional
and related problems that need resolution. It never dead-ends into finality.

Purpose and Benefit of Research

Every field of endeavour thrives because of specialized research. There could be no development
without research. Specifically the purpose of research is to:

1. Authenticate or justify current practices or products

2. Discover new facts.
3. Translate the findings of pure research into new and improved products and practises.

Hence research is useful to preserve profitability and ward off obsolescence thereby maintaining
a competitive edge.

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Types of Research Based on the Purpose
Pure or basic research

This is concerned with exploring the unknown to extend the boundaries of knowledge. It has
little direct impact on action, performance or policy decisions.

Applied research

An investigation that has immediate practical utility. It is undertaken to answer questions about
specific problems or to make decisions about particular course of action or policy.

Action research

This is an applied research that is done to aid local decision-making. An example of this would
be a teacher investigating the suitability of a particular teaching strategy in a classroom.

Types of Research Based on the Approach Used

Exploratory

Explanatory research is unstructured, informal research taken to gain preliminary information

about the general nature of the research issue. It is usually conducted when much is not known
about the problem and additional or new information is needed. Test-marketing and programme
trials are often exploratory. Methods used in conducting exploratory research include:

1. Secondary data analysis

2. Experience surveys
3. Case studies
4. Focus groups (small groups of knowledgeable people brought together and guided through a
discussion).
5. Projective techniques (participants project themselves into a situation and respond to specific
questions regarding the situation).
6. Pilot studies (small scale sampling that does not apply rigorous standards).

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Descriptive

This type of research involved scenarios where the concepts, terms and problems are already
known and the research objective is to describe and measure phenomena, then descriptive
research is appropriate. Accuracy is of paramount interest used for diagnostic analyses,
programme reviews, etc. Questions such as what, where, when, who and how as relates to
relates to research issues may be helpful. Many in-house research departments do descriptive
research.

Explanatory/Casual Research

The research problem is already clearly defined and the main objective is to describe and
measure causality i.e. to make "if-then" statements then we employ casual research. For example.
"Does attitude change precede behaviour change?" "Which of two training programs is more
effective?" Casual relationships are determined through true and quasi experiments. Experiments
allow for control of variable conditions so as to determine the effect of at least one independent
or treatment variable.

Types of research based on the treatment of the subject and the type of data
collected
The method of data collection can either be quantitative or qualitative. For quantitative methods,
the data format and sources are very clear, well defined and largely numerical. Qualitative
methods are not very standardized and unstructured questioning and a lot of verbal records.

In qualitative research, no attempt is made to draw hard and fast conclusions. It is usually
exploratory or diagnostic and involves small number of people that are not usually sampled on
any probabilistic basis. It tries to describe fully and comprehend the subjective meanings of
events to individuals and groups. It provides depth and details, capturing what people say in their
own words. It uses open ended narratives.

Qualitative Research

The philosophy and approach to data collection, analysis and presentation in qualitative research
differs from that of quantitative research. The qualitative researcher does not start with an
hypothesis obtained from theory, but rather may be derived from an hypothesis based on textual
data collected. The table below lists major differences between the two approaches

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Contrasting Characteristics of Qualitative and Quantitative Research
Qualitative Research Design Quantitative Research Design

Inductive Inquiry Deductive Inquiry

Understanding social Phenomena Relationships, Effects, Causes

A theoretical or Grounded Theory (not based on existing theory or Theory-Based (based on existing theory
based on data collected

Holistic Inquiry (concerned with the big picture) Focused on Individual Variables

Content-Specific Context-Free (Generations)

Researcher’s views and perceptions may colour the analysis Detached Role of Researcher

Narrative Description
Statistical Analysis

(Source: Wiersma, 2000)

Types of Qualitative Research

Case Study

Qualitative research is often concerned with studying a particular individual, situation or

program in depth. The individual, situation or program so studied is called a case and the study is
called a case study. The case study attempts to capture the reality of a particular environment at a
point in time. For example, a researcher may study the introduction of GIS on the operations of
an organisation. Two or more cases, that are different in some way, may be studied for the
purpose of making comparisons, build theory or propose generalisations. Such an approach is
called a multiple or collective case study.

Ethnography

Ethnography is a method developed by anthropologist to study human culture. It looks in depth

at human behaviour and belief within a well-defined community that shares a common culture. It
was once restricted to large cultural units such as a tribe. However, in recent times it has been
used to study smaller groups such as kindergarten children and the homeless. The researcher
often studies the group in its natural setting for a very long period of time observing everyday
behaviours to identify culture and behaviour and/or how cultural processes develop over time.
UTECH may be the setting for an ethnographic study that examines the impact of cell phones on
university culture. Similarly and ethnographic study may be conducted in organizations to
determine how organisational culture contributes to success.

The researcher may be participant and become involved in the daily lives of the group or non-
participant observing as an outsider. He/she may be disguised or undisguised. Devices used to
record data include written narratives ( complete record of behaviour), approach are that private
behaviour are not readily observable and opinions and intentions are not captured.

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Phenomenology

Phenomenology is used to study an event from the subjects perspective. It is used to capture
feelings, emotions and experiences. It answers the question: what is it like to experience.....?
Examples of phenomenological studies could be: What is it like to be a student at UTECH? What
is it like to care for a dying relative? What is it like to be a victim of extortion? Lengthy
interviews (1-2 hrs) are conducted with a carefully selected sample of about 5 to 25 individuals.
The researcher must remove all biases and listen with an open mind. In analysing the data the
researcher looks for common themes and groups them.

Source

Leedy, P.D. & Ormrod, J.E. (2001) Practical Research – Planning and Design (7th Ed.).
New Jersey: Merrill Prentice Hall.

Wierma, W. (2000). Research Methods in education – An Introduction. (7th Ed.)

Boston: Allyn and Bacon

Quantitative Research

In quantitative research, conclusions are generalized to the universe of which the sample
purports to represent. It is concerned which large number of people.

Critical Thinking

"Critical thinking is intellectually disciplined of actively and skilfully conceptualizing, applying,

analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or gathered by,
observation, experience, reflection, reasoning or communication, as a guide to belief and action.
In this exemplary form, it is based on universal intellectual values that transcend subject matter
divisions: clarity, accuracy, precision, consistency, relevance, sound evidence, good reason,
depth, breadth, and fairness."

Ideal Critical Thinkers

Ideal critical thinkers have the ability to be clear about the intended meaning of what is said,
written, or otherwise communicated, seeking as much precision as the situation requires.
They are also well informed. Seek alternative hypotheses, explanations, , plans, sources, etc, and
open to new ideas.

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Critical Thinking Skills Related to Research

Focus on a question
Integrate and synthesize ideas
 Identify or formulate criteria for judging possible answers
Keep the situation in mind

See the structure of an argument

Analyze arguments

Attend to underlying meaning as well as surface content

Integrate and synthesize ideas

Discern patterns of evidence

Judge the credibility of a source.

View issues from multiple perspectives

Identify stated and unstated reasons

Ask and answers questions of clarification and/or challenge

Identify and handle irrelevance

Potential Research Topics and Research Questions/Subtopics.

A research problem should possess the following characteristics:

1. It should be of interest to you.

2. It should be within your expertise to which you have access
3. It should be worthwhile and significant
4. It should be 'do-able' (it can be investigated by collecting and analyzing evidence).
5. It should be manageable.
(Source : Selecting a Research Problem by Leacock, Warrican & Rose (2009)

Sources of Problem Areas

Meaningful problems may be derived from:

(i) theory,
(ii) other research literature ( refining, replicating, developing personal knowledge / experience,
and
(iii) current issues of social relevance in your context.

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How to Focus the Research Problem

This means that you must narrow the topic down to something more manageable. (Delimiting the
problem).This helps to keep it manageable and helps to focus your literature review

Stating the Problem

A Problem Statement is a sentence (statement or question) that tells the reader succinctly what
it is you are researching. Always state your research problem in a complete grammatical
sentence, in as few words as possible.

A good problem statement:

1. Identifies the variables of interest.

2. Identifies the relationship between the variables that is to be investigated.
3. State clearly the nature of the problem to be research.

Common Errors about Problem Statements

For some researcher the problem statement is the same as the purpose statement (Leacock, Warrican and
Rose 2009, Leady and Ormrod 2010).

Purpose is “the intention, aim or function of something; the thing that something is supposed to achieve”
(Oxford Advance Dictionary 2000)

For others the problem statement is the main research question (Leady and Ormrod 2010)

Question is “a sentence, phrase or word that asks for information” (Oxford Advance Dictionary 2000)

Basis for Definition of a Problem Statement

It is the view of this author that since a purpose does not necessarily convey a difficulty and a
question is does not give, but ask for information, a problem statement cannot be the same as a
purpose statement nor can it be the same as a research main question.

Problem Statement: A sentence describing the difficulty/problem to be investigated

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 Bwisa’s Template for Problem Statement
Bwisa, (2008)

1. Stable Context - Describe unchanging facts about the topic/problem.

a) For many years, people have debated about _____________.

Or

b) ____________________ has been controversial because ________________________________________________.

Or

c) ___________________has dominated discussions of _____________.

2. Status Quo - State common but incorrect or incomplete assumptions

a) Many people think ________________________________.

Or

b) At first glance, it may seem like --------------------------------------

3. Destabilising Moment - Describe something that reveals the status quo assumptions to be incomplete or inaccurate.

a) This initial perception fails to take into account _______________________.

Or

b) This theory can't explain ____________________________.

Or

c) People have failed to notice, however, ______________.

4. Consequences - Show readers why they should care: what bad things will happen if people continue to believe the status
quo. What good things will happen once they stop believing it.

a) If we continue to believe _______________, we'll never understand the larger question of __________________.

Or

b) Unless we change _____________________, we will continue to have trouble with

________________________________.

Or

c) Once we understand ___________________, we'll begin to see the answer to the problem of
__________________________.

Or

d) By rethinking our approach to ___________________, we can fix ________________.

5. Resolution - Provide a better theory/explanation to replace the status quo.

State your claim. ______________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________.

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6. Four Part Problem Statement

1. Start with a general problem identifying the need for the study. E.g. The problem of this study is ______

2. State the specific problem proposed for research. (use citation & usually a number to make it clear to the reader, e.g.
30% of the farms have been affected by the Napier grass disease
3. Introductory words describing Methodological approach (i.e. Research Design) are given and are appropriate to the
specific proposal problem, e.g. this qualitative study will explore... or this quantitative study will examine ...
4. General population group of proposed study is identified. Small scale farmers in affected locations will be surveyed to
determine ...
Example 1

The problem of this study is that 30% the farms have been affected by the Napier grass disease. This
qualitative study will examine the reason for this problem reviewing the experience of the small farmers in
the Napier District.

Example 2

Brain drain in Kenya is increasing (GENERAL PROBLEM). Every year about 50 professionals migrate
abroad due to unsatisfactory working conditions (SPECIFIC PROBLEM WITH NUMBERS and supported
with a citation). This brain drain is different from previous shortages, because it involves not only fresh
graduates but also seasoned professionals (quote). This crisis in the professionals’ industry requires
innovative solutions. One innovative solution may be a less structured leadership style, such as steward
leadership (quote). This qualitative case study (DESCRIPTION OF STUDY TYPE) will explore perceptions
of professionals in Kenya (POPULATION BEING STUDIED) about steward leadership as a strategy to
alleviate or reduce factors contributing to the brain drain among professionals in the lake basin region
(GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION OF STUDY) The data to be gathered in this study may provide leaders
with information relating to how they may address or mitigate factors contributing to the current brain drain.

Example 3

Identity fraud is one of the fastest growing crimes in America (Adams, 2002). In 2003, at least 7 million
Americans were victims of identity fraud, an increase of 79% from 2002 (AFP, 2003). GENERAL
PROBLEM SUPPORTED BY LITERATURE The nation’s system of 15 personal identification and
verification failed to stop the 9/11 terrorists, and according to the 9/11 Investigations report (Strasser, 2004),
some of the 19 hijackers of the 9/11 attacks had fraudulent identification, passports, and other travel
documents (Wang, 2004). Seven of the 19 hijackers fraudulently obtained and used drivers’ licenses as
identification to board commercial aircraft (Driver’s License Fraud, 2003). Drivers licenses can still be
obtained or made fraudulently and are still used as a de facto form of national identification (Etzioni, 2004).
SPECIFIC PROBLEM WITH CITATION The 9/11 Commission Report (9/11 Commission, 2004)
recommended using an NBIC system as a more reliable and secure means of fighting terrorism. One
associated problem of the 9/11 Commission’s recommendation is that various civil liberty advocates oppose
the use of a compulsory NBIC, arguing that compulsory use of NBICs may have a potential to deprive
citizens of their civil rights and invade individual privacy (Eaton, 2003).

The purpose of this research study will be to examine the motivational factors necessary for the public to use
voluntary NBICs as a more reliable and secure means of preventing identity fraud. To fulfill this purpose, a
quantitative TYPE OF STUDY research study will survey students, faculty, administrative personnel, and
employees of two community colleges in Los Angeles County, California. GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION

Source

Bwisa, H.M. (2008). How to write a statement problem. Accessed from

http://www.professorbwisa.com/new/free_downloads/problem_statement.pdf

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Research Questions and/or Research Hypothesis

Many research textbooks assume that students will conduct a data-centred, experiment study that
test specific hypotheses. However, in actual practice, the nature of students’ research varies
widely and the methods and techniques employed differ accordingly.

All students should write a Problem Statement that represents the major question which the
research seeks to answer. The problem may be broad or specific, and it may lead to further
research questions and/or hypotheses. No single approach is appropriate for all students.

The following three options are possible:

Statement of the
Problem Hypotheses

This is the typical approach in research texts. Both the problem and the hypotheses tend to
be quite specific. The experimental method is usually used in order to test the hypotheses.
However, seldom is this approach followed by students in the more applied field of business.

Statement of the
Problem Research Questions

Statement of the
Problem Research Questions

Hypotheses

The last two approaches illustrates a broad research problem that must be transferred into more
specific research questions (i.e., sub-problem). Generally speaking, most students in business and
related fields need to develop a “handful” of research questions to accompany the research
problem. And some students will go further to translate the research questions into hypotheses.

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How do you know whether or not to hypothesise? Follow these guidelines

If an experiment is conducted (experimentally method), hypothesise should always be stated.

An hypothesis is statement of an expected outcome. If, on the basis of your review of theory and
research you have reason(s) to expect a certain outcome, then go ahead and state hypotheses. If
not, don’t guess; retain the research questions.

Any method of research may employ hypotheses. Not true However, the use of hypotheses tends
to be associated with experimental, casual-comparative, and correlation types of research. The
use of research questions only, tends to be associated with historical and descriptive methods.

If you are not studying relationships between variables, hypotheses are seldom needed.

Research Question

“A question which guides the project, and which the research is designed to answer”
(Punch 1998, p. 39)

The question should be posed in such a way that it is asking - What are we trying to find
out?

It should indicate the purpose of the project.

Developing Research Sub-questions

PROBLEM STATEMENT EXAMPLE

The profit margin of ABC Ltd., a small hotel in Jamaica, has been declining over a three
year period and has dropped from a high of 30% per annum to a low of 10%.

RESEARCH QUESTION
What are the factors that led to the reducing profit margin of ABC Ltd.?

Sub-Questions
1. How has the economic climate of Jamaica changed over the past five years affected the
operations of ABC Ltd?
2. What have been the changes in managerial practices at ABC Ltd. over the past 5 years?
3. How has the competitive environment in which ABC Ltd. operates changed over the past
five years?
4. How ABC Ltd. varied its marketing strategies since it begun its operations?
5. What are the other factors affecting the changes in profit margin of ABC Ltd?

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Hypotheses Formulation

Research Hypotheses: the researcher’s expectation

Null Hypotheses: the hypotheses that are tested by statistical test of significance.
Alternative Hypothesis: it is the alternative to the null hypotheses

Hypotheses may be directional or non directional

• Null: not expecting any difference between or among variables

• Non directional: Anticipating a difference but not being able to predict what it is
likely to be.
• Directional: Anticipating a difference and being able to predict what it is likely to be

1. There is a significant relationship between knowledge of HIV/AIDS and attitudes towards

infected children among primary school teachers. (Directional)

2. There is a significant positive relationship between knowledge bout HIV/AIDS and attitudes
towards infected children among primary school teachers. (Non directional)

3. There is no significant relationship between knowledge of HIV/AIDS and attitudes towards

infected children among primary school teachers. (Null)

1.4.5 Variables and Types

Definitions

Variable: A characteristic that takes on different values or conditions

Example: gender, scores, teaching method.
Independent variable: The characteristic or condition that affects other variables.
Dependent Variable: the variable that is affected.
In experimental research, the independent variable is manipulated, while the dependent variable
is the outcome (response) of the manipulation.

Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches

Generally speaking quantitative research is used to answer questions about relationships

among measured variables with purpose of explaining, predicting, and controlling phenomena.
This approach is sometimes called the traditional, experiment, or positivist approach.
In contrast, qualitative research in typically used to answer questions about the complex nature
of phenomena, often with the purpose of describing and understanding the phenomena for the
participants point of view. The qualitative approach is also referred to as the interpretive or post
positivist approach.

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Both approaches involve similar processes (e.g., formation of one or more hypotheses, review of
the related literature, collection and analysis of data). Yet these processes are often combined and
carried out in different ways, leading to distinctly different research methods.
The quantitative researchers usually start with a specific hypothesis to be tested. They isolated
the variables they want to study, control of extraneous variables, use a standardized procedure to
analyze and draw conclusions from the data. In contrast, qualitative researchers often start with
general research questions rather than specific hypotheses, collect an extensive amount of verbal
data from a small number of participants, organize those data in some form that gives them
coherence, and use verbal description to portray the situation they have studied.
A quantitative study usually ends with a conformation or disconfirmation of the hypotheses that
were tested. A qualitative study is more likely to end with a tentative answers or hypotheses
about what was observed. These tentative hypotheses may form the basis of future studies
(perhaps quantitative in nature) designed to test the proposed hypotheses. In this way, qualitative
and quantitative approaches represent complementary components of the research process.

Distinguishing Characteristics of Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches

Question Quantitative Qualitative

What is the purpose of the  To explain and predict  To describe and explain
research?  To confirm and validate  To explore and interpret
 To test theory  To build theory

What is the nature of the  Focused  Holistic

research process?
 Known variables  Unknown variables
 Established guidelines  Flexible guidelines
 Static design  Emergent design
 Context-free  Context-bound
 Detached view  Personal view

What are the methods of data
collection?
What is the form of reasoning
used in analysis?
How are the findings
communicated?
 Representative large sample
 Standardized instruments
 Deductive analysis
 Numbers
 Statistics, aggregated data
 Formal voice, scientific style.
 Informative, small sample
 Observations, interviews
 Inductive analysis
 Words
 Narratives, individual quotes
 Personal voice, literary style

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 Methodology and concomitant research goals
Method Characteristics of the Method and the Research Goals the Method attempts to Achieve

Action Research A type of applied research that focuses on finding a solution to a local problem in a local setting. For
example, a teacher investigates whether a new spelling program she has adopted leads to
improvement in her students’ achievement scores.

Case study A type of qualitative research in which in dept data are gathered relative to a single individual,
program or event, for the purpose of learning more about an unknown or poorly understood
situation.

Casual-comparative research An approach in which one looks at conditions that have already occurred and then collects the data
to investigate a possible relationship between these conditions and subsequent characteristics or
conditions.

Content analysis A detailed and systematic examination of the contents of a particular body of material (eg.
Television show, advertisements, text books) for the purpose of identifying patterns, themes, or bias
within that material

Correlational research A statistical investigation of the relationship between two or more variables. Correlational research
looks at the surface relationship but does not necessarily probe for causal reasons underlying them.
For example, a researcher might investigate the relationships among high school seniors’
achievements test scores and their grade point averages a year later when they are college freshmen.

Descriptive or normative survey A common method used in business, sociology, and government. The survey method is used to
describe the incidence, frequency, and distribution of certain characteristics of a population.

Descriptive quantitative research An approach that involves either identifying the characteristics of an observed, pre-existing
phenomenon or exploring possible correlations among two or more phenomena.

Developmental research An observational- descriptive type of research tat either compares people in different age groups (a
cross-sectional study) or follows a particular group over a lengthy period of time ( a longitudinal
study). Such studies are particularly appropriate for looking at development trends.

Ethnography A type of qualitative inquiry that involves an in-depth study on an intact cultural group in a natural
setting.

Experimental research A study in which participants are randomly assigned to groups that undergo different experimental
treatments, followed by observations or measurements to assess the effects of the treatments.

Ground theory research A type of qualitative research aimed at deriving theory through the use of multiple stages of data
collection interpretation.

Historical research An attempt to solve certain problems arising out of an historical context through gathering and
examining relevant data.

Observational study A type of quantitative research in which a particular aspect o behaviour is observed systematically
and with a much objectivity as possible

Phenomenological research A qualitative method that attempts to understand participants’ perspectives and views of social
realities

Quasi- experimental research A method similar to experimental research but without random assignment to groups.

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Referencing your sources
Citation reveals the careful and thorough work you have put into locating and exploring your
sources, and failure to mention your sources constitutes plagiarism. Information that is common
knowledge does not need to be referenced.

Correctly use in text citations from which you:

Paraphrase or summarize facts and ideas

Use verbatim or direct quotations

Use statistics

Use tables, figures, diagrams, and appendixes.

In-Text citing
When citing references in the body of the work, use surname if the author (or authors) followed
by the year of publication. Each in-text citation should be included in the reference list.
Examples of in-text citations:
This was investigated by a Jamaican study (Scholtz, 1998).
Scholtz (1998) has argued that...
As one writer put it “the darkest days were over (Weston 1988, p. 45)
Example of APA style bibliography or reference list
(Take note of the indentation)

American Psychological Association. (2001). Publication manual of the American Psychological

Association (5th Ed.) Washington, DC: Author

APA style. (2006) in Wikipedia [Web]. Retrieved September 7, 2007, from

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/APA_style

Kelly, G.A. (1963). A theory of personality: the psychology of personal constructs. New York:

Norton

Format APA headins for your paper. (2004). The Writing Center, University of Madison-

Wisconsin. Retrieved November 27, 2005, from

http://www.wisc.edu/writing/Handbook/DocAPHeadings.html

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Doing Research Projects (rather than research studies)

Note: these may be classified into:

Research Study Carry out a small focused piece of research

(empirical inquiry)

Research Project For example, build a novel piece of

(Sometimes called Development) software, hardware, build a prototype,
design a new product
R&D Combination of the above two

Project Underlining Principle: “conceptualize/build/test”:

Assignment 1 or Chapter 1
The Title
Background or rationale prompting this investigation
The Research Problem Statement (Reframing the research title)
Purpose of the Study (What exactly are you trying to find out?)
Expected benefits or significance of the study
Sub-topics or research questions
Key(major) definitions

The word “study” should be replaced by “project”. See notes below for further
differences.

Background: General descriptions of the motivations for the proposal project are to be
presented in this section. A brief mention of similar projects and what you intended to do that is
different or better should be included in this section.

Project needs Statement: (corresponds to the research problem statement)

Describe the general scope of your project, and the specific problem or need that your project
tackles. Articulate the need as an expression of dissatisfaction with the current situation. Try to
be as specific as possible.

Project goal and objectives: (corresponds to purpose and research questions)

Goal should be broad and general statements describing what you intend to accomplish
The goal is a brief, general, and describes the future condition to which you aspire. The goal
statement is so broad it would be difficult to decide when it was achieved. In contrast, the
objectives are quantifiable expectations of performance.

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Literature and technical survey: Describe prior research and development efforts that were
specifically related to your project. This is not meant to be a comprehensive survey of your topic,
but a concise overview of the most significant results that are tightly related to your project. As a
guideline, this section should include a review of not less than three similar commercial
products or previous research projects. In addition, you should include primary studies that
review these products. This review should conclude with a statement that explain the extent to
which your final design is related to these other products/projects (e.g., is it better? or faster? or
cheaper? Does it target a new niche market?).

Evaluation: your literature review should also discuss the alternatives designs that were
considered throughout the project. Analyze the pros and cons of each of these designs, and
justify your decision to opt for a particular solution.

Approach for design validation

How did you test your system to ensure that it did what it was designed to do?

In general, the Literature review should:

1. Explain theoretical or conceptual framework undergirding project – design principles.

2. Understand/refine the design materials and requirements

3.Look at similar projects others have done and evaluate where possible

4. Look at what design methods are available, including current best practices, and choose
(justify your choice).

5. Establish a testing protocol and a design prototype evaluation framework based on the
literature.

6. Evaluation studies of similar projects.

Analysis and design

In this section, the design is to be described, including, as relevant:

Methods and materials that will be used to achieve the design objectives

Details of the design process (use subsections where necessary)

Describe the constraints (e.g., technical, physical, economical, temporal) that you may have to
work with

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What type of data will you obtain during design validation

What procedures will use to validate your procedure

Students may provide statements about ethics and safety as related to their project.

References

All the pertinent references used in the development of the report should be included.
These references must also be identified in the body of the project.

NOTE: because of the wide variety of project designs, the final report may vary. For example it
may be necessary to include a realistic cost analysis in the analysis and design section.

Cost Analysis:
The objective of this section is to provided a feasible study for developing commercialization of
the project.

APA Style – Sample Cover Page

New Computer Users and Fear: Understanding Psychosocial to Computer

Literacy

Samantha Smith ID# 12543

Research Methodology, Semester 2

Professor H. Lawson

January 2, 2009

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UNIT 2: Literature Review
On completion of this module, students should be able to:

Evaluate the importance of a literature review to research

Use library resources effectively

Select relevant information from a variety of library available resources, including on-line databases
and journals.

Evaluate the literature for selected topic

Employ correct referencing techniques in order to avoid plagiarism

Write report of literature reviewed.

A Critical Review of the Literature

What is a Literature Review?

Basically a literature review is a survey of the existing materials (electronic data bases,
printed text, and other expert sources) dealing with your selected research topic/subtopics. The
primary purpose of your literature review is informative. It demonstrates that you have a clear
understanding of the key concepts/studies, definitions, and methods behind your project.

A thorough review is evident in the quality of your own conceptualisation and analysis
of the topic

The Writing Process

Write a statement of purpose for your lit review

Identify the subsections you need to cover

Devise research questions for each sub topic

Develop a rough plan for the sections of the review

Identify the main author/texts/studies to discuss within section

Link the parts of the review!!!

Guideline for the literature review report

21
Introduction

Begin literature review with an introduction. Mention what the literature review is all about and
present the subareas that covered. Clarify the scope, main issues or questions for the reader.

In the main body of the review, adequately report synthesized referenced information on all the
main points of relevance.
This should be fairly broad and in-depth, showing a comprehensive search of the problem area.
Don not rely too much on a few sources; rather synthesize information from several referenced
credible sources.

Ensure you provide insight into aspects of your topic which might be worthy of detailed
exploration

Present referenced facts and evidence from precious related studies.

Ensure differing opinions are accounted for rather than ignored (where applicable). That is,
investigate and evaluate a range of perspectives.

Highlight exemplary studies

Use subheadings to gain and focus the reader’s attention.

Convince your reader with logic and evidence, not emotive language

Be fair and objective

Conclusion

Highlight gaps in previous related research or limitation of studies.

Criticise methodology of studies.

How did the literature review help to refine your research subtopic/question?

In terms of the empirical research you planning to do, what are the implications of your literature
review.

22
 Sample Chapter 2: Literature Review
Employee engagement is an important concept in organizational systems because
increased levels of employee engagement are closely associated with increased levels of
workforce commitment and productivity (Likert 1961; Katz & Khan, 1966). This review sought
to gain an understanding of the relationship between leadership strengths and employee
engagement. Leadership behaviors can have a profound impact on workforce productivity
(associated with quality and quantity of output) and vitality (associated with cohesion, employee
morale and engagement) (Kaplan * Kaiser, 2009). \This review also sought to identify any
leadership characteristics that may detract from employee commitment goals. Goal pressure is an
example of a leadership characteristic that holds the potential for creating a negative impact on
employee engagement (Likert, 1961). Likert found that supervisors’ placing high degrees of
unreasonable pressure on employee resulted in poor organizational performance; a significant
inverse relationship was identified between performance and pressure (Likert, 1961).

Leadership Styles and Theories

Leadership styles are a way of being based on a personal set of beliefs about how best to
influence production. Leadership practices and the organizational systems they foster shape a
company’s culture. Leadership practices are institutionalized in the culture of organizational
systems and management practices (Kotter, 1996). Many companies today are run by leaders
with a transactional approach to leadership. Although transactional leadership can be both an
active and effective form of leadership, transactional leadership fails to capitalize non the
discretionary effort that comes from engaging an employee fully. Leadership is the backbone of
an organizational system.
Although one may define the term – leadership in many ways, Northouse (2004)
subscribes to the idea that leadership is not limited to individuals with positional power in an
organization. Mayo (1933), Likert (1961), Druker (1981), Northouse (2004), Gebauer et al.
(2008), and Hamel (2007) are all philosophically aligned to the tenets of distributed leadership –
group dynamics created by inclusive management practices – where leaders are not always
above followers but frequently work side- byside.

23
 Leadership models typically focus on the characteristics of leader with an underlying
perspective that leadership is something that is a one–to-many experience; the idea that
leadership is many-to-many experience within an organizational system is a relatively new
concept. Evidence that concepts of distributed leadership are not yet main stream can be found in
the outcome of the Towers Perrin (2008)employee engagement survey results; it can be found in
Gebauer et al.’s (2008) writing focused on the differentiated performance of a small group of
companies focused on the employee engagement. The concept of leadership as a pervasive
within an organizational system can be found in several leadership models; transformational
leadership, Bass and Riggio (2006); distributed leadership, Spillane (2006); situational
leadership, Blanchard (2007) and leader member exchange theory (LMX), Graen and Graen
(2006) all possess requisite philosophical underpinnings that support leadership as a sphere of
influence that can be inclusive of the broader workforce in a way that optimizes organizational
outcomes.

Bass and Riggio (2006) describe multiple models of leadership in their full range
leadership model. In a 1985 study conducted by Bass and Seltzer (1990) they describe several
types of leadership behaviors that inspire performance beyond expectation. The 26 leadership
behaviors described and measured in the study included charisma, individualized consideration,
and intellectual stimulation, all of which they define as transformational leadership
characteristics. Bass and Riggio (2006) adapted these factors slightly when they addressed this
subject 16 years later, associating the following core attributes with transformational leadership:
individualized consideration, intellectual stimulation, inspirational motivation and idealized
influence. In Bass and Riggio’s model charisma is not abandoned but encompassed within
inspirational motivation.

Although transformational leadership behaviors contribute to employee satisfaction, the

data show that transformational leadership alone is not correlated with extra effort on the part of
employees. Bass and seltzer (1990) describe this effect in the following way; -the relation of
transformational leadership to subordinate’s extra effort is a dyadic rather than a group effect []
(p. 693). In other word, behaviors attributable to transformational leadership have a positive
effect on both the individual as well as the team. Transformational leadership creates team spirit

24
via empowering leaders behavior that bring about a sense of self-efficacy and intrinsic
motivation among employees, in addition to creating statistically significant relationship between
shared decision-making and cohesive team building (Bass & Riggio, 2006). Fundamental
differences exist between two forms of leadership: transactional and transformational described
in Bass and Riggio’s depiction of the full range of leadership. Transactional leadership operates
on the basis of an exchange system and the promise of reward (or avoidance of reprisal), whereas
transformational leadership relies on the leader’s ability to elevate the interest of followers
through team spirit and a shared sense of purpose. Transformational leadership behaviors inspire
followers to subjugate self-interest in support of the team and organizational cause (Bass &
Seltzer, 1990). Transformational leadership is considered by Bass and Seltzer to be the most
active and effective form of leadership. The full range of leadership styles evaluated by Bass and
Riggio (2006) includes: (a) laissez-faire leadership, (b) two forms of management-by-exception
(passive and active), (c) contingent reward, and (d) the 4 I’s. Laissez-faire leadership is
considered the most passive and least effective form within Bass and Riggio’s (2006) full range
of leadership. The defining characteristics of this style lie in the absence of leadership activities:
the avoidance of responsibility by a person in a position of power. The term laissez-faire is
intended to describe an unwillingness to engage in the responsibilities of the leading through
avoidance tactics. Laissez-faire would not be considered a leadership strategy but a failure of the
leader to engage in the responsibilities of leading.

Management-by-exception. Management-by-exception places its focus on monitoring

employee work against a standard performance expectation or process. According to Bass and
Riggio (2006), management-by-exception can be separated into two categories: active and
passive. Active management-by-exception is only slightly more effective than passive
management-by-exception: the-passive [] leader engages only after a subordinate has deviated
from normative practice, whereas the –active [] leader proactively monitors performance against
standards.

Contingent reward. Contingent reward is considered both an active and effective form of
leadership, although still not as effective as transformational leadership. Contingent reward is
considered a transactional form of leadership. Employee performance that meets clearly

25
articulated goals yields monetary or otherwise agreed upon rewards; the reward is contingent
upon goal attainment (Bass & Riggio, 2006). The line between contingent reward and
transformational leadership is crossed when the reward transactions from one that yields material
benefit to one that is psychological in nature (Avolio & Bass, 2002; Bass & Riggio, 2006).

Other leadership models. Situational leadership, distributed leadership, and leader

member exchange (LMX) are covered in this section. Each of these alternative perspectives on
leadership possesses the characteristics and requisite underpinnings to support a new theory of
organizational systems, none necessarily better than the other. Blanchard, situational leadership
model in its broadest sense is about one’s ability unleash the potential of others: the leadership
model, LMX theory, looks at leadership through a unique lens, one that – conceptualizes
leadership as an interpersonal, rolesmaking process rather than as individual behavior  (Graen
& Graen, 2006, p. 16).

Employee Satisfaction and Engagement

A lack of employee engagement means that the vast majority of employees give a great
deal less of themselves than they could (Hamel, 2007; Towers Perrin, 2008). Hamel (2007) cites
two Tower Perrin studies: a 2005 study of 86,000 employees in medium to large-size companies
in 16 countries, and similar study conducted in 2009. The outcome of both studies shows a clear
and persistent lack of employee engagement. Although the Towers Perrin data is interesting,
what is more interesting is the apparent acceptance of the status quo and perceived complacency
of management. Hamel (2007) propose that human capability can be arranged in a hierarchy. The
lowest of this hierarchy is obedience: the ability to take and follow direction, which requires little
to no creativity and by extension, offers nothing in terms of competitive advantage for an
organization. The next rung up the ladder is diligence; with diligence comes accountability, but
little else. Next above diligence are knowledge and intellect. Beyond intellect is initiative, which
is present when an employee no longer needs to be told what to do. Initiative is followed by
creativity. Lastly, the top of the hierarchy is occupied by passion. The contribution of this
employee is marked by passion, creativity, and initiative of its employees disproportionate to the
other human capabilities in the hierarchy. High levels of employee engagement are characterized

26
by the emotional and rational commitment of the employee. The emotional commitment is
illustrated in Hamel’s definition of passion (Towers Perrin, 2008).

Competitive advantage is a term used to describe the advantage one company has over
another in the market. The advantage is typically based on product differentiation or same value
for lesser cost. Diligence, as Hamel describes it, connotes a worker that can be relied upon to
make a genuine effort to do a good job but is not committed beyond the contractual work
agreement.

The combination of commitment and alignment are the conditions for determining
employee engagement and by extension commitment. Although drivers of employee engagement
vary slightly from region to region companies with high employee engagement scores
consistently outperform those with low levels of employee engagement (Watson Wyatt
Worldwide, 2000). Employee commitment studies have been done predominately by
professional research firms, although there are a growing number of professional researchers
conducting applied research studies in this relatively new and growing field of study. In a 2008
Towers Perrin identified the top five engagement drivers across generations and geographies: -
(1) senior management sincerely interested in employee well-being, (2) improved my skills and
capabilities over last year, (3) organization’s reputation for social responsibility, (4) input into
decision-making in my department, and (5) organization quickly resolves customer concerns 
(p. 18).

The results of the Towers Perrin (2008) study closely overlap with Hamel’s (2007)
hypothesis about the need for the destruction of old management paradigm shift that occurred in
work experience of organizations that have achieved high levels of employee engagement
(Hamel, 2007). The paradigm shift is the employees’ perception about their ability to impact
organizational performance by way of their day-to-day actions. This belief produces increases in
both employee engagement and employee performance. Figure 1 reveals the psychological
impact engagement has on employee perceptions about their ability to contribute to
organizational outcomes.

27
2.1 Guidelines

1. Become familiar with the library and other reference sources.

2. Identify your primary and secondary literature sources.
3. Use key word as well as their synonyms to conduct your search.
4. Identify the relevant theory/theories that support the various areas of your research
problem.
5. Prepare a bibliography from which you will draw the actual sources that you will use in
the literature review.
6. Ensure that your literature review makes use of the theoretical framework of your study
as well as a discussion of related prior research projects.
7. Do not give your personal views. The reader is not interested in what u think, only in
what the theorist and researchers have to say about their extensive studies relevant to
your research problem.
8. Your literature review must be written in reported speech, which means that it must be in
the past tense. Below are some common verbs that can assist in your analysis. Good
writing style requires that you use a new verb each time you site a reference.
9. Sentences and paragraphs should follow logically from each other. To be able to do this
adequately you will need to use transition signals. See sample transition signals below.
10. The sources may be given at the beginning middle or end of a sentence. Three examples
are given below.
11. The literature review can take the form of: direct quotes, summaries and paraphrases.
There must be few directly quotes. You only quote when the writer uses a novel term to
identify a concept not seen anywhere or a novel way to express a thought. Whenever u
use direct quotations you should indicate the page from which it was taken

Referencing Examples:

Example no. 1 - Jones (2006) affirmed that staff training should include all four levels of
evaluation if it is to have the impact of improving employee and organizational productivity, and,
thus organizational profitability.

Example no. 2 - Staff training should incorporate the four levels of evaluation, according to
Jones (2006), if it is to have the impact of improving employee and organizational productivity
and, thus organizational profitability.

Example no. 3 - Staff training should incorporate the four levels of evaluation if it is to have the
impact of improving employee and organizational productivity and, thus organizational
profitability, (Jones, 2006).

The majority of the review should contain paraphrasing. This demonstrates that you are
competent to analyze and assess the writers’ points of view or findings.

28
2.2 Common Verbs

The following are some common verbs that are useful in citing authors’ works.

Stated Maintained Remarked Proposed

Observed Suggested Declared Defined
Emphasized Commented Reported Asserted
Claimed Contended Pointed out Argued
Applied Explained Affirmed Believed
Exposed Insisted Conceded Concurred
Noted Reported Discussed Acknowledge
Denied Refuted Contradicted Rejected
Implied Addressed Agreed Thought
Negated Disputed Endorsed Opined

Here are some common phrases that you may find useful:

Phrases Expression Referring to Previous Research:

According to ______ ... _____’s study showed that...
In the opinion of ______ ... _____’s research suggested that...
______expressed the view that... _____’s results demonstrated that...
______held the view that... _____’s research provided evidence of...
As _____stated, From’ _____’s results, it may follow that...
As reported by _____ ... As shown in _____’s research...

Adapted from: www.iteslj.org/Techniques/Criollo-LitReview.html

2.4 Usage

To introduce an example:
Especially, in this case, take the case of, for example, one example of this is, to demonstrate
instance, on this occasion, to illustrate, specifically.

To show agreement:
Of course, admittedly, it is true that, certainly no doubt that.

29
To introduce an additional idea:
Additionally, as well as, in addition, again, besides, moreover, also, equally important, one could
say, and, finally, nor, and then, further, not to mention, another, furthermore.

To indicate sequence or order, or logically divide an idea:

After, earlier, previously, afterwards, finally, prior to, at this point, formerly, soon, at this time,
immediately, then, before, initially, thereafter, during, later, to this day

To compare:
Another way to view this, just like, similarly, balanced against, likewise, whereas, by
comparison, like, while.

To contrast:
A different view is, even so, nevertheless, and, however, notwithstanding, balanced against, in
contrast, still, but, on the contrary, unlike, conversely, on the other hand, yet, differ from\

To introduce a opposite idea or show exception:

Alternatively, in contrast, on the other hand, but, in spite of, still, despite, instead, whereas, even
though, nevertheless, while, however, one could also say, yet.

To show cause and effect:

And so, consequently, therefore, as a consequence, for this reason, thus, as a result of, hence.

To summarize or conclude:
As a result, in conclusion, therefore, as shown, in other words, thus, consequently, in summary,
to conclude, finally, on the whole, to summarize, hence, summing up, ultimately, in brief.

Adapted from: www.sdc.uwo.ca/writing/handouts/Transition%20Signals.pdf

Remember, you are reporting the literature, so use the right words.

Examples of Academic word for reporting and connecting ideas

1.To introduce a contrast

a. In contrast
b. In spite of
c. Although
d. However
2. To add an idea

a. In addition
b. Furthermore
c. Moreover
d. Another reason/aspect/example

30
 3. To make a tentative statement

a. Studies suggest that

b. Perhaps
c. It would seem that
4. Show/demonstrate/establish
5. Argue/reason/Discus/Debate/Consider
6. Advise/suggest/recommend/advocate/exhort/encourage/urge
7. Examine/explore/investigate/discuss/scrutinize
8. State/express/comment/remark/declare/articulate/describe/instruct/inform/ report
9. Emphasize/stress/underscore
10. Claim/allege/affirm/contend/maintain

Examples of critical statements

The difficulty with this argument is that it fails to consider...

1. Most of the studies failed to consider recent development in.......

2. We do not know whether boys and girls experience puberty in the same way.

3. Professional and practical issues have not been addressed.

An introduction to critiquing research papers

What and why?
So that you can decide to what extent research maybe useful in practice you will need to be able
to read research critically, to see if the findings are trustworthy, and be able to compare it with
other related research.

The activity of “critiquing” research is therefore fundamental to research utilisation and

evidence based practice.

To critique research, you first need to have a reasonable knowledge and understanding of the
research process and research methods, so that the research paper in question can be interpreted
and understood.

You then need to ask appropriate critical questions about the way in which the research was
conducted. No research will be perfect, and it is usually a compromise between the ideal, and
what is actually practical, but the way it has been carried out will greatly influence its validity,
reliability, the extent to which it can be applied to other populations and ultimately, it
trustworthiness, and usefulness for practice.

31
How?
LoBiondo-Wood et al (2002) suggest that there are 4 stages or levels of understanding in
critically reading research, I paraphrase these here (click link).

To assist with critiquing, there are a variety of “Critiquing Frameworks” and “Critiquing
Criteria” in the literature. These are sets of critiquing questions that deal with the important
aspects of the research process. The critical reader can use these questions as a prompt to aid the
process of critiquing research. Not all questions they contain will be answered or appropriate, so
these frameworks are a tool to assist critiquing rather than a rigid prescription for the critical
reader.

There are many frameworks available in the literature; there is no single “correct” or “best” one.
Some are very detailed whilst others are brief and succinct. Some ask quite complex questions
and may therefore nee greater understanding to apply, whilst others are simpler. Some will be
suitable for both qualitative and quantitative research, whilst other may not be without some
adaptation. The reader should select the framework that best reflects their needs and their level of
knowledge and understanding. Sometimes only parts of the framework are applicable, and
sometimes it will be a good idea to coverage. The choice is up to the critical reader; the only rule
is that there should be some rationale for the choice, rather than jus convenience.

LoBiondo-Wood, G., Haber, J. & Krainovich-Miller, B (2002). Critical Reading Strategies:

Overview of the Research Process. Chapter 2 In LoBiondo-Wood, G. & Haber, J. (editors).
Nursing research: Methods, critical appraisal, and utilization. (5th Edition). St Louis: Mosby.

Stages in Critical Reading of Research Articles

Stage Purpose Activities or critical questions
Preliminary Skimming or quick Highlight or underline main steps in the
Understanding reading to gain familiarity research process
(skimming) with the content and Make notes (comments & questions)
layout of the paper Note down key variables
Highlight new or unfamiliar terms and
significant sentences
Look up unfamiliar terms and write in
definitions
Comprehensive Increasing understanding Review all unfamiliar terms before 2nd
Understanding of concepts and research reading
terms Clarify any additional terms
Read additional sources as necessary
Identify how the main concepts relate to each
other and the context of the study
Write brief summary of the main concepts
relate to each other and the context of the
study
Identify any further questions or areas that
32

Analysis Break the study into parts;
Understanding understand each aspect of
(breaking into the study, relate to steps in
parts) the research process
At this point you can start
to critique the study using
a critiquing framework or
criteria, applying them to
each step in the research
process.
Synthesis Pulling the above steps
Understanding together to make a (new)
whole, making sense of it
and explaining
need further clarification
What is the purpose of this article?
Am i clear about the specific design used, so I
can apply appropriate critiquing criteria?
How are the major parts of the article related
to the research process?
How was the study carried out? Can i explain
it step by step?
What are the researchers’ main conclusions?
Can I say I understand the parts of the article
and summarise them in my own words?
Review notes on how each step compared
with the critiquing research criteria
Briefly summarise the study in your own
words, identify the main components, and the
overall strengths and weaknesses
This is a critical commentary on the study
rather than a description or précis of it

(Adapted from LoBiondo-Wood et al (2002)

Using the process above in conjunction with critiquing criteria or framework can help you
critique individual articles.

If you are reviewing the literature, you will need to assemble and synthesise the evidence from
all the studies you have read. Using a spreadsheet can help you to organise all the studies in a
way that helps you see you’re critiquing notes simultaneously, allowing you to compare and
contrast, and pull findings and conclusions together, so you have a sense of the body of
knowledge available.

GUIDLINES FOR CRITIQUING RESEARCH ARTICLES

From: http://www.msstate.edu/bsc2/guidelines.htm

Instructions: Answer the following questions regarding your article. Use examples from the
article to support your response.

A. Title
1.Did the title describe the study?
2. Did the key words of the title serves as key elements of the article?
3. Was the title concise, i.e., free of distracting or extraneous phrases?

33
B. Abstract

4.Did the abstract summarize the study’s purpose, methods, and findings?
5. Did the abstract reveal the independent and dependent variables under study?
6.Were there any major premises or findings presented in the article that were not
mentioned in the abstract?
7.Did the abstract provide you with sufficient information to determine whether you
would be interested in reading the entire article?

C. Introduction

8.Was the research problem clearly identified?

9.Is the problem significant enough to warrant the study that was conducted?
10.Did the authors present a theoretical rationale for the study?
11.Is the conceptional framework of the study appropriate in light of the research
problem?
12.Do the author’s hypotheses and/or research questions seem logical in light of the con
conceptual framework and research problem?
13.Are hypotheses and research questions clearly stated? Are they directional?
14. Overall, does the literature review lead logically into the method section?

D. Method

15. Is the sample clearly described, in terms of size, relevant characteristics, selection and
assignments procedures, and whether any inducements were used to solicit subjects?
16.Do the instruments described seem appropriate as measures of the variables under
study?
17.Have the authors included sufficient information about psychometric properties (e.g.
reliability and validity) of the instruments?
18.Are the materials used in conducting the study or in collecting data clearly described?
19.Are the study’s scientific procedures thoroughly described in chronological order?
20.Is the design of the study identified (or made evident)?
21.Do the design and procedures see appropriate in light of the research problem,
conceptual framework, and research questions/hypotheses?
22.Overall, does the method section provide sufficient information ton replicate the
study?

E. Results

23. Is the results section clearly written and well organized?

24. Are data coding and analysis appropriate in light of the study’s design and
hypotheses?
25. Are salient results connected directly to hypotheses?
26. Are tables and figures clearly labelled? Well-organized? Necessary (non-duplicative
of text)?

34
 F. Discussion and Conclusion

27. Are the limitations of the study delineated?

28.Are the findings discussed in terms of the research problem, conceptual framework,
and hypotheses?
29.Are implications for the future research and/or rehabilitation counselling practise
identified?
30. Are the author’s general conclusions warranted in light of the results?

G. Reference

31. Is the reference list sufficiently current?

32. Do works cited express the breath of existing literature regarding the topic of the
study?
33.Are bibliographic citation used appropriately in the text?

H. General Impressions

34. Is the article well written and organized?

35.Does the study address an important problem in the lives of people with disabilities?
36.What are the most important things you learned from this article?
37.What do you see as the most compelling strengths of this study?
38.How might this study be improved?

Bellini, J., & Rumrill, P. D., Jr, (1999). Research in Rehabilitation Counseling
Springfield, Ill: Charles C. Thomas.

35
UNIT 3 – Methodologies & Procedures
(Quantitative & Qualitative Designs)

On completion of this module, should be able to:

Identify phases in the research process

Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative designs

Describe basic sampling techniques

Design a questionnaire and discuss other data collection instruments including the concepts of validity
and reliability.

Present a critique of the methods section of a research report.

The subsections of the unit include descriptions of:

– The research method(s) and the research protocol
– The participants
– The study setting
– The time frame
– The sampling technique if relevant
– Data collection method
– How ethical concerns were addressed
– The research instruments
– Variables, measures and control used
– Methods of recording and processing
– Data analysis techniques

36
Research Design

“The science of planningprocedures for conducting studies so as to get the most valid
findings.” (Vogt, 2001).

It includes the research strategy & protocol.

Design – overall plan. Strategy – which research method?
Research protocol – step-by-step procedures.

Make sure that the methodology you use is appropriate for the research questions you’ve
identified. Produce a sufficiently clear and detailed protocol.

Some research studies can be conducted using existing or secondary data. The method of
secondary data analyses uses existing data to answer research questions. For example, a
researcher may examine a school’s clinical health records for the period 1990-2000 to determine
common reported illnesses. This usually requires ethical clearance. On the other hand, Primary
data collection entails obtaining information directly from research participants to answer a
specific research question.

A good research design is conceived & carefully planned, and this:

– helps in avoiding collection of unnecessary or insufficient data

– maximizes validity and reliability of results.
– helps in organizing ones ideas
– gives chance to foresee flaws, inadequacies & anticipate problems

Triangulation refers to the use of more than one method of data collection in examining a
research question. This results in a stronger design with more valid & reliable findings.
Methodological triangulation refers to the use of more than one method for gathering data.

Timeline - schedule your research activities – decide the number of days/weeks of work required
for each activity.

Is your study achievable within the timeframe available?

If not, Narrow your scope!

– To give out different types of questionnaires, conduct personal interviews, and make
scientific observations (although good in terms of triangulation) may be too much for a
student project, which is conducted within a very limited time frame.
– What is most important is that you complete your final year project in a timely manner.

37
 – Topic scope (Breadth & Depth)
– Geographical scope
– Reference Period (particular time period)

Timeline template for a typical Survey Research

Task Hours Duration

Goal clarification

Overall study design

Selecting the sample

Designing the questionnaire or use a standard instrument

Conduct pilot test

Revise questionnaire (if necessary)

Printing time questionnaire & cover letter

Locating the sample (if necessary)

Distribute questionnaire & response time

Attempts to get non-respondents

Data entry and verification

Coding open-ended responses/ Analyzing the data

Preparing the report

38
Examples of research strategy
• The researchers will spend one year living with the tribal population in order to investigate
their social and religious customs.
• A sample of young children will be given a battery of intelligence and achievement tests every
summer for 5 years in order to determine their developmental changes.

Using existing instruments

Advantages of using existing instruments

– Someone else has done the pre-testing
– Reliability and validity have been ascertained
– Population norms established
– Increased comparability with other studies
– Reduced cost (development, etc).

• However, there may be need to modify standard instruments to suit a particular cultural
group or setting.

Measurement

Data are pieces of information that any particular situation gives to the observer. They are
limited by measurement, and may be substantial (variables) or insubstantial (concepts).

Insubstantial measurement exists only as concepts (opinions, ideas, feelings and other intangible
entities). e.g. status while substantial measurement is measurement of observable objects or
variables and has an obvious basis in the real world. e.g. area, height.

A concept is an abstract word that refers to the property of subjects e.g. weight and status.
Concepts are not measurable so they are usually defined by precise reliable observations. The
process of formulating and clarifying concepts into measurable variables is called
conceptualisation. The concept “status” may be conceptualised to observable ownership of
property. Operationalisation is the process of developing an expression of what a concept really
means through the use of operational definitions. e.g. Upper class means owns home and Lower
class means rents home.

A constant is a characteristic that is the same for all subjects under study while a variable is a
characteristic that takes on different values for subjects under study. Variables for an individual
include: gender, age, height etc. For a town it could be: population, economic activity,
homicides etc. A variable may vary with time and/or subjects.

39
A variable that is influenced by another variable is called a dependent variable while a variable
that influences another is called an independent variable. Weight (dependent variable) varies
with time (independent variable). A variable may be continuous (infinite number of possible
values) or discrete (finite number of possible values).

SCALES OF MEASUREMENT

Concepts of Measurements

Numeral: These symbols have no quantitative meaning unless given such a meaning. Numerals can be
used to identify a phenomena, objects, persons etc. Example, 1, 2, 3 or I, II, III. Numerals that are given
quantitative meaning become numbers and enable the researcher to use mathematical and statistical
techniques for purposes of description, explanation and prediction.

Assignments: This is mapping numerals on to events

Rules: This specify the procedures a researcher uses to assign numerals or numbers to object or events.
Rules are the most significant component of measurement procedures because this determines the
quality of measurement and allow numbers to be meaningful when tied to reality.

LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT

Quantitative data analysis involves manipulating numbers that represents measurements for variables.

All measurement falls into one of four categories or scales. These are:

Nominal – This is the lowest scale of measurement. It divides data into discrete categories that
limits the data to these categories. It does not give any indication of value or rank. e.g. black,
white, blue or male, female.

Ordinal – This not only divides data into categories but also indicates order or rank. e.g. first,
second, third and unskilled, semiskilled, skilled. The distance between first and second or
between unskilled and semiskilled has no meaning.

Interval scale – The interval between categories has meaning on this scale. The numerals used
are real numbers, not category codes. As such, we can perform a wide range of arithmetic
operations on the data – add, subtract, multiply and divide. The IQ scale and the Celsius scale
are examples of interval scales. A change in temperature from 10oC to 30oC is the same as that
from 40oC to 60oC. However, because an interval scale does not have a true zero, it is not
correct to say that 40oC is twice as hot as 20oC.

Ratio scale – The ratio scale has a true zero and it is possible to say that a value on the ratio scale
is twice as large as another. Measurement of weight using a scale is an example of a ratio scale.
It is correct to say that a weight of 50 kg is twice as large as 25 kg.

40
Leedy and Ormrod (2001) citing Senders (1958), summarise the differences as follows;

If you can say that

• One object is different from another you have a nominal scale;

• One object is bigger or better or more of anything than another, you have an ordinal
scale;
• One object is so many units (degrees, inches) more than another, you have an interval
scale;
• One object is so many times as big or bright or tall or heavy as another, you have a ratio
scale.

The only thing that separates interval from ratio scale is the absolute zero value. (true zero
value)

VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF RESEARCH

Research should be repeatable and should produce interpretable results from which meaningful
and accurate conclusions can be drawn. In other words research should be reliable and valid.

Validity – This concerns the interpretability and accuracy of research findings.

If a research project is designed to determine the effects of drug use on mental ability, it is valid
if meaningful and defensible conclusions can be drawn from the data collected. In other words
the study should address the problem.

Research validity is dependent on internal and external validity.

Internal validity – This concerns the ability of the method to produce interpretable results.
Interpretability may be affected by:

i) Factors not being properly isolated. Faults in the method of the drug use study may result
in other factors such as socio-economic background or educational background masking the
effects of the factor under study making it impossible to interpret the results. In a cause-and-
effect study, all factors except the one under study must be kept constant.

ii) Subjects behaving differently because they are in a study.

External validity – This concerns the degree to which the findings can be generalised. If the
subjects in the drug use study are adult males 18-25 years old and attending UTECH, the
research findings are valid for that group only. It would be inappropriate to use the findings to
predict the behaviour of all males in Jamaica. If Jamaicans are the intended population then the

41
subjects should represent Jamaicans. The sample must be representative of the population or
condition for the research to have external validity.

Laboratory experiments have external validity concerns since the results may not apply to the
“real world”. This is why laboratory results are field-tested.

Reliability – is a measure of the repeatability or consistency of research. A research project is

reliable if each time it is conducted similar findings are obtained.

Internal reliability is concerned with repeatability due to the instrument used or agreement
between observers. Questions about the ability of a measurement instrument to generate
consistent results or about two observers getting the same readings are questions about internal
reliability.

External reliability is concerned with repeatability by other researchers in the same or other
situations. To ensure external reliability the procedures and conditions must be clearly and
completely stated. Vague terminology should be avoided.

Study Bias

A bias is any trend in the collection, analysis, interpretation, publication or review of data that
can lead to conclusions that are systematically different from the true state of affairs.
An example of selection bias – cases with the disease of interest might be different from cases
not admitted.
An error is either systematic or random

Stages in which bias can occur

During literature review
Sample selection
Field work – while conducting study
During measurement of study outcomes
When analyzing data
In interpretation
Publication

Examples of Biases in Research

Literature review restricted to only references that support their opinion rather than a fair
representation. One-sided reference bias
Publishers are more likely to publish studies that reveal positive results.
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Volunteer bias – people who volunteer for a study may be systematically different from the
non-volunteers.
Non-response bias – many participants choose not to answer particular questions
Response bias – respondents influenced by the race, status or sex of the interviewer.

Explain what may have happened

Interviewer: what did you give your child for breakfast?
Respondent: Buttered bread, egg and tea.
Interviewer: Cocoa tea?
Respondent: I can’t continue with this interview

Response Rate
The percentage of proportion of a sample who responded to a questionnaire
Low response rate is a frequent source of bias in surveys. For example if in a survey of UTECH
students only students from SCIT and FHAS responded then there is response bias.
Over-sampling is a way of guarding against a low response rate.

Sampling Error
Refers specifically to inaccuracies that stem from the fact that study was based on sampling
rather that studying the entire population.
An estimate of how a sample statistic is different from a population parameter.

Study/Data limitations
Study limitations refer to the study weaknesses or restrictive conditions that were not preventable
or perhaps, overlooked.

Limitations may include:

Unavailability of sampling frame
Inability to control nuisance variables
Lack of agreement on theoretical or operational definitions – confusion over terminology
Lack of time for field testing
Applied non-random technique because of the specificity of the selection criteria.
Inadequate geographical scope due to financial and time constraints.

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Research Ethics
Ethical concerns include what the researcher should or should not do. There may be ethical
dilemmas. Some studies require ethical approval by the relevant governing body.
- Professional conduct – professional conduct of self and of research interactions, respect
for participants.
- Informed consent – do not study people without their consent
- Anonymity – names or other information that will disclose who the participants are not
used.
- Privacy and confidentiality – safeguard confidential information
- Duty to protect/warn
- Duty to car (incomplete)
- The general policy is that deception must be avoided. However if warranted, participants
should be debriefed immediately after the research.
• Note that there is also a freedom of information act.
Informed Consent

• A participant’s ability to give consent which is free from any form of pressure (real or
implied) arising from this unequal power relationship should not be compromised.
• Therefore, where possible, researchers are not to choose participants where there is a
dependent relationship. For instance, teacher/student doctor/patient. If, after due
consideration, the investigator believes that research involving people in dependent
relationships is purposeful and methodologically defensible, they will also need to be
reassured that refusal to participate will not result in any discrimination or penalty.
Confidentiality

• Participants need to be aware that confidentiality of information provided can only be

protected within the limitations of the law - i.e, it is possible for data to be subject to
subpoena, freedom of information claim or mandated reporting by some professions.
Depending on the research proposal you may need to specifically state these limitations.
Risks to participants and researchers
POTENTIAL RISK TO PARTICIPANTS need to be recognized and avoided. Identify, as far as
possible, all potential risks to participants (e.g. physical, psychological, social, legal or
economic etc.), associated with the proposal research.
Please explain what risk management procedures will be put in place (if unavoidable)
Potential benefits should outweigh an potential risks.

44
Some specific ethical principles
• Complete anonymity of participants (i.e., researchers will not know the identity of
participants as participants are part of a random sample and are required to return
responses with no form of personal identification).
• Anonymised samples or data (i.e., an irreversible process whereby identifiers are
removed from data and replaced by a code, with no record retained of how the code
relates to the identifiers. It is then impossible to identify the individual to whom the
sample of information relates).
• De-identified samples or data (i.e., a reversible process in which the identifiers are
removed and replaced by a code. Those handling the data subsequently do so using the
code. If necessary, it is possible to link the code to the original identifiers and identify the
individual to whom the sample or information relates).
• Participants being referred to by pseudonyms in any publication arising from the
research.
What ethical principles do you believe are most relevant to each proposal?

Research Proposal 1: a researcher is interested in the important problem of date rape. She proposes to
interview male university students about their dating experiences. As part of the interview, each student
will be asked to read several descriptions of male- female encounters and for each situation judge whether
a rape has occurred. Students also will be asked whether they have ever been in a situation similar to any
of those described in written scenarios. The research participants will be recruited by posting signs around
campus asking for male volunteers to be interviewed about contemporary college life styles. Five dollars
is promised each participant for a 1-hour interview.

Research Proposal 2: An experimental psychologist wishes to investigate how exposure to certain toxins
affects reproductive behaviour. As part of the study female rats will be exposed to several different toxins
over a lengthy period of time. This will be accomplished by sprayed their cages with the experimental
agents. Blood will be extracted at weekly intervals to measure blood chemistry. In addition, observations
of social interactions will be made when male rats are introduced and physical measures taken of any
offspring that result from male- female pairings. Finally, after a 6- month period the female rats will be
sacrificed and relevant sections of their brains examined for evidence of changes related to the long-
termed exposure to toxic agents.

Ethical issues: Risk, informed consent, deception, privacy, and the risk/ benefit ratio subjecting animals
to pain, stress; appropriate use of surgical procedures; termination of an animal’s life; procedures
ensuring comfort, health, and humane treatment of the animals; prospective scientific, educational, or
applied value of the research findings.

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 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

• The process of sampling involves any procedure that uses part of the population to make
conclusions regarding the entire population. The purpose is to use statistics (sample values) to
estimate some unknown parameters (population values).

• CENSUS A complete enumeration of the population. Assuming all respond, data for sub-
populations or small areas is available, and detailed cross-tabulations are possible. Costs
more, takes more time, not only getting the responses, but also processing and analysing,
particularly for large populations (around 100,000 or more),

Survey Design considerations

• Survey Objectives
• Population of Interest
• Accuracy requirements
• Time frame
• Budget
• Sample Design
• Questionnaire

WHY SAMPLE?

• Cuts cost
• reduce manpower requirements
• respondent burden may be less
• gathers vital information quickly
• gives accurate and reliable results since it reduces mistakes due to volume of work
• limits the destruction of test units in quality control testing.

However small area (sub-populations) estimates may not be possible

STAGES IN SELECTION OF A SAMPLE

• Define the target population.

The target population is the specific complete group relevant to the study. Answer the question,
“to whom do we talk? “ For example in a study of house wives, who is really a house wife?
One who keeps house? Does that include women in common-law marriage (baby-mothers)?
• Select a sample frame. (Where Necessary)
A sampling frame is a list of study objects from which the actual sample is chosen. Maps or
aerials photographs may be utilized as sampling frames. There may be omission or commission
errors which may need to be updated.
• Determine sampling method
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Factors that determine the appropriate method include
• resources (money and people)
• degree of accuracy
• advance knowledge of population
• Survey scale (local or national?)

• Work out details (sampling size etc)

-Technically the size of the sample depends on the precision the researcher desires in estimating
the population parameter at a particular confidence level.
-There is no single rule that can be used to determine sample size. Other things being equal, a
large sample is much more likely to be representative of the population. If the population is
heterogeneous a larger sample will be needed. Sample size over thirty permits the use of large
sample statistics.

• There are two broad categories of sampling methods viz,

1. probability and
2. non -probability methods.
• If the sample is drawn according to the laws of probability, then the degree to which the
sample is representative of the population can be calculated in probabilistic terms.

PROBABILITY SAMPLING METHODS

All probability samples are based on random selection procedures. Every element in the
population has a nonzero probability of selection. They are popular because of their sound
theoretical basis. Probability sampling result could be generalized.
Simple random sampling (SRS)
• Each unit of the population is assigned a number and sample units are selected randomly
using a table of random numbers, a computer or some other random selection procedure that
guarantees each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. The “blind
draw” is a form of SRS.
• SRS begins with a list and to obtain a current and complete listing is often difficult. It is quite
useful for small populations and computerized lists. Its calculations are easy.
Sample from table of random numbers
6036 5946 4653 3507 5339
4942 6142 9297 0191 8283
1683 7994 2402 5662 3344
4234 9944 1374 7007 1147
3632 9600 7405 3640 9832
3299 3854 1600 1113 3075
Don't try to select randomly by yourself; use a mechanical procedure like a table of random
digits or random numbers generated by a computer.

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Stratified Sampling
• If the population has distinguished factors that affect it such as sex, income, status, education
or geographical location, etc, the population would need to be divided into sub samples or
strata. The groupings should be homogenous. A probability sample must be taken from each
stratum. Weighting procedures may then be applied to estimate the population values.
Allocation either equal proportion or optimum allocation – sample size is proportional to
stratum size and the variability.

Stratum Sample Size Determination Using Proportional Allocation of 5%

Strata size Sample size

5461 273

1850 93

2092 105

3508 175

2112 106

318 16

482 24

15823 792

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Systematic Sampling
• Using a list of the population, the researcher chooses a random start point. A constant
sampling interval is then used to select other sample units.
• Sampling interval = population list size ÷ sample size (this ensures that the entire list is
covered.)
• If the list has hidden patterns or periodicities it becomes highly unrepresentative.
Cluster Sampling
• A cluster sampling method divides the population into groups any of which can consider a
representative sample. The groupings are heterogonous as the population. The researcher
randomly selects clusters and does either a one-step or two-step sampling. It is better to take
more clusters than few larger clusters. Only a listing of the clusters is required. Frequently
utilized when no lists are available. Hospitals are hi-rise buildings exit as clusters. Also
common in industries where the items appear in bales, boxes, containers which are used as
primary sampling units

NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

Non – Probability samples are used for those research situations in which probability samples
would be extremely expensive and / or when precise representativeness is not essential. Though
they save time. Money and effort there is no proper basis for measuring their effectiveness since
not probability based.

Convenience samples (“availability” or “accidental”)

Only those respondents that are close at hand are selected for example, volunteer subjects
samples and street survey use convenience samples. In effect they talk to whoever is available.

Purposive or Judgemental samples

• A researcher selects a sample that on the basis of available information can be judged to be
representative of the total population. For example, choosing a typical village to represent
national rural population.

Variations of purposive sampling

• Extreme and deviant case sampling This involves learning from highly unusual
manifestations of the phenomenon of interest, such as outstanding successes, notable failures,
top of the class, dropouts, exotic events, crises.

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• Intensity sampling This is information rich cases that manifest the phenomenon intensely, but
not extremely, such as good students, poor students, above average/below average.
• Maximum variation sampling This involves purposefully picking a wide range of variation
on dimensions of interest. This documents unique or diverse variations that have emerged in
adapting to different conditions
• Homogeneous sampling This one reduces variation, simplifies analysis, facilitates group
interviewing. Like instead of having the maximum number of nationalities as in the above
case of maximum variation, it may focus on one nationality say Americans only.
• Typical case sampling It involves taking a sample of what one would call typical, normal or
average for a particular phenomenon.
• Stratified purposeful sampling This illustrates characteristics of particular subgroups of
interest and facilitates comparisons between the different groups

Snowball Samples
• Few respondents are identified who are used as informants to identify others. Used for hidden
or obscure populations. For example, studies on prostitution & homosexuality.

Quota samples
• After population has been classified, interviewers select their respondent within each
subgroup using their own judgment.

Survey Research

Data collection, instruments and procedure

The interview and the questionnaire both utilise the question asking approach. In an interview,
data are gathered through face-to-face or telephone interaction between the interviewer and the
respondent. On the other hand, the questionnaire obtains information through the respondent’s
written responses to a list of questions. Each method has advantages and disadvantages and the
researcher needs to decide which of the two methods is more appropriate for the needs and
characteristics of a particular study.

INTERVIEWS

 One of the most important advantages of the interview is its flexibility. The subject is able to
respond in the total situation in which he or she is responding. The researcher is able to
obtain clarifications or meanings from the respondents.

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 Low response rates usually associated with mail questionnaire reduce the sample size and
may bias the results. Interviews increase the response rate. Personal contact increases the
likelihood that the individual will participate.

 The interviewer controls the order with which questions are considered. In many cases it is
important that the respondent not know the nature of the later questions because their
responses to these questions might influence earlier responses and bias the results.

 Cost and time-consumption are the main drawbacks of interviewers.

 Open and close-ended items can be used in interviews. Open-ended items permit free
responses from respondents while close-ended items ensure that all respondents will have the
same frame of reference in responding. A limitation of the closed question is that it does not
provide much insight into respondent’s perception of a particular issue. A combination of
both open and close-ended items may be used in an interview.

Conducting the Interview

The main task of the interviewer is to ask the question in such a way as to obtain a valid response
and to record the responses accurately and completely. The interviewer must put the respondent
at ease.

 Introduce yourself in a friendly way.

 Briefly state the purpose of the interview without giving too much information about the
study (this could create bias).

 Keep the respondent’s attention focused on the task.

 Keep the interview moving along smoothly by being familiar with the sequence of your
questions.

 Refrain from expressing approval, surprise or shock at any of the respondents answers.

 If comparable data are to be obtained, the process must be standardised. (Questions must be
worded and presented in the same order for all respondents)

Where the respondent digresses or gives an irrelevant answer, the interviewer needs to probe.

 A complete and accurate recording of the respondent’s exact words must be made. The
recording can be facilitated by use of abbreviations. Taping (with the interviewee’s
permission) is the best way of recording information verbatim.

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QUESTIONNAIRES

 Interviewers are expensive and time-consuming and often the same information can be
gathered by less expensive means. Because a questionnaire is designed for self-
administration and can be mailed, hand-delivered or done via telephone, it is possible to
include a larger number of items and subjects.

 Questionnaires protect the respondent’s identity and guaranteed confidentiality is more likely
to elicit more truthful responses than would be obtained with s personal interview.

 A major disadvantage of the questionnaire is the possibility of misinterpretation of questions

by respondents. It is often difficult to formulate questionnaires that are exactly the same to all
respondents.

 The response rate for questionnaires is usually lower than for interviews (40% is the average
response rate for most surveys). A low response rate limits the generalisability of the results
of a (questionnaire) study. The researcher cannot assume that non-response is randomly
distributed throughout the sample/population.

Common Factors Influencing the Rate of Returns

1. Length of the questionnaire

2. The cover letter (vague, impersonal, unattractive)

3. Sponsorship of the study

4. Attractiveness and presentation of the questionnaire

5. Ease or lack of ease in completing the questionnaire

6. Ease or lack of ease in returning the completed questionnaire

7. The interest aroused by the content

8. Follow-up procedures used

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Constructing the Questionnaire

Construction of a questionnaire is a difficult and time-consuming task. A well-constructed

questionnaire is more likely to elicit good and complete responses than do ill-constructed ones.

 Construct the instrument to reflect quality. During the process of constructing the
questionnaire, numerous revisions may be necessary to eliminate ambiguous or unnecessary
items.

 The questionnaire should require the minimum amount of the respondent’s time. Keep it as
brief as possible as respondents are more likely to complete and return a brief questionnaire
rather than a long complex one. All the items should seek to address a research question or
hypothesis. (Do not ask questions if the answers are not useful in the data analysis process).

 Ensure that respondents are knowledgeable about the “problem”. Avoid items that are
unfamiliar to the respondents.

 Construct each item so that every respondent can understand it. The vocabulary should be
non-technical and should be geared to the “average” subject in the group. On the other hand,
the researcher should not “talk down” to the respondent. Where necessary, operational
definitions should be provided to ensure consistency in interpretation of items and answers
provided.

 Try to keep items short and simple. If items are complex, separate them into short and simple
ones.

 Items should be phrased so that they generate unambiguous answers. When possible,
quantity responses. For example rather than asking for sometimes, always, never…ask how
many times per week/month/day, etc.

 The wording of a question should not influence the respondent in a certain direction. Avoid
stereotyped, prestige-carrying, or emotionally loaded words.

 Avoid misleading items (because of unstated assumptions).

 Ensure that all alternatives to an item are exhaustive. For example, if you need to know the
marital status of a subject, do not only include married and single, but include widowed,
divorced, separated etc.

 Avoid items that are likely to elicit embarrassment, suspicion or hostility in the respondent.
In other words, items should not put respondents on the defensive.

 Avoid double-barrelled questions. Do not ask two questions at once.

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Types of Questions/Items

A researcher may use both open- and close-ended items in a questionnaire.

1. Completion, fill-in. These are open-ended items to which respondents must supply their own
answers stated in their own words.
2. Checklists. These items present a number of possible answers from which respondents are
asked to check (√) all those which apply.
3. Scaled items. Respondents are asked to rate a concept, event or situation on degree of a
certain characteristic: quantity, intensity, and frequency.

4. Ranking. These items ask respondents to indicate the order of their preference among a
number of options. Rankings should not involve more than six (6) options as it becomes too
difficult and time-consuming for respondents to make comparisons.
5. Likert-type items. Allows the respondent to indicate his/her response to selected statements
on a continuum from highly positive to highly negative.

Arrangement of the Questionnaire

 Pay careful attention to the very first item on the questionnaire. This might determine
whether or not respondents continue or “toss it in the bin.” The first items should be clear,
interesting, simple and easy to understand.

 Questions that are similar in content should be grouped together.

 A good psychological or logical arrangement contributes to better thought-out answers. For

example, before asking respondents to recommend changes to an office environment, first
ask them how they perceive the present arrangement.

 If general and specific questions are asked on the same instrument, start with all the general
ones first and then include the specific ones. Items that are less likely to be objectionable
should precede those that are more objectionable. For example, if a researcher wanted to find
out the extent to which college students drink alcohol; he/she could first ask “How would
you describe alcohol consumption in your college?” Objective (multiple choice) responses
could be provided eg. Serious problem, moderate problem, slight problem, no problem. Then
do you think alcohol consumption among students has increased over the last year? Do you
know students who consume alcohol? Then finally, have you ever consumed alcohol?

Layout of Questionnaire

The researcher should ensure that the questionnaire is attractive, easy for the respondent to read
and answer and convenient for the researcher to code and score.

1. Number questions consecutively.

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2. Differentiate between question number and answer categories

3. Use numbers to identify various answer categories

4. Be consistent in assigning numbers to the various answer categories

5. Response categories should be arranged in vertical rather than horizontal format

6. Reproduce questionnaires by high-quality printing/copying method – this ensures a more

professional appearance.

Pre-testing the Instrument

1. Ask your colleagues to provide you with feedback on the questionnaire. Ask them specific
questions such as:

 Will the instrument provide the desired data?

 Is it attractive?

 Is it easy to follow?

 Are the instructions clear?

 Are all answer categories exhaustive?

2. Administer the questionnaire to a ‘focus group’ which consists of persons similar to the study
population and/or experts in the area. The researcher needs to pay attention to the questions
respondents ask, such as; “what does this mean?”, “although this item asks for one answer,
more than one applies to me”. The researcher needs to note the items which respondents
spend an unusually long time on. In ensuring “a quality questionnaire”, the researcher needs
to ask:

 Do the respondents appear to be comfortable with the questionnaire?

 Do they appear motivated to complete it?

 Are some items confusing?

 Are some items likely to cause embarrassment or hostility?

 Are the instructions clear?

 How long does it take a respondent to complete the questionnaire?

 Do all respondents interpret the items in the same way?

55
3. Even after pre-testing with a small group, the researcher may still need to “pilot test” the
instrument on a sample similar to the “real” one.

Administering The Questionnaire

In administering the questionnaire, the researcher needs to attach a cover letter. The cover letter
introduces the researcher and the research and serves to alert the subject to the study so that
he/she is not overwhelmed. It also serves as a “selling” tool for the researcher.

Essential Elements of a Cover Letter

1. The purpose of the study. This should be stated in the first paragraph of the letter and should
explain the purpose and usefulness of the study. In establishing the purpose, the researcher
should be very creative in including the possible benefits for the participant.

2. A request for cooperation. The researcher needs to explain why the potential respondent was
included in the sample and appeal for cooperation. It is important for the respondent to feel
that he/she can contribute to something meaningful.
3. Protection of the respondent. The letter must clearly state that confidentiality will be assured
and HOW it will be maintained. To facilitate a high return rate, identification numbers can be
used. If identification is missing, the problem of non-response bias is compounded because there
is no way of knowing who responded and those who did not. It might be prudent not to use
any identification especially on sensitive issues. A post card or tear-off-slip can be included so
that the respondent can mail it in at the same time the survey is mailed (although in a separate
envelope).
4. Sponsorship of the study. The signature on the letter is very critical. If this is a university
requirement, it might be helpful if a person who is well-known to the respondents signs or
countersigns the letter. Such a signature is likely to be more effective than that of an unknown
student. A university letterhead might also be useful.

5. Promise of results. If the researcher makes an offer to share the findings of the study with the
respondents, this should be honoured. The researcher could have respondents indicate if they
wish to have a copy of the findings.

6. Appreciation. The researcher must include an expression of appreciation for respondents’

assistance and cooperation.

7. Date of the letter. The cover should bear a date close to the time of mailing.

8. Request for immediate return. If too much time is given (four weeks), the respondent may
procrastinate and forget about the instrument. It is advisable to give a specific date.

Although all elements are important and should be included, the cover letter should be a brief as
possible; not more than a page long. Always include a self-addressed, stamped envelope for mail
surveys.

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Summarised from Ary, Jacobs and Razavelh (1990)

57
Questionnaire Design: Preparation for Data Collection

Surveys are perhaps the most common strategies employed in conducting descriptive and causal
studies, and questionnaires are the instruments of surveys. Where applicable and available,
obtain copies of relevant existing questionnaires for adaptation.

Survey – Definition
A research tool technique (questionnaire is the tool used for surveys) that includes at least one
question which is either open-ended or close-ended. The goal of a survey is to gain specific
information about either a specific group or representative sample of a particular group.
Definition of survey: A type of research technique that is applied to collect data from a
representative sample or from a population by means of an instrument.

Survey Types:
Classified by administration
A. Self-administered surveys – subject responds to printed questions (e.g., group or mail
surveys, on-line)
B. Interviewer administered

Classified by time
A. Cross-sectional survey: involves collecting data from people in a single period.
B. Longitudinal surveys: collects data from samples at two or more times in order to
measure growth/development or change. There are different ways of doing this:
1) A trend survey – collects data from samples from the general population with
some identified characteristic(s) at different periods. The same individuals are
not used, but ones with similar characteristics. E.g. In a five-year study, a
researcher may collect data from a sample of children entering the first form of
secondary schools in order to investigate some phenomenon.
2) A cohort survey – collects data from a sample from a specific population at
different times. E.g. The researcher may be conducting a study among children
entered the first form of secondary school in 2004. At different times, a sample
of these children would be selected and data collected. Same population,
different samples.
3) A panel survey – collects data from the same sample over time. E.g. The same
sample of children entering first form of secondary school would provide data at
different periods.
Classified by size
A. Sample survey – data collected from a sample or subset of a population.
B. Census survey – data collected from each member of the population.

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Using existing instruments (standard scale)
There are a number of advantages in using existing instruments, these include:
 Someone else has done the pre-testing
 Reliability and validity have been ascertained
 Population norms established
 Increased comparability with other studies
 Reduced cost (development time)

Design strategy: Steps in Questionnaire Design

Questionnaires ensure that questions are expressed in a standardized manner the quality and the
ultimate usefulness of survey data depends on how valid and care-fully worded the questions are.
The development of questionnaire will usually involve the steps outlined below.
1. Translate each study objective (or research question) into an array of useful questions .
2. Clearly define the target population respondents - the vocabulary and terminology will
have to be tailored to the level of the responding group (target population).
3. Decide on question content.
4. Develop the question wording.
5. Put questions into a meaning order and format.
6. Check the length of the questionnaire.
7. Pre-test the questionnaire.
8. Develop the final survey form.
It is important to apply critical thinking skills as you go through the steps.

Overall Format
 The professional look is very important.
 Write a cover letter with UTECH logo
 Use filtering questions.
 Mix question/response types to remove response bias
 Arrange layout – make creative use of space and avoid all sloppiness.
 Avoid overcrowding.
 Leave sufficient space for open-ended questions.
 Remember to add a “thank you” at the end.

59
Close-ended questions
Subject selects fro list of pre-determined, acceptable responses.

Advantages
Provides more reliable answers
Meaning of responses more meaningful to researcher
Straight-forward analysis

Open-ended questions
With open-ended questions the respondent is asked to give a reply to question In his/her own
words.
No answers are suggested.
Example: “What do you like most about UTECH?”
Respondent may find it difficult to ‘articulate’ their responses i.e. to properly and fully explain
their attitudes or motivations. Respondents will tend to answer open questions in different
‘dimensions’.

60
Experimental Research

Introduction

Wiersma (2000) defines an experiment as a research situation in which at least one independent
variable, called the experimental variable, is deliberately manipulated or varied by the researcher
to test its possible effect on another. In other words experiments test cause and effect
relationships. A well-designed experiment should have good experimental validity. For it to have
good internal validity, an experiment should establish without doubt that the experimental
variable is the cause of the effect by controlling the effects of all other factors. For it to have
good external validity it should be possible to generalize the findings to a range of conditions.
Internal validity can be improved by:

a) Keeping factors constant. In an experiment to see the effect of sales pitch on the sale
value of houses, the background of the subjects (persons taking part in the experiment) as well
the design of the houses is important. An experimenter could select two groups of persons,
expose one set to the sales pitch (the treatment) and not expose the other set and compare the
price both sets are willing to pay. The background of both groups should be similar and the
design of houses should be similar or both background and design would have an effect on sale
value and would mask or confound the effect of the sales pitch. Keeping factors constant leads to
problems with external validity, as the findings would only be applicable to the conditions used.
To improve external validity the experiment should be repeated using other conditions.

b) Including a control group. In the experiment described above the group that is not
exposed to the sales pitch is known as the control. The control group provides a basis for
comparison. If an effect is observed in the test subjects and not in the control it can be assumed
that the effect is due to the treatment if both groups are similar.

c) Random assignment. Random assignment of subjects to the groups is used to

ensure that the groups are similar. In random assignment each individual has an equal chance of
being placed in either group so the characteristics should be spread evenly between both groups.
Experimental studies fall under three categories: pre-experimental designs, experimental designs
and quasi-experimental designs.

PRE-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

1. The One-Shot Experimental Case Study

Treatment – Observation

This is not to be confused with case studies in qualitative research. In this design a group is
exposed to a treatment and an observation made. It is a very poor design as factors are not kept
constant, there is no control and no random assignment. It is not certain whether a change
occurred as no observation was made before the treatment.

61
2. The One-Group Pretest – Post-test Design

Observation – Treatment – Observation

In this design an observation (pretest) is made before the treatment is applied and after the
treatment is applied (post-test). The effect of other factors cannot be ruled out. However, it can
show that a change occurred.

3. The Static-Group Comparison

Group 1 Observation – Treatment – Observation

Group 2 Observation

In this design a control group, to which a final observation is made, is used. As no attempt is
made to ensure that both groups are similar, the effects of other factors cannot be ruled out.

Static-group Design

– At least 2 groups;

– one receives new (unusual) treatment,

– both groups post-tested.

No random assignment, no pre-test data; difficult to determine how equivalent the groups are

TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

1. The Pretest – Post-test Control Group Design

Random Group 1 Observation – Treatment – Observation

Assignment Group 2 Observation Observation

In this design subjects are randomly assigned to both groups and observations are made before
and after the treatment is administered to the test group. Cause and effect is established.

2. The Posttest – Only Control Group design

Random Group1 Treatment – Observation

Assignment Group 2 Observation

In this design the pretest obsrevation is removed. In some experiments a pretest may influence
the results and so the pretest is removed.

62
3. The Solomon Four-Group Design

Random Group 1 Observation – Treatment – Observation

Assignment Group 2 Observation Observation

Group 3 – Treatment – Observation

Group 4 Observation

Instead of removing the pretest the effect of the may be assessed by adding two other groups.
This design is expensive.

4. Factorial Experimental Designs

The Solomon Four-Group Design is an example of a factorial design in which the effect of more
than one independent variable (in this case two; treatment and pretest) are measured. Factorial
designs allow for interactions between independent variables to be assessed.

QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

1. Non-randomised Control Group Pretest-Post-test Design

Group 1 Observation – Treatment – Observation

Group 2 Observation Observation

This is similar to the pretest posttest control group design except that subjects are not randomly
assigned.

2. Time-Series Experiments

Obs Obs Obs Treatment Obs Obs Obs

3. Counterbalanced Design – Several groups; all groups receive all treatments but in a different
order

Treatment1 Obs Treatment2 Obs Treatment3 Obs

Treatment3 Obs Treatment1 Obs Treatment2 Obs

Treatment2 Obs Treatment3 Obs Treatment1 Obs

63
In time series designs several observations are made before and after the treatment. A control
group may or may not be used.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Leedy, P.D. & Omrod, J.J. (2001) Practical Research – Planning and Design (7th ed.). New
Jersey: Merrill Prentice Hall.

Wiersma, W. (2000). Research Methods in Education – An Introduction (7th ed.). Boston: Allyn
and Bacon.

64
Feasibility study from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

A feasibility study is a preliminary study undertaken to determine and document a project’s

viability. The term feasibility study is also used to refer to the resulting document. These results
of this study are used to make a decision whether to proceed with the project, or table it. If it
indeed leads to a project being approved, it will – before the the real work of the proposed
project starts – be used to ascertain the likelihood of the project’s succes. It is an analysis of
possible alternative solutions to a problem and a recommendation on the best alternative. It, for
exampl, can decide whether an order processing be carried out by a new system more efficiently
than the previous one.

A feasibility study could be used to test a proposal for new systems, which could be used
because:

4. The current system may no longer carry its purpose,

5. Technological advancement may have rendered the current system obsolete,
6. The business is expanding, allowing it to cope with extra work load,
7. Customers are complianing about the speed and quality of work the business provides,
8. Competitors are now winning a big enough market share due to an effective integration of a
computerized system.
A feasibility study should examine three main areas:

• Market issues

• Technical and organizational requirements

• Financial overview
Within a feasibility study, seven areas must be reviewed, including those of a Needs Analysis,
Economics, Technical, Schedule, Organizational, Cultural, and Legal.

Needs Analysis

A needs analysis should be the first undertaking of a feasibility study as it clearly defines the
project outline and the clients’ requirements. Once these questions have been

Answered the person/s undertaking the feasibility study will have outlined the project needs
definition. The following questions need to be asked to define the project needs definition: What
is the end deliverable? What purpose will it serve? What are the environmental effects? What are
the rules and regulations? What standards will we be measured against? What are the quality
requirements? What are the minimal quality requirements allowed? What sustainability can we

65
expect? What carry over work can we expect? What are the penalty clauses? How much do we
need to outsource? How much do we need to insource?

Technical Feasibility Study

This involves questions such as whether the technology needed for the system exists, how
difficult will be to build, and whether the firm has enough experience using that technology. The
assessment is based on an outline design of system requirements in terms of Input, Output,
Fields, Programs, and Procedures. This can be qualified in terms of volumes of data, trends,
frequency, of updating, etc… in order to give an introduction to the technical system.

Schedule Feasibility Study

This involves questions such as how much time is available to build the new system, when it can
be built, whether ti interferes with normal business operation, number os resources require,
dapendencies, etc.

Cultural Feasibility Study

In this stage, the project’s alternatives are evaluated for their impact on the local and general
culture. For example, environmental factors need to be considered.

Legal Feasibility Study

Not necessarily last, but all projects must face legal scrutiny. When an organization eirther has
legal council on staff or on retainer, such reviews are typically standard. However, any project
may face legal issues after completion too.

It’s inter-related to the organization strategy.

Marketing Feasibility Study

““This will include analysis of single and multi-dimensional market forces that could affect the
commercial, along with the company that is carrying out the feasibility achieving more and more
reputation as they have carried out safety checks which allow the system to run appropriately.””

Economic feasibility – establishing the cost-effectiveness of the proposed system i.e. if the
benefits do not outweigh the costs then it is not worth going ahead.

Legal feasibility – Determines whether the proposed system conflicts with legal requirements,
e.g. the Data Protection Act.

Operational feasibility – Do the current work practices and procedures support a new system.
Also social factors i.e. how the organizational changes will affect the working lives of those
affected by the system.

66
Schedule feasibility – Looks at how long the system will take to develop, or whether it can be
completed in a given time period using some methods like payback period.

Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/feasibility_study

67
UNIT 4 - The Report & Proposal

On completion of this module, students should be able to:

Identify the components of a research proposal

Identify the components of a research report

Present a proposal for a study or a project

Report formats are likely to vary with the nature of the project itself. In a qualitative study, for
example, it may be important to disclose the background, expertise, and responsibility of the

researcher.

Note: Only chapters one to three are needed for the proposal.

Preliminary Pages

Examples of items:
i. Dedication
ii. Acknowledgments
iii. Table of Contents
iv. List of tables/List of figures

Title Page

Although the length should be short, the title should present a true reflection of the study.

Signature Approval Form

68
Chapter One

Introduction

Background to the problem

State the reason for considering this research . The background gives the origin not the
definition of the problem. This part is something like a preface to the proposal; therefore exercise
care not to write the statement of the problem here.

Problem Statement/Purpose of the Study

Concise explanation of the research issue and what “specific research activities or actions” the
researcher hopes to achieve or accomplish by conducting the study.

Research Questions and/or Hypothesis

A clear statement(s) that identifies the precise research question(s) should be

included. Each specific measurement to be conducted should be identified.

Significance of the Study

Justification for conducting the project. This section should exhibit a clear understanding of what
makes your study significant and why it should be conducted.
Definitions
A simple list of definitions of terms that directly pertain to this study should be provided. The list
should include definitions of terms that might be unclear to the reader.
Delimitations and Assumptions
A brief statement identifying the delimitations and assumptions associated with your study
should be provided.
Delimitations – delimiting a study by geographic location, age, sex, population traits, population
size, or other similar considerations (factors that were controlled by the researcher)
Assumptions – factors that the researcher assumes were taken into consideration.

69
Chapter Two

Literature Review

Start with a proper opening paragraph of what the review is all out. What research questions
(from a theoretical perspective) are being answered by the review? Use the literature to provide
and justify the theoretical framework used for the research. The author should also provide a
breakdown of the sub-topics (research questions) influencing the processes of the research
project. Each sub-topic should contain a thorough examination of the literature that influences or
is representative of current research on that subtopic. The literature review should collectively
support the process and purpose of the study.

Chapter Three

Methodology

The methods section is the section that should clearly present each aspect of the process by
which the study will be completed. Every attempt should be made to leave no question as to the
procedures used to complete the study. Proper scientific methods should be used for this aspect
of the study.

Subjects

This section should identify the process for selection, recruitment, and delineation of the subject
pool used for your study. The subject pool should be reflective of the population selected for the
study.
Plan of data analysis –
study variables by types, how they will be measured, relationships explored, and plan for data
analysis

Instrumentation
The instrumentation section should identify the tool(s) used for collection of data.

How the instrument was acquired or created as well as reliability and validity of the instrument
should be presented in this section.

70
Procedures

All aspects pertaining to the entire process conducted should be described. Careful consideration
should be paid to approval of methods and treatment of human or animal subjects. All treatments
should be carefully described as well as notification of risks for participation.

Statistical Analysis

Provide a clear description of the statistical process used for analysis of data. The type of
statistical tests should be reflective of the research hypothesis or question(s).

Chapter Four

Results

Write your results in an order that is similar to the order you presented your hypothesis or
research questions. The results should also include descriptive statistics such as demographic
results, statistical test and limitations, that is factors that were not under the control of the
researcher
Chapter Five

Discussion/ Conclusions

Discuss the findings of your study, that is, empirical answers to your research questions, in the
light of the literature. Also provide inferences and implications that the results of the study
provide. This is a time to expound on your results and offer insight into what your study does or
does not contribute to the body of information on your topic.

Conclusions Drawn by Results

Identify specific conclusions resulting from you study. Offer specific insight to what your
findings reveal. This section should synthesize your findings with the current knowledge in your
area of study.

71
 Research Questions

Answer research questions Answer research questions

using the literature. What from your own empirical
did others find? study. What did you find?

Discuss your findings in the light of

what others found and other
theoretical principles.

Recommendations for Further Research

Provide recommendations to further research on this topic or how parts of your study could be
improved upon. If you found as a result of your study that another topic should be looked at in
order to offer more insight into this topic, then suggest that at this time. It is important that this
part of your conclusion chapter incorporate the implications of your findings in terms of other
research in your area of study.

References
Provide a list of references used for this paper. Provide them according to the latest APA edition.

Appendices

Study approval letters

Letters written to subjects

Questionnaires/ interview schedule

Large data files or sheets not appropriate for main body of thesis

Detailed (relevant) statistical output

General format – use current edition of APA manual

72
 STRUCTURE OF THE RESEARCH REPORT

Table of Contents

Page

Dedication X
Acknowledgments X
List of tables X
List of figures X
Chapter 1 Introduction X

Background to the Study/Project X

Problem Statement X

Research Main Question & Sub-Questions X

Or

Hypotheses

Or

Research Objectives

Significance of the Study X

Limitations X

Delimitations X

Definition of Terms X

Chapter 2 Review of Related Literature X

Heading A) X

Heading B) X

Heading C) X

Heading D) X

Summary X

73
Chapter 3 Research Design X

Methodology X

Population and Sampling Techniques X

Data Capturing Techniques X

Schedule of Activities X

Analytical Methods X

Reliability and Validity X

Ethical Considerations X

Conclusion X

Chapter 4 Findings X

Sub-Question/Hypothesis/Objective 1 X

Sub-Question/Hypothesis/Objective 2 X

Sub-Question/Hypothesis/Objective 3 X

Sub-Question/Hypothesis/Objective 4 X

Conclusions on the Findings X

Chapter 5 Discussion and Recommendations X

Sub-Question/Hypothesis/Objective 1 X

Sub-Question/Hypothesis/Objective 2 X

Sub-Question/Hypothesis/Objective 3 X

Sub-Question/Hypothesis/Objective 4 X

Recommendations X

References X

Appendix i Instrument X

Appendix ii Sample Letter to Respondents X

Appendix iii Other Documents Considered Relevant X

74
Title Page

Although the length should be short, the title should present a true reflection of the study.

Chapter One

Introduction

Background to the problem

State the reason for considering this research . The background gives the origin not the
definition of the problem. This part is something like a preface to the proposal; therefore exercise
care not to write the statement of the problem here.

Problem Statement/Purpose of the Study

Concise explanation of the research issue and what “specific research activities or actions” the
researcher hopes to achieve or accomplish by conducting the study.

Research Questions and/or Hypothesis

A clear statement(s) that identifies the precise research question(s) should be

included. Each specific measurement to be conducted should be identified.

Significance of the Study

Justification for conducting the project. This section should exhibit a clear understanding of what
makes your study significant and why it should be conducted.
Definitions
A simple list of definitions of terms that directly pertain to this study should be provided. The list
should include definitions of terms that might be unclear to the reader.
Delimitations and Assumptions
A brief statement identifying the delimitations and assumptions associated with your study
should be provided.
Delimitations – delimiting a study by geographic location, age, sex, population traits, population
size, or other similar considerations (factors that were controlled by the researcher)

75
Assumptions – factors that the researcher assumes were taken into consideration.

Chapter Two

Literature Review

Start with a proper opening paragraph of what the review is all out. What research questions
(from a theoretical perspective) are being answered by the review? Use the literature to provide
and justify the theoretical framework used for the research. The author should also provide a
breakdown of the sub-topics (research questions) influencing the processes of the research
project. Each sub-topic should contain a thorough examination of the literature that influences or
is representative of current research on that subtopic. The literature review should collectively
support the process and purpose of the study.

Chapter Three

Methodology

The methods section is the section that should clearly present each aspect of the process by
which the study will be completed. Every attempt should be made to leave no question as to the
procedures used to complete the study. Proper scientific methods should be used for this aspect
of the study.

Subjects

This section should identify the process for selection, recruitment, and delineation of the subject
pool used for your study. The subject pool should be reflective of the population selected for the
study.
Plan of data analysis –
Study variables by types, how they will be measured, relationships explored, and plan for data
analysis

Instrumentation
The instrumentation section should identify the tool(s) used for collection of data.

76
How the instrument was acquired or created as well as reliability and validity of the instrument
should be presented in this section.
Procedures

All aspects pertaining to the entire process conducted should be described. Careful consideration
should be paid to approval of methods and treatment of human or animal subjects. All treatments
should be carefully described as well as notification of risks for participation.

Statistical Analysis

Provide a clear description of the statistical process used for analysis of data. The type of
statistical tests should be reflective of the research hypothesis or question(s).

Chapter Four

Results

Write your results in an order that is similar to the order you presented your hypothesis or
research questions. The results should also include descriptive statistics such as demographic
results, statistical test and limitations, that is factors that were not under the control of the
researcher
Chapter Five

Discussion/ Conclusions

Discuss the findings of your study, that is, empirical answers to your research questions, in the
light of the literature. Also provide inferences and implications that the results of the study
provide. This is a time to expound on your results and offer insight into what your study does or
does not contribute to the body of information on your topic.

77
Conclusions Drawn by Results

Identify specific conclusions resulting from you study. Offer specific insight to what your
findings reveal. This section should synthesize your findings with the current knowledge in your
area of study.

Research Questions

Answer research questions Answer research questions

using the literature. What from your own empirical
did others find? study. What did you find?

Discuss your findings in the light of

what others found and other
theoretical principles.

Recommendations for Further Research

Provide recommendations to further research on this topic or how parts of your study could be
improved upon. If you found as a result of your study that another topic should be looked at in
order to offer more insight into this topic, then suggest that at this time. It is important that this
part of your conclusion chapter incorporate the implications of your findings in terms of other
research in your area of study.

References
Provide a list of references used for this paper. Provide them according to the latest APA edition.

Appendices

Study approval letters

Letters written to subjects

Questionnaires/ interview schedule

Large data files or sheets not appropriate for main body of thesis

78
Detailed (relevant) statistical output

General format – use current edition of APA manual

79
UNIT 5 – Data Analysis and Application of Statistics in Research
On completion of this module, participants will be able to:

Identify the methods of data analysis appropriate to different methodologies (mention use of statistical
tools such as excel and SPSS)

Conduct basic quantitative data analysis laboratory sessions using SPSS and interpret statistical
output. This includes using a computer package to input data, produce measures of central tendency and
variability, and producing tables and charts.

SECONDARY DATA ANALYSIS

What is secondary data analysis?

Secondary data are data collected by other researchers that are available for use in your research.

Sources of secondary data

Official statistics as produced by the Statistical Institute of Jamaica (http://www.stainja.com)

e.g. census and consumer price index

Mass media such as newspapers, magazines and television.

Data from previous research

Method
Steps in using available data include:

Searching for and procuring the data

Evaluating data quality

You will need to reconstruct the process by which the data were collected to determine
authenticity, limitations, errors and biases

Assessing data completeness

This must be done to determine the extent to which findings can be generalised.

Advantages of using secondary data

Collection of the data does not result in a reaction from the subject

Allows the past to be studied and understood

80
It is less expensive

Allows more ground to be covered in less time.

Disadvantages of using secondary data

May not be accurate. Need to ensure that the source is authentic

The assumptions may not be clear

Types of Statistical Tests

Now that you have looked at the distribution of your data and perhaps conducted some descriptive statistics to
find out the mean, median or mode, it is time to make some inferences about the data. As previously covered in
the module, inferential statistics are the set of statistical tests we use to make inferences about data. These
statistical tests allow us to make inferences because they can tell us if the pattern we are observing is real or
just due to chance.

How do you know what kind of test to use?

Types of statistical tests: There are a wide range of statistical tests. The decision of which statistical test to
use depends on the research design, the distribution of the data, and the type of variable. In general, if the data
is normally distributed you will choose from parametric tests. If the data is non-normal you choose from the
set of non-parametric tests. Below is a table listing just a few common statistical tests and their use

Type of Test: Use:

Correlational These tests look for an association between variables
Tests for the strength of the association between two continuous
Pearson correlation variables

Tests for the strength of the association between two ordinal

Spearman correlation variables (does not rely on the assumption of normal distributed
data)
Tests for the strength of the association between two categorical
Chi-square
variables
Comparison of Means: look for the difference between the means of variables

Tests for difference between two related variables

Paired T-test
Independent T-test Tests for difference between two independent variables
Tests the difference between group means after any other variance
ANOVA
in the outcome variable is accounted for
Regression: assess if change in one variable predicts change in another variable
Tests how change in the predictor variable predicts the level of
Simple regression change in the outcome variable

Tests how change in the combination of two or more predictor

Multiple regression
variables predict the level of change in the outcome variable

81
 Non-parametric: are used when the data does not meet assumptions required for
parametric tests
Tests for difference between two independent variables - takes
Wilcoxon rank-sum test into account magnitude and direction of difference

Tests for difference between two related variables - takes into

Wilcoxon sign-rank test
account magnitude and direction of difference
Tests if two related variables are different – ignores magnitude of
Sign test
change, only takes into account direction

From http://cyfernetsearch.org/ilm_6_7

Definition of Statistics

Statistics is concerned with the design and conduct of studies, as well as the organization,
summarization, presentation, analysis and interpretation of data. Descriptive and Inferential
Statistics are the two major divisions of Statistics.

Descriptive Analysis
This includes graphical presentation of data and calculation or generation of summary statistics.
In the results section of a study, it is important to describe the subjects (or participants) that
comprise the study sample. Descriptive statistics are used to portray the sample characteristics.
See table1 for example of summary descriptive statistics.

Table 1:Descriptive statistics for age of when first married by gender

Respondent’s Sex
Male Mean 24.16
Median 23.00
Standard Deviation 4.867

Minimum 16

Maximum 50

82
Female Mean 21.84
Median 21.00
Standard Deviation 4.929

Minimum 13

Maximum 58

Descriptive summary statistics may also be explained using words. See box below.

“Just over half of the sample was female. The average age for the sample as a whole was
Demographics (sample characteristics in words)
approximately 49 years. The typical respondent has well-above-average income, with an
.
average annual pretax household income of $60,882 and personal pretax income of $41,069”.

From: Why people (don't) shop online: A lifestyle study of the internet consumer

Swinyard, William R; Smith, Scott M. Psychology & Marketing 20. 7 (Jul 2003): 567-597.

First of all, examine data for outliers and missing data. Outliers are observations that are
substantially different. Missing data are sometimes replaced using.

Descriptive Analysis: Summary Statistics

When data is summarized, what statistics should be provided?
A. Measures of Central Tendency: Also called averages
These include the:
– Mode
– Median
– Mean
Measures of central tendency are the typical values used to represent a data set.

The Mode
In a set of data, the mode is the most frequently observed data value.
The mode is the simplest measure of central tendency.
In a set of data, there may be more than one mode. When there are two modes, the data is
bimodal, three modes (trimodal), or four or more modes (multimodal).
The mode does not always exist; that is, no value appears more frequently than the others.

83
The Median
The median is the middle value of a distribution when the data values are arranged in order of
magnitude.
It divides the data set into two parts. Half of the values in the distribution are smaller than the
median and other half of the values are larger than the median
The Mean
The mean is the most common measure of central tendency
It is simply the sum of all the numbers divided by the data size (the data size is n or sum of the
frequencies)
The Sample Mean vs. the Population Mean

x= ∑x µ=
∑x
n N
Need to include formula for grouped data ∑fx where X is the mid point average of grouped
interval. N

Statistical Symbols and Meanings

1. X represents a variable ( e.g. age, height)

2. N the number of scores in a population (population size)
3. Common n – n represents the number of scores in a sample
(sample size)

4. - summation X – add up all the scores

5. (parameter)
6. - mean of the sample (statistic)
7. σ - standard deviation of the population (parameter)
8. σ 2 - variance of the population (parameter)
9. S - standard deviation of the sample (statistic)
10. S2 – variance of the sample (statistic)

84
Descriptive Analysis: Summary Statistics
B. Measures of Dispersion or Variation

How data values vary among themselves in a data set is of fundamental importance in Statistics.
Data variation or dispersion, that is the spread of the data values, is measured by the following
statistics:
The range – the difference between the largest and smallest value
The interquartile range – the difference between the upper and lower quartile
The variance – the mean of the squared deviations from the mean
The standard deviation (square root of the variance).
The coefficient of variation – measures relative dispersion hence expressed as a percentage.

The variance and the standard deviation are the most popular measures of dispersion

Uses of the Measures of Dispersion

They enable us compare several samples with similar averages.

Example: Data set 1 – 26, 27, 28, 29, and 30 has mean of 28
Data set 2 – 15, 19, 20, 26, and 60 also has mean of 28
They provide an indication of the reliability of the average
They draw attention to problems associated with very small or very large variability.

Descriptive Analysis: Graphical Analysis

Bar graphs (simple, component, multiple, percentage), pie charts, line graphs, boxplots, and
histograms are very helpful in presenting or illustrating your research results. You must learn to
use them effectively, rather than mindlessly. Take care not to present data in ways that may be
misleading.

First of all, think about which variables are most important for graphical presentation and then
consider the most suitable graph or chart. Use apt titles to effectively communicate the specific

85
research results to your readers. A good graph must convey statistical information quickly and
efficiently

Selection of the appropriate charts and graphs

The choice of the right chart or graph is guided by the aim of the graphical analysis, which could
be to:
a. compare subgroups
b. show the pattern of the distribution for one or two variables
c. explain parts of the whole
d. reveal the trend over time
e. reveal deviations from the average
f. explore the relationship

The selection of the right chart or graph is also guided by the level of measurement (whether
nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio)
Examples of graphs

Multiple Bar Chart

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Simple Bar Chart

Line Graph

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Features of a Boxplot

Boxplot

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Scatter Diagram

Descriptive Analysis: frequency distributions

Prior to analysis, raw data is often organized/condensed into frequency distributions, either
ungrouped or grouped frequency distributions. Cross-tabulations are also frequently used.

Ungrouped Frequency Distribution

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Grouped Frequency Distribution [showing (a) stated limits and (b) class boundaries]

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 Cross-tabulation

Data categorizations
Data could be
– Univariate (for a single variable e.g. age ),
– bivariate (variables in pairs e.g. weight versus height of an individual ) or
– multivariate (over 2 variables considered simultaneously ).
– Quantitative versus qualitative
– Categorical (Discrete) or continuous
– Nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio level of measurement
– Population data or sample data

Quantitative versus Qualitative Data

Quantitative variables are characteristics or features that are best expressed by numerical values,
such as the age of a person, the number of people in a household, the size of a building, or the
annual sales of a product.
Qualitative variables are characteristics or qualities that are not numerical, such as Parish, or
country of origin.

Qualitative variables are sometimes referred to as categorical variables because they consist of categories
in which the population can be classified

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Discrete vs. Continuous Variables

DISCRETE Where only certain exact values are permitted (usually variables that can be
counted). Examples: family size; age to the nearest year.

CONTINUOUS Variables that can assume any value within an interval. Hence, a third value
may be placed between any two values. Examples: temperature; blood pressure; height;
weight

Population Vs Sample Data

Most times research data comes from a sample, that is, a part of the population, and not the
whole population.

Parameters versus Statistics

Calculations based on samples – statistics

E.g. sample mean x = ∑

x
n
Calculations obtained from the entire population are called “Parameters”

e.g. Population mean µ = ∑

x
N
Statistics are estimates of parameters

Levels of Measurement
A. Categorical (Nominal): No logical order. Described by group membership.
Examples: race; gender; voting preference; state of residence; eye colour
B. Ordinal - Order is very important, that is, described by ranks. Examples: race
positions (1st etc); any ordering from based on comparisons.

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 C. Interval- Readings off a regular scale. Described by scale value, where differences in
values make sense. Examples: temperature (oC,oF); amount by which speed limit is
exceeded; tyre pressure; blood pressure
D. Ratio - Readings off an absolute scale Described by scale value, where ratios of
values make sense. Examples: temperature (oK); speed; height; weight; volume; area;
heart rate
NORMALITY
A normal distribution is assumed by many statistical procedures. Normal distributions take the
form of a symmetric bell-shaped curve.
Skewness is the tilt (or lack of it) in a distribution.
The distributions shown are:
a) Evenly distributed (normal)
b) Skewed or tilted to the right (right tail) hence positively skewed
c) Skewed or tilted to the left (left tail) hence negatively skewed

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 Normal distribution: Standardization
The process of making a test or procedure the same for everyone so that results can be compared
to each other.

Standard Score
A score derived by transforming the data based on the standard deviation. Standard scores can
then be compared to one another on face value.
z-score a standard score that sets the mean to zero and standard deviation to one.

Inferential Analysis

Inferences are made about the population of study based on sample figures. For example, the
inference that drug A is more effective than drug B.

Inferential data analysis is often preceded by descriptive analysis.

Before getting into any inferential data procedures, there is need to do some preliminary data
analysis (descriptive) and need to validate assumptions. Inferential procedures include
estimation of parameters and various tests of significance.

Inferential Procedures: Estimation

A point estimate is a single value that is used to approximate an unknown population parameter.
For example, we may estimate that the overall foreign exchange rate one USD to Jamaican
dollars is J$86.5. Technically speaking, the exact population average is unknown.
Unknown parameter Point estimate

Population mean- Sample mean

p
Population proportion - π Sample proportion

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If the exchange rate is given as a range of values (lies between J$85.5 and J$87.5) between which we
think the true value lies, then we have an interval estimate.

Interval Estimate for the population mean for large samples given by

 s   σ 
x ± z  x ± z 
 n Or  n

Inferential Procedures: Significance Testing

Hypothesis A statement of a predicted relationship between the variables under investigation

Null hypothesis The hypothesis that states there is no relationship between the variables under
study; or the hypothesis if no difference.
Alternative hypothesis reflects the researcher's expectations based on theory or previous
research findings

Example (Directional Hypothesis): Developmental vs No Developmental Coursework

H0 - There is no significant difference in the graduation rates of adults taking and not taking
developmental coursework.
Ha - Graduation rates of adults taking developmental coursework are higher than for those
not taking developmental coursework.

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 Example (Non-directional Hypothesis): Gender

H0 - There is no significant difference in the graduation rates of adults taking developmental

coursework, based on gender.
Ha - There is a significant difference in the graduation rates of adults taking developmental
coursework, based on gender.

Significance testing (hypothesis) approaches

Critical value approach (more traditional)
P-value approach (more popular in the literature)

Statistical significance: A term indicating that the results obtained in an analysis of sample
data are unlikely to have been caused by chance, at some specified level of probability.

P-value is the maximum probability of being wrong (of coming to the wrong conclusion) if is
assumed that the null hypothesis is true.
In the context of providing evidence, a p-value is a quantitative statement about our level of
doubt.

The p-value (observed significance level) indicates how likely or unlikely observation of the value
obtained for the test statistics would be if the null hypothesis (H0) is true.

The level of significance is designated α. It is also sometimes called the level of risk.
If the observed significance level (p) is higher than the predetermined significance level (á),
then there is no statistical significance.

In particular, a small p-value (close to 0) indicates that observation of the value obtained for the
test statistics would be unlikely if the null hypothesis (H0 ) is true.

Interpreting p-values
Large p-value

there is a high probability that an observed difference is due to sample variation (chance).

Small p-value

there is a low probability that an observed difference is due to ‘chance’.

Therefore small p-values indicate a real or significant difference between means (or other statistics).

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Inferential Procedures: Correlation Analysis.

Correlation- Measures the strength and direction of the linear relationship between two
variables. It is unit-less.
Ranges between –1 and 1.
The closer to –1, the stronger the negative linear relationship.
The closer to 1, the stronger the positive linear relationship.
The closer to 0, the weaker any linear relationship.
If we determined that the correlation between a midterm and a final exam was +0.97, we could
say that these two tests are strongly and directly related to each other. In other words, a student
who scored high on one would likely score high on the other.

Scatter Plots of Data with

Various Correlation Coefficients
Y Y Y

X X X
r = -1 r = -.6 r=0
Y
Y Y

X X X
r = +1 r = +.3 r=0

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Introduction to Qualitative Data Analysis (QDA)
What is Qualitative Data Analysis (http://onlineqda.hud.ac.uk/Intro_QDA/)

Interviews, ethnographies and documents are typical sources of qualitative data which can be captured on
audio recording or video, cameras, charts and most commonly, textual transcriptions. These texts,
documents and recordings are analysed for their meaningful content and they are interpreted rather than
counted or measured.

A- Z of Methodologies/Theoretical approaches

Before starting any qualitative research, let alone qualitative analysis, you should be clear what kind of
theoretical approaches you will be using. Here is a review of some of the most common. More...

Preparing the data

The most important activity here is transcription. Although there is now good equipment for audio and
video recoding (predominantly digital now) many researchers still find it imperative to transcribe
recording and field notes. This is because their analysis will focus on the meaningful discourse and the
symbolic interaction found in people's use of language, and having a transcription is still a very
convenient way of getting to grips with the details of such discourses.

Writing as analysis

No matter what their methodological orientation, all writers on qualitative analysis agree about the
importance of writing things down whether this is jotting down ideas, collecting field notes or creating a
report of your work.

How and what to code

Coding is the process of marking passages of text (or parts of images or sections of a video recording)
that are about the same thing, say the same thing or discuss things in the same way. These similar
passages are marked with a name, the code, that is usually associated with a longer explanation of what
the code means, what the passages have in common and, perhaps, a general interpretation of them. Codes
support a thematic analysis of the content of the text (or images) and enable the rapid retrieval of text that
represents common ideas, themes, rhetoric and approaches.

Analysis process

Qualitative data sets tend to be large, complex and detailed. The task of keeping on top of such a
mountain of data so that each part is given a fair, balanced and equally thorough analysis should not be
underestimated. There are techniques and procedures that can help with that. A common activity in
qualitative analysis is comparisons. This is partly a creative process undertaken during coding. Passages
of text and the events they talk about or their themes and topics, the phenomena they discuss, the way
they are expressed or the form of words they use can be compared with those in other passages. In this
way a more sophisticated understanding of the text can be gained and, perhaps, a more refined coding
scheme can be developed. The data can also be examined for differences and similarities across different
cases, times, events and themes in order to construct both a descriptive and explanatory framework.

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The quality of qualitative analysis

Although much qualitative research is undertaken by researchers who have rejected the realist
assumptions that underpin notions like the reliability, validity and generalisability of analysis, the need to
ensure that it is of good quality cannot be escaped. There are several approaches and procedures that can
be adopted to assist with the quality of analysis.

Writing up

Writing as your analysis proceeds makes writing up the final research reports easier. However, this is still not an
easy process.

SOFTWARE FOR QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

QDA Software (http://www.qualitativeresearch.uga.edu/QualPage/multimedia,qda.html)

AnSWR Analysis Software for Word-Based Records

AQUAD Content Analysis of Audio/Video-data

ATLASti Analysis of Qualitative Data

CDC EZ-Text For Semi-structured Qualitative Data (freeware)

Code-A-Text and C-I-

Analysis of Text and Speech
SAID

Diction The Text Analysis Program

Ethno2 Event Structure Analysis (ESA)

The Ethnograph Analysis of Qualitative Data

HyperQualLite Rental software for the Mac

HyperRESEARCH Analysis of Qualitative Data

INTEXT

Kwalitan Analysis of Text, Pictures, Audio Fragments and Video Fragments

MacShapa A Macintosh-based Software Tool for Performing Video Analysis

MAXQDA Professional Text Analysis

NVivo Analysis of Qualitative Data (by QSR International)

PQMethod For QMethod

QDA Miner Mixed-model Qualitative Data Analysis Software

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 Qualrus Analysis of Qualitative Data

TAMS Analyzer Macintosh Qualitative Research Tool

Textalyser Online Ttext Analysis Tool

TextQuest Ttext Analysis Tool

The Observer Collection, Analysis and Management of Observational Data

VisualText™ Analysis of Qualitative Data

WEFT QDA Easy-to-use Tool to Assist in the Analysis of Textual Data

WordStat Content Analysis Module for Simstat

DeDoose Analysis of Qualitative or Mixed Methods Data

Other Software that is Useful for QDA

Data Management Tool: Organize Information and Create Searchable Databases from Web
askSam
pages, Email, PDF files, Texts, and Word documents

Folio Views Information retrieval software tool

STELLA and ithink

Storyspace

Transcribing Software

Transana

Transcriber

Express Scribe

f4

HyperTRANSCRIBE

Additional online resources on qualitative data analysis and social research is available at
http://www.qualitativeresearch.uga.edu/QualPage/teachingqual.htm

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