Emergent Technologies In Electrical

Microgeneration
Dr. Inmaculada Zamora, Jose Ignacio San Martin, Angel Javier Mazón,
José Javier San Martı́n, and Victor Aperribay

Abstract

Currently, evolution of energy sector is being characterized by liberalization, increase of

energy needs and technological advances. This evolution has eliminated the scale economy
on which the generation, transmission and distribution systems are based. So, tendency
of generation systems is oriented to integrated devices, which will supply the customers
demand, either in medium voltage or low voltage networks. The interconnection of small
modular generation sources to the low voltage distribution network establishes a new
concept, the electrical micro-grid. These micro-grids can be connected to the electrical
distribution network or work in an autonomous way and can include different technologies,
such as: micro-turbines, wind mills, fuel cells, photovoltaic cells, etc., together with energy
storage devices, such as: batteries, condensers, fly-wheels, etc. The content of this paper
cover different aspects related with generation and distribution of electrical power in a
small scale, and horizontal technologies for industrial, commercial and domestic energy
systems. So, this paper presents a revision of current developed technologies, which can
be used for electrical microgeneration installations.

KEYWORDS: Microturbines, Fuel Cells, Wind turbines, Photovoltaic Cells, Storage

technologies
Zamora et al.: Emergent Technologies In Electrical Microgeneration 1

1. INTRODUCTION

Microgeneration is any kind of generating source of electric and thermal

energy, with power rates below some hundreds of kW. Usually these
generators efficiency oscillates between 18% and 60%. Most of these
generators have heat interchangers, that allow to take advantage of residual
heat, for hot water, heating or industrial process heat, increasing the total
efficiency of the system up to 90%. Generating unit’s residual heat can also be
used to operate in refrigeration systems.
In order to decrease the emission of pollutants to atmosphere, mainly
nitrogen oxides, the “thin flame” devices and catalytic converters have been
adapted to the stationary uses of electrical generation. Noise, inherent to
several technologies, can be cleared soundproofing the equipments placed in
residential areas. These previous characteristics, although imply a higher cost,
make them competitive in front of traditional stations. The most applied
technologies in microgeneration are: microturbines, fuel cells, small power
wind turbines and photovoltaic cells (PV).
In addition, storage dispersed technologies can help to microgenerators to
be connected to the network, allowing that intermittent sources provide
electricity in a more regular way, independently of the adverse weather
conditions. Flywheels, batteries and super capacitors are the devices developed
currently to storage energy. Another interesting option seems to be the
hydrogen production with the energy that has been generated by PV. Later,
hydrogen can be used in fuel cells to satisfy the demand of electricity and heat
when necessary.
Considering aspects such as electric supply quality, favourable
climatologically conditions and sustainable development, different institutions
have developed electric microgrids projects. Some of them are: microgrid in
the Kythnos Island in Greece [1-2], EDISON project pilot in Germany [3],
integral project of electrification of Floreana Island in Ecuador [4], RESPIRE
project [5], etc.
In this context, microgrids present two options, connected to the network
or isolated from the network [6], operating in an autonomous way. With
regard to the first option, it is necessary to highlight that they are relevant
when aspects like quality supply, global efficiency and use flexibility are
considered. In relation to the second option, it is focused mainly to guarantee
the energy supply to remote communities. Following, the most relevant
technologies, which are being developed to be applied in microgeneration, are
presented.

Produced by The Berkeley Electronic Press, 2005

2 International Journal of Emerging Electric Power Systems Vol. 3 [2005], No. 2, Article 1092

2. GAS MICROTURBINES

2.1. GENERAL DESCRIPTION

Microturbines are small combustion turbines, with installed capacity of 25 to

300 kW and very high rotation speeds (between 50.000 and 120.000 rpm).
They can be used as a support device to satisfy demand peaks, or as distributed
generator in microgrids.
They can be analysed by means of simple cycles or with regeneration. In
the first ones, of lower cost, compressed air is mixed with fuel and the
combustion is carried out under constant pressure. Hot gases expand inside the
turbine, producing work. Regenerative cycle ones consist of an interchanger to
recover exit turbine heat and transfer it to the air entrance. The preheated air is
used lately in the combustion process, saving between 30% and 40% of fuel
[7-8]. Combining microturbines with energy recover equipments allows
duplicating the electric efficiency of the first ones. Figure 1 presents a blocks
diagram of a microturbine with regenerative cycle.
Exhaust
gas
BOILER /
RECUPERATOR
CHILLER

Fuel
H2O H2O
HEATING / COOLING COMBUSTOR

TURBO
ALTERNATOR 3

Axis
G

COMPRESSOR TURBINE
1

AIR FILTER

DC BUS
A
B
C
N
RECTIFIER INVERTER
OUT
150-480 V
BATTERY 50 Hz

Figure 1: Gas microturbines operation scheme

Microturbines have got regulation units that allow doing the following
functions: controlling every subsystem, controlling the flow of fuel, converting
and adapting the electrical signals for their use in the conventional electric
network, voltage regulation and output frequency, etc.
It usually has sealed batteries that can be recharged with commercial
chargers or connection to the net. Batteries are necessary in order to start

http://www.bepress.com/ijeeps/vol3/iss2/art1092
Zamora et al.: Emergent Technologies In Electrical Microgeneration 3

without connection to the net “black start”. They allows managing the power
transients, supplying electric energy during the high peaks and absorbing
energy when power decreases quickly.
The used fuels can be natural gas, GLP (commercial butane and propane),
diesel, kerosene, biogas, hydrogen, etc.
Finally, related to the air emissions, they are very low when operating a
full load or even above 60-70% of full load. The main primary pollutants
emitted by microturbines are nitrogen oxides NOX and carbon monoxide CO.
CO emissions are strongly dependents of the load operation, showing peaks in
the starting up.

2.2. FUNDAMENTAL ASPECTS OF GAS MICROTURBINES

Brayton thermodynamic cycle with regeneration, allows giving the expression

of the thermal efficiency (1)
⎛ γ −1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ γ ⎠
r
η = 1− (1)
t
Efficiency (η) depends on the pressures ratio (r), typology of gas (γ=Cp/Cv)
and the temperatures ratio (t=T3/T1). With 3 < r < 5, efficiencies of more than
60% are obtained. These ‘r’ values are low compared with the big machines
ones, and therefore the axial compressors are not justified. In this case, it uses
a centrifugal compressor of radial flow with an only layer, one stage turbine
and radial flow and one permanent imams generator, which is coupled directly
to the turbine rotor.
The use of permanent imams avoids doing the electric connection to
dispose of an electroimam. They usually consist of 2 or 4 poles (typically
Samarium-cobalt). The output usually consists of three phase with variable
voltage (proportional to the rotation speed) and variable frequency. When
analysing gas microturbines the following indicators are used to estimate their
behaviour.

1.- Electric efficiency. It is defined like the quotient between electric

power supplied to the network or loads (in kW) and the consumption of
gas (in kg/h). In [9], graphical results are presented to different
temperatures and it is observed that the consumption of fuel is lower with
lower temperatures and consequently microturbine efficiency increases.
Also, it can be appreciate that the electric efficiency decreases
considerably with the output power, so it seems advisable working to the
maximum load possible during most of the time. In this kind of tests,
batteries energy can be used only for starting up with “black start” and for
shaving the peaks of load during the transient periods, not for providing
additional energy during a normal operation.

Produced by The Berkeley Electronic Press, 2005

4 International Journal of Emerging Electric Power Systems Vol. 3 [2005], No. 2, Article 1092

2.-Global efficiency. It is defined like the quotient between the sum of

electric output power (We) and heat power recovered (Qhr) to the heat
power supplied for the natural gas (Qf).

We + Qhr (2)
Eg =
Qf
Numerical analysis developed for different ambient temperatures [9] show
that with colder temperatures, efficiencies increase notably. By other hand,
although the electric efficiency of the gas microturbine is lower than the
bigger gas turbines, it must be keep in mind that microturbines will be
used mainly in combined systems (thermal and electric power) and the
global efficiency parameter plays an important roll in this case.

3.- Thermal power. The thermal power produced by microturbines is the

heat power recovered from the microturbine gas exhaust as of hot water.
This hot water can be used for the heating of buildings, production of
industrial cold, etc.

4.- Power quality. One of the key parameters to define power quality is
the harmonic content of the generated signal. In analyses developed for
different public and private entities, a light distortion in the voltage and
current waveforms can be appreciated (third harmonic). However the
power generated complies with the voltage distortion limits indicated in
the standards [10-11]. Also, it can be observed that with low loads,
waveform has a bigger but not very significant distortion. Finally, no
fluctuations in voltage stability have been recorded in any tests at any
electrical loads. Neither, have differences been found between the power
quality supplied when the turbine is operated as a stand-alone or as a grid
connected system.

2.3. MICROTURBINES CLASSIFICATIONS

Microturbines can be operated as:

− Stand-Alone systems.
− Grid Connected systems.
− Dual Mode systems with automatic transition between stand-alone
and grid operation modes.
− Multipack systems. This system consists on the interconnection of
many microturbines in parallel to produce a higher electrical output
and working together as a single system.

http://www.bepress.com/ijeeps/vol3/iss2/art1092
Zamora et al.: Emergent Technologies In Electrical Microgeneration 5

Also, microturbines can be classified by their configuration in single axis or

double axis. Configuration in a single axis reduces the production and
maintenance costs. One single axis disposition allows placing the electric
generator in the opposite side to the gas exhaust, causing lower loss of load to
the gas outlet, with the consequent reduction of fuel consumption and the
increase of power. Besides, the electric generator is coupled directly to the
turbine. In the double axis design, an induction or synchronous conventional
machine is coupled in the power turbine through a gear box.
By other hand, microturbines can operate with a single cycle or with
regeneration. Figure 2 shows a set of thermal efficiency curves of a
microturbine, with the use of regeneration systems and without the same. In
systems with regeneration, the thermal efficiency of the microturbine is
improved notably and this is reduced when increasing the ratio of pressures.
η
with regenerator
0,7

without
0,6 regenerator
T3 = 1465 K
0,5 t =T3 / T1 = 5
T1 = 273 K
0,4
T3 = 1092 K
t =T3 / T1 = 4
T1 = 273 K
0,3

T3 = 819 K
t =T3 / T1 = 3
0,2 T1 = 273 K

0,1

Pressure ratio , r
5 10 15 20 25

Figure 2: Microturbines efficiency

Finally, table I shows the more important properties of several microturbines

that are currently operating in the market:

Table I
Microturbines characteristics
Electric Fuel Electric Exhaust Thermal NOx
recovered
power comsumption efficiency gas flow power emissions

Capstone 113 kW 25%

28 kW 0,31 kg/s 60 kW <0,22 kg/MWh
C 30 LP

Capstone 115 kW 26%

30 kW 0,31 kg/s 60 kW <0,22 kg/MWh
C 30 HP

Capstone 214 kW 28%

60 kW 0,49 kg/s 110 kW <0,22 kg/MWh
C 60

Turbec
105 kW 350 kW 30% 0,80 kg/s 167 kW < 15 ppm / v
T 100

Bowman
80 kW 285,1 kW 27% 0,83 kg/s 150 kW N.A.
TG 80

Produced by The Berkeley Electronic Press, 2005

6 International Journal of Emerging Electric Power Systems Vol. 3 [2005], No. 2, Article 1092

3. FUEL CELLS

3.1. GENERAL DESCRIPTION

Fuel cells are devices capable of producing electricity by an electrochemical

transformation, without classical combustion. So its efficiency can be twice of
a system that uses the Carnot cycle.
The type of fuel used embraces from hydrogen until derived hydrocarbons
such as alcohols. The use of pure fuels eliminates problems associated with
contamination such as S, NO, etc. By other hand, hydrogen doesn’t generate
derived such as CO and CO2. Hydrocarbons do it, but because of the high
efficiency of the fuel cells, for equivalent quantities of produced energy, the
CO2 emissions can be reduced in half or less, with the corresponding
environmental benefit.
Fuel cells technologies highlight for their high potential efficiency, low
emissions, modular character, flexibility in the use of fuel and silent operation.
Besides, they allow the use of residual heat, increasing notably the overall
systems efficiency. Hydrogen production with a renewable source and the use
of it in the fuel cells, promise a clean energy source than can be implemented
in interconnected or isolated microgrids.
One of the main critics to renewable energies is their discontinuous
character. But this critic can lose sense at the moment of development of
hydrogen production technology, because this one will allow storage the other
energies when it is convenient. The use of this hydrogen to produce electricity by
means of fuel cells becomes a secondary generation with the advantage that it is
generated in the point and the moment needed, in a fixed or mobile installation.
So, in a future perspective, hybrid systems can be a good solution (i.e. the
integration of fuel cells with gas microturbines that allow increasing notably
the system efficiency). In other words, as the temperature of exhaust gases in
the Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) fuel cells is around 900 °C, this thermal
energy and the difference of pressure could be used to impel a gas turbine,
placed later, to the electric, heating and refrigerating energy generation,
avoiding the use of additional fuel, [12].
The basic operation of a SOFC is shown in figure 3.
Steam

Hydrogen Fuel In
ANODE 2 H2 + 2 O-2 2H 2O + 4 e-

Load
O-2 ions through electrolyte Power Out

Oxygen (air) In
CATHODE O2 + 4 e- 2 O-2

Air at high temperature

Figure 3: Solid Oxide Fuel Cell

http://www.bepress.com/ijeeps/vol3/iss2/art1092
Zamora et al.: Emergent Technologies In Electrical Microgeneration 7

As shown, hydrogen fuel enters the anode and combines with oxygen ions to
form steam and four electrons. These electrons are forced through a load as
electricity and enter the cathode to combine with oxygen to produce the
oxygen ions that flow through the electrolyte. The oxygen is provided by air.
The excess air exits at elevated temperature and can be used to run the
microturbine. The solid oxide runs at the highest operating temperature of all
types of fuel cells.
In figure 4, the connection of fuel cells to an electrical microgrid is shown.
These cells supply continuous current. An elevator converter adjusts the fuel
cell voltage level in order to feed an inverter. Thus, the inverter provides a
three-phase alternate current. Finally, a transformer connects the inverter to
the electrical microgrid. The transformer neutral point is connected to ground
and to the microgrid neutral conductor, [13].

A
FUEL CELL B
C
N
INVERTER

Figure 4: Fuel Cells connection to a microgrid

3.2. SOFC SYSTEM MODELLING

Although second generation of fuel cells, such as MCFC or SOFC, is still at

the development stage, these types of cells have a great potential to get high
efficiencies. As consequence, a model of a SOFC system is presented, with the
expectative that performance of other cell types would be similar.
The potential difference between anode and cathode (Vfcr) is calculated
using Nernst equation and Ohm’s Law (3), [14-15].

⎡ ⎤
R ⋅ T ⎜⎛ pH 2 ⋅ pO22 ⎟⎞ ⎥
1

⎢ (3)
V = N 0 ⋅ E0 +
r
ln − r ⋅ I rfc
fc
⎢ 2⋅ F ⎜ pH 2O ⎟ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦
where:
E0 Voltage associated with free reaction energy (V)
PH 2 , PO2 , PH 2O Partial fractions of the component (N/m2)
N0 Number of cells
r Electric resistance of the fuel cell (Ω)
I rfc Reaction current or output current (A)
R Universal gas constant (J/mol K)
T Channel temperature, supposed as a constant (K)
F Faraday constant (Coulombs/mol)

Produced by The Berkeley Electronic Press, 2005

8 International Journal of Emerging Electric Power Systems Vol. 3 [2005], No. 2, Article 1092

3.3. FUEL CELLS CLASSIFICATION

Fuel cells can be classified based on two fundamental aspects:

− Operation temperature (low or high)
− Electrolyte material

Regarding the temperature, four models (AFC, PEMFC, DMFC, PAFC) are
considered of low temperature and two models (MCFC and SOFC) of high
temperature. Figure 5 shows the ranges, reactions and features of the different
fuel cells.
ANODE ELECTROLYTE CATHODE

H2O SOFC O2 (air)

INTERNAL CO O2 −
REFORMER
H2 CO
O2 (air)
H2O MCFC CO2
CO2 CO3 2−−

EXTERNAL
REFORMER PAFC H2 O O2 (air)
H2 CO2 H+

EXTERNAL PEMFC DMFC H2 O O2 (air)

REFORMER H+
H2 CO2
CO ELIMINATION O2 (air)
H2O AFC CO2
H2 OH−

Figure 5: Fuel Cells ranges

1.- Alkalines (AFC). Electrolyte used is a solution of diluted potassium

hydroxide. This fuel is pure hydrogen, with null concentration of CO or
CO2, to avoid reducing notably the efficiency. They operate at
atmospheric pressure and the electrodes are usually made of nickel and
oxide of nickel, or carbon doped with platinum. The cells voltage is about
0.8V and the current density is around 1500 A/m2. Their operational life
is usually a year.
2.- Proton Exchange Membrane (PEMFC). Electrolyte consists of a
solid polymer layer usually Nafion (based on a polyethylene polymer).
The anode or fuel electrode is Pt/C deposited on coal paper and the
cathode or air electrode is also Pt/C. They can be feed with reformed fuel
and with air.
Their operation temperature is low and when having the solid electrolyte
they have a long useful life, around 50.000 hours. They can supply
maximum energy after three minutes of operation. Every cell supplies
around 0.7V of DC and current densities near to 900 mA/cm2. “Air bleed”
technique allows this kind of cells operates with hydrogen obtained from
alcohols or carbonated fuels.
3.- Direct Methanol (DMFC). Direct Methanol fuel cells are a PEMFC
variant. They use direct methanol instead of hydrogen, which is obtained
generally from natural gas or biomass. Their current density is low and
they haven’t got a competitive development.

http://www.bepress.com/ijeeps/vol3/iss2/art1092
Zamora et al.: Emergent Technologies In Electrical Microgeneration 9

4.- Phosphoric Acid (PAFC). It uses phosphoric acid like electrolyte,

container inside a silicon carbon matrix placed together with teflon.
Catalysts are made of platinum and electrodes are made of porous carbon.
Thermal energy that can be obtained from this kind of cells is very similar
to electric energy. Power density is around 0.18 W/cm2. Their time
response is higher than PEMFC ones and they are used in fix installations
with power range of 0.2 – 20 MW, being contemplated their use in
cogeneration systems.

5.- Molten Carbonate (MCFC). Electrolyte is a liquid solution of

lithium carbonate or potassium carbonate, contained inside a porous and
inert ceramic matrix, usually LiAlO2. Acid consists of sintered nickel
powder (porous) with some of chromium to avoid material agglomeration.
Cathode consists of nickel oxide with some lithium. It can operate with
hydrogen, carbon monoxide, natural gas, propane, etc. Its efficiency is
around 60% and, if cogeneration is used, up to 90% (with gas turbine).
Comparing with other technologies, this cell is capable of operating with
higher voltage than PAFC ones for the same current. When temperature
falls about 30°C, the voltage output is reduced 15% approximately.

6.- Solid Oxide (SOFC). Electrolyte is a solid ceramic material

(zirconium) that operates with temperatures in the range of 750 – 1050
°C, to those which ceramic material presents an acceptable ionic
conductivity. Besides, they allow internal reformer and cogeneration
using the residual heat,which is of great quality. By other hand, these high
temperatures condition a higher starting time. This technology is very
sensitive to temperature variations; so a reduction of 10% in temperature
causes a 12% efficiency fall of the system. This is because resistance in
the oxygen ions conductivity increases.
Anode is made of porous zirconium/nickel and cathode is a lantano
manganate doped with magnesium. They reach voltages of 0.6V/cell and
current densities near to 0.25 A/cm2. Their useful life is near to 30.000
hours, [16].

In Table II, the fuel cells characteristics that are being developed currently are
presented. Polymeric and phosphoric acid cells are in a nearer stage of
commercialization than the other alternatives. This doesn’t mean that there is a
clear winner, since the different technologies are oriented towards different
sectors of the market.

Produced by The Berkeley Electronic Press, 2005

10 International Journal of Emerging Electric Power Systems Vol. 3 [2005], No. 2, Article 1092

Table II
Fuel cells characteristics
AFC PEMFC DMFC PAFC MCFC SOFC

Proton Proton Molten

KOH Exchange Exchange H3PO 4 Ceramic
Electrolyte Membrane Membrane carbonates
(liquid) (liquid) (liquid) (solid)
(solid) (solid)

CH3OH + H2, little CO

Fuel Purest H 2 Pure H 2 H2, CO, CH4 H2, CO, CH4
H2O CH3OH

Temperature (ºC) 60 - 90 0 - 80 60 - 130 130 - 220 650 750 - 1050

Catalyst Ag Pt Pt Pt Nickel Perovkites

40% (CH4)
Efficiency 55 - 60% 32 - 40% 36 - 45% 50 - 60% 50 - 60%
60% (H2)

Power 1kW – 200kW – 500kW –

1W – 100kW 1W – 1MW 1kW – 10 MW
range 100kW 10MW 10MW
Space
Space Portable Portable Transport Transport Transport
Application Portable
Transport Transport Transport Stationnary Stationnary Stationnary
Stationnary

4. PHOTOVOLTAIC PLANTS
4.1. GENERAL DESCRIPTION

In a photovoltaic plant, a number of sun cells is associated electrically and the

whole group is protected sealing it in vacuum. Voltages of operation depend
on the number of cells and typically are 6, 12 and 24V. Besides, market offers
cells power between few Watts pick (Wp) and 300 Wp. With groups of those
cells PV systems have a total installed capacity ranging from 10 Wp to 1
MWp. The typical efficiency of different technologies is:
− 12-15%, for monocrystaline silicon
− 11-14%, for polycrystaline silicon
− 5-7%, for amorphous silicon
− A maximum of 8-9%, for Cadmium Telluride (CdTe)
− A maximum of 10-12%, for Copper-Indium-Diselenide (CIS)

In figure 6, a photovoltaic plant connected to the electrical network is shown.

It consists of photovoltaic modules connected in series and/or parallel.
Besides, every module is composed by groups of sun cells connected in series
and/or parallel. In that figure a tracker of maximum power (MPPT) is
included.

A
B
C

DC - DC DC - AC
PV CELL

Figure 6: Photovoltaic plant connected to the electrical network

http://www.bepress.com/ijeeps/vol3/iss2/art1092
Zamora et al.: Emergent Technologies In Electrical Microgeneration 11

A MPPT is an electronic power converter DC-DC integrated between the

photovoltaic module and its load, to get an optimum operation. Using an
intelligent algorithm, it ensures that photovoltaic module operates in the
maximum power point for all values of temperature, radiation and load.
Finally, inverter transforms the continuous signal in alternating three phase
signal.

4.2. MODELS OF SOLAR CELLS

There are several models to represent solar cell behaviour. One of the most
interesting is the equivalent electrical model with an only diode, which has a
moderate complexity [17]. The model includes temperature dependence of the
photo-current IL and the saturation current of the diode I0. A series resistance
RS is included, but not a shunt resistance. Also, a single shunt diode is used
with the diode quality factor set to achieve the best curve match. This model is
a simplified version of the two diode model. The equations which describe the
I-V characteristics of the cell are the following:

(
I = I L − I 0 e q(V + IRS ) / nkT − 1 ) ; I L = I L(T1 ) (1 + K 0 (T − T1 )) (4)
I L(T1 ) = G ∗ I SC(T1 ,nom) / G(nom) (
; K 0 = I SC(T2 ) − I SC(T1 ) / T2 − T1 )
I 0 = I 0(T1 ) ∗ (T / T1 ) n ∗ e
3 − qVg / nk ∗(1 / T −1 / T1 )
(
; I 0(T1 ) = I SC(T1 ) / e
qVOC ( T1 ) / nkT1
−1 )
qVOC (T1 ) / nkT1
RS = −dV / dIVOC − 1 / X V ; X V = I 0(T1 ) ∗ q / nkT1 ∗ e

where:
G Radiation in W·m2
T Temperature, in K
T1 25 +273, en K
k Boltzman Constant
q Electron load
VOC Open circuit voltage for the cell
ISC Short circuit current for the cell
n Ideality factor, 1< n <2, being typical n = 1.3

All constant values which appear in equations can be determined examining

the parameters supplied by manufacturers or with measures in the panel I-V
characteristics.
Besides, in order to analyze the MPPT operation, a model based on the
following hypothesis can be used:
− All PV array cells are identical and they operate with the same
radiation and temperature.
− PV array is always operating at the maximum power point for all
environmental radiation and temperature conditions.

Produced by The Berkeley Electronic Press, 2005

12 International Journal of Emerging Electric Power Systems Vol. 3 [2005], No. 2, Article 1092

− There are no losses in the array, with the system MPPT.

− If environmental radiation and temperature conditions change, the
model automatically change to its maximum power point.
− Sun cells temperature depends exclusively on radiation and
environmental temperature.

With these hypotheses, the power out of the photovoltaic plant is obtained
with the expression (5), [18].

Ga ⎡ M ⎛ NOCT − 20 ⎞⎤
PMax = N ⎢ PMax ,0 + µ PMax ⎜ Ta + Ga − 25 ⎟ ⎥ (5)
1000 ⎣ ⎝ 800 ⎠⎦
being:
N, Number of modules of the PV array
Ga , Radiation [W/m2]
M
PMax ,0 , Module maximum power under standard conditions

µ P , Coefficient of module power variation, with the temperature [W/ºC]

Max

Ta , Ambient temperature [ºC]

NOCT, Temperature of normal cell operation [ºC]

4.3. CONFIGURATIONS OF PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS

Photovoltaic systems, in their connection, can adopt several dispositions.

Following, the more relevant features, when they are connected to electrical
microgrids, are presented.

1. Central inverter system. This configuration is also known as “central

inverter” or “plan-oriented” (figure 7). In this configuration, all panels
with series or parallel associations are connected using an only
photovoltaic inverter, which carries out the pursuit of the maximum
power point in the group and transforms the energy to be injected to
the network. Given the managed power, it is a three-phase inverter.
The inverter imposes an operating point to the photovoltaic generator.
This operation point is the maximum power point of the group, but not
necessarily has to be equal to the sum of the maximum powers that
could be extracted from the individual panels, because of the problems
of dispersion loss of parameters and not homogenous operation
conditions (hot point problem), [19]. This configuration is typical for
big photovoltaic plants. Rated power of the system and, therefore of the
inverter, can be up to several kW.

http://www.bepress.com/ijeeps/vol3/iss2/art1092
Zamora et al.: Emergent Technologies In Electrical Microgeneration 13

PV PV

DC
PV PV AC

MICROGRID

PV PV

Figure 7: Central Inverter System

2. Integrated inverter systems or AC module. In this case, every panel

has its own photovoltaic inverter integrated, which makes both
maximum power pursuit and converting energy into AC current tasks.
This structure is known like “module-integrated” or with the more
commercial term “AC module” (figure 8).
When freeing the pursuit of the maximum power point for every panel,
these modules get extracting the maximum power possible in every
installation moment.
This option is the one that presents more modularity, and therefore it
minimizes to the maximum the possibility of losing energy because a
failure in a module. However, the AC modules present the important
inconvenient of increasing notably the proportional cost of the
photovoltaic inverter, because when increasing the power of these
elements, the prize doesn’t do in a proportional way, resulting more
and more expensive. For this reason, and although the initial interest
they had, the AC modules are not very used nowadays. The rated
power of these systems is usually lower than 400 W.

DC
PV AC

DC
PV AC MICROGRID

Figure 8: Integrated inverter systems or AC module

Produced by The Berkeley Electronic Press, 2005

14 International Journal of Emerging Electric Power Systems Vol. 3 [2005], No. 2, Article 1092

3. String conversion system. This option is called “string converter” or

“module-oriented” (figure 9). In this case, the panels are divided in two
groups whose power approximately varies from 2 to 5 kWp. Every
group is connected to one DC/AC inverter. All inverters are connected
to the same electrical network. This inverter is single- phase, in most
cases.
Every inverter makes its own MPPT, therefore the total efficiency of
the installation in this context is better than the one of the systems with
centralized inverter, although lower than the AC modules.
The string conversion systems, because of the power used, are the most
habitual in urban photovoltaic systems. Also, they are the most used
option in several installations of similar power connected to the
network but placed out of the urban nucleus, such as photovoltaic
plants.

PV PV

DC
AC

PV PV

MICROGRID

PV PV

DC
AC

PV PV

Figure 9: String conversion system

4. Multi-string conversion system. The most used systems currently are

the “central inverters” and the “string converters”. But, looking at the
future, an intermediated option called “multi-string inverter” is
proposed (figure 10). In this case, the panels are divided in two groups
of power, usually lower than 2 kWp. Every group is connected to one
converter DC/DC that implements its own algorithm MPPT. All these
converters supply their energy to a common continuous bus.
An only inverter is capable of transforming all the continuous bus
energy into AC in order to be injected to the electrical network. The
power of this inverter is the global one of the installation, being able to
arrive to kW.
This inverter can be single-phase or three-phase. The three-phase
inverter allows using smaller electrolytic capacitors because it doesn’t
generate fluctuating power in the continuous bus. The option between
one and another is determined by the available electrical network.

http://www.bepress.com/ijeeps/vol3/iss2/art1092
Zamora et al.: Emergent Technologies In Electrical Microgeneration 15

The main advantages of these configurations are:

o MPPT algorithm implementation in a distributed way, which

allows improving the system efficiency in front of parameters
deviations in the panels, partial shadows, variations over the
orientation, etc.
o New panels and DC/DC converters groups can be included
easily, whenever the DC/AC inverter nominal power is not
overcome.
o This configuration allows minimizing the possibility of losing
energy by failure in a DC/DC converter, since it will only affect
to this modules group.

Although this conversion is still more in a research phase than in a big

scale installation, it is thought that can be one of the configurations
with more future options, specially for systems starting from certain
importance, [20].

PV

DC
DC

PV

DC
AC

MICROGRID
PV

DC
DC

PV

Figure 10: Multi-string conversion system

5. EOLIC MICROTURBINES

5.1. GENERAL DESCRIPTION

Wind turbines standard IEC 1400-2, contemplate the small wind turbines,
establishing that they are considered like “wind turbines with a reception
surface lower than 40 m2 for producing electricity”. However, this issue is
pretended to be modified and one of the foreseen changes is embracing wind
turbines of almost 200m2 of swept area.

Produced by The Berkeley Electronic Press, 2005

16 International Journal of Emerging Electric Power Systems Vol. 3 [2005], No. 2, Article 1092

There is a generalized tendency of using permanent imam’s generators in wind

turbines with 3 to 30 kW of power. Other options are the induction generators
and the variable reluctance generators. The use of permanent imams allows
decreasing the polar step, which facilitates the construction of generators with
more number of poles, clearing the necessity of using a multiplier speed in
order to adjust the rotating turbine speed to the generator speed. Furthermore,
this technique clears the necessity of slip rings.
Besides, it is necessary, to maintain wind turbine inside the design limits.
In particular, those aspects related to rotation speed limit. On this way, the
regulation developed can be: without regulation, regulation by disorientation,
regulation by pitching, regulation by changing the step and regulation by
aerodynamics lost.
Also, a secure procedure to stop the wind turbine must be specified. In
wind turbines with an only braked system, the most used solution is by means
of the electric generator. If it disposes of two braked systems, the main one is
the mechanical or aerodynamic one, by means of positioning blades in the flag
position. As a secondary system, it can be used the electric generator.
The most used orientation system for the horizontal axis to windward
windturbines is by line vane.
Regarding the type of tower, it is usual that manufacturer offers different
types of towers, according to the place characteristics. So, there is a wide
dispersion, being used tubular and lattice towers. The same occurs regarding
the height of the tower. Therefore, it is possible to find the same model with 6,
8, 12, 18, 24, 30 and 40 meters.

5.2. WIND TURBINES FUNDAMENTAL EXPRESSIONS

Over surface layer, a typical equation that allows obtaining the wind variation
with the height is given by equation (6), [21].

⎡ ⎛ z ⎞ ⎤
v = 2.5 u ∗ ⎢ Ln ⎜ ⎟ + Ψ⎥ (6)
⎣ ⎝ zo ⎠ ⎦
being:

u* speed of turbulent friction.

z: distante to the ground.
zo: ruggedness of the ground.
Ψ: function that depends of the atmospheric stability.

http://www.bepress.com/ijeeps/vol3/iss2/art1092
Zamora et al.: Emergent Technologies In Electrical Microgeneration 17

V1 Vturbine V2

Figure 11: Stream tube that surrounds wind turbine

Considering a stream tube (figure 11), it is possible to obtain the mechanical

power that is extracted from the air (Pm), as follows.

1 π D 2 16
Pm = ρ V13 (7)
2 4 27
being:

V1, average wind speed at hub height

ρ, air density
D, rotor diameter

However, equation (7) is usually expressed using an adimensional coefficient,

called power coefficient, Cp:
Pm
Cp = (8)
3 πD
2
1
ρ V1
2 4
The maximum value of Cp is around 16/27 and it is known like Betz limit (i.e.
an eolic turbine can convert a mechanical energy as maximum 59.26% of the
wind kinetic energy that impacts on it). So, Cp can be expressed as shown in
equation (9).
Pm ⎛ µ k ΩD ⎞
Cp = = f⎜ , , β ,ψ , , form ⎟ (9)
1 πD 2
⎝ ρ V1 D D 2 V1 ⎠
ρ V13
being: 2 4

µ, air viscosity
k, blades surface ruggedness
β, pitch angle
ψ, orientation rotation angle
Ω, angular speed

Produced by The Berkeley Electronic Press, 2005

18 International Journal of Emerging Electric Power Systems Vol. 3 [2005], No. 2, Article 1092

ΩD
Where a specific speed coefficient, λ, is defined as: λ= (10)
2V1
For a preset form machine it can be said that the power coefficient only
depends on λ and β.
Cp = f (β , λ ) (11)
The figure 12 shows a typical form of this functional dependency.
CP

0.4

0.3

0.2 β = 0º
2,5º
5º
0.1
10º
20º

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 λ

Figure 12: Power coefficient curves in function of specific blade tip speed,
λ and pitch angle, β

Another important parameter is the torque, T, that is transferred to the

windturbine turn axis. This parameter is expressed adimensionally as a torque
coefficient (Cq). Figure 13 shows a typical form of functional dependency of
Cq = f (β, λ).
T C
Cq = = p (12)
1 πD 3
λ
ρ V12
2 8

-3
Cq x10

20

15

β = 0º
10 2,5º

5º

5
10º

20º
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 λ

Figure 13: Torque coefficient curves in function of specific blade tip

speed, λ and pitch angle, β

http://www.bepress.com/ijeeps/vol3/iss2/art1092
Zamora et al.: Emergent Technologies In Electrical Microgeneration 19

Finally, the push force, F, is expressed in an adimensional way as a push

coefficient (CT). Figure 14 shows a typical form of this function CT = f (β, λ).
F
CT = (13)
1 π D2
ρ V12
2 4
CT

β = 0º

0.8

2,5º
0.6

0.4 5º

0.2

10º
20º

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 λ

Figure 14: Push coefficient curves in function of specific blade tip speed, λ
and pitch angle, β

5.3. CLASSIFICATION OF SMALL WIND TURBINES

Figure 15 shows the curves that give the power coefficient Cp, as a function of
the adimensional speed blade tip, λ, for different typical configurations of
wind turbines, maintaining fix the pitch angle. It can be observed like
machines with older design give smaller values of Cp and with smaller values
of λ.
Glauert limit Betz limit (CP=0,59)
0,6

0,5 3 blades
2 blades
Power coefficient (CP)

0,4

0,3

1 blade
Darrieus
0,2 rotor
Multiblade
rotor
0,1

Savonious
rotor

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18

Specific speed (λ)

Figure 15: Power coefficient curves in function of specific blade tip speed
λ, with pitch angle constant

Produced by The Berkeley Electronic Press, 2005

20 International Journal of Emerging Electric Power Systems Vol. 3 [2005], No. 2, Article 1092

Next, the most interesting properties of the different technologies shown in

figure 15 are listed:
1.- Savonious rotor. It is characterized for disposing two blades that are
the halves of a cylinder, cut by a generatrix and displaced laterally. They
have the advantage of offering a hard starting torque, which allows
starting even with weak wind. However, their low efficiency and reduced
speed center their applications in pumping water and, sometimes,
producing electric energy.
2.- Multiblade rotor. They present a number of blades that oscillates
between 6 and 24 and, therefore, a high reliability. Their benefits are
characterized for disposing of high starting torques and reduced rotation
speed. The lineal speed in the blade tip of these machines is usually, in
design conditions, in the same order of the incident wind speed. However,
their low rate of rotation makes them not recommended to the production
of electric energy and they are usually used to pump the water.
3.- Darrieus rotor. It consists of two or more blades disposed in form of a
rope that is held by their extremes and is exposed to a rotation movement.
Its efficiency and rotation speed are comparable to the horizontal axis
wind turbines, but the absence of starting torque limits its applications.
4.- Helix type horizontal axis rotors. Helix type rotors rotate a higher
speed than multiblade rotors. The lineal speed, in the blade tip of these
machines, varies between 6 to 14 times the incident wind speed in design
conditions. This property makes them appropriate for generation of
electrical energy. They present a reduced starting torque that, in most
applications, is enough to make rotating the rotor during the connection
process. Among the different helix type rotors, the most used is the three
blades one, mainly because of their best structural stability and
aerodynamic, lower noise emission and higher energy efficiency.
By the contrary, the main advantages of the one and two blades rotors are
that the rotation speed is higher (so, the multiplication relation in the gear
box is more reduced); therefore, they are cheaper and easier to install.
However, they present structural problems, higher noise emissions and
inconveniences related with a more difficult control, which has caused that
these systems have not overcome the prototype phase.
Regarding to the electrical generator, three types are the most used:
asynchronous, synchronous and variable reluctance generators, [22-23]. Figure
16 represents the block diagram corresponding to the connection of a small
wind turbine to the electrical network.
Micro-grid
A
SMALL AC DC B
WIND TURBINE DC AC C

RECTIFIER INVERTER
Figure 16: Small wind turbine connection to a microgrid

http://www.bepress.com/ijeeps/vol3/iss2/art1092
Zamora et al.: Emergent Technologies In Electrical Microgeneration 21

6. STORAGE TECHNOLOGIES
6.1. GENERAL DESCRIPTION

In order to get frequency stability it is necessary to equal the offer to the

variable demand. Frequently, renewable energy supply is not related with the
demand and therefore an energy storage system, is needed, [24-25]. These
storage systems can be classified in centralized and distributed systems:
− Centralized systems satisfy the overall management of the network.
They are characteristics of Bulk Power stations and electric system
agents. Also they require a big investment.
− Distributed systems are characteristic of consumers. They have an
important task to do when transient phenomena and supply quality
failures occur. They require moderate investment and can be
highlighed for their modularity.

Nowadays, the energy storage devices developed to be applied in Distributed

Generation systems can be classified as:
− Mechanical systems: Flywheels.
− Pneumatic systems: Air compressors.
− Thermal systems: Water or oil heaters.
− Electric systems: Supercapacitors.
− Magnetic systems: Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage.
− Electrochemical systems: Batteries, fuel cells.

The most frequently used systems are shown in figure 17. They can be divided
in indirect and direct storage. The later have fewer energy transformations,
better energy efficiency and fewer devices than the former.

• Batteries
Artificial reservoir • Flywheels

• Pumped Hydro
INDIRECT • Heat
STORAGE • Compressed Air
• Hydrogen

Natural reservoir

ENERGY
STORAGE

Magnetically SMES

DIRECT
STORAGE

Electrically Supercapacitors

Figure 17: Storage technologies classification

Produced by The Berkeley Electronic Press, 2005

22 International Journal of Emerging Electric Power Systems Vol. 3 [2005], No. 2, Article 1092

Figure 18 illustrates the more appropriated application ranges of different

storage technologies, estimating the rehabilitation times of the electrical
network. These devices should: have a low discharge because of the storage in
a short and long time; have high efficiency, high lifetime under unforeseeable
cyclic conditions and be able to delivering energy more or less quick; operate
in a wide temperature range; be considered as non pollutant and present a low
maintenance. Finally, their cost should be as low as possible.
t
Hours

COMPRESSED
METAL-AIR AIR
BATTERIES FLOW BATTERIES
PUMP
STORAGE
NAS BATTERY
Maximum Discharge Time

ADVANCED
BATTERIES

LEAD-ACID BATTERIES

SUPERCAPACITORS
Minutes

HIGH ENERGY
FLYWHEELS
Seconds

LOW ENERGY FLYWHEELS SMES Power rating

1 kW 10 kW 100 kW 1 MW 10 MW 100 MW

Figure 18: Storage technologies operation ratios

6.2. BATTERIES

Lead Acid Batteries, available almost in any size, are the traditional method to
storage electrical energy. So, high number of uninterrupted supply systems
consists of batteries.
Usually, battery capacity is defined by the quantity of Ah that the battery is
capable of downloading after a load process. It depends on the applied current
to the battery during the downloading process, as well as the final voltage,
according with the values given by the manufacturer. New technologies have
increased the life cycle and energy density.
Unfortunately, their volume and weight make no possible their exclusive
use. Electrical power range that is able to supply is, at levels of 500 W to 10
kW, 72 hours. Lithium Ion Batteries, normally, provide 170 Wh/kg. In about
20 years, it is expected that they will evolve until providing 200-300Wh/kg.
Nickel Metal Hydride Batteries provide approximately 100Wh/kg. Dry
Lithium Polymer Cells advance that, in 2007, they will be able to provide a
energy density around 200Wh/kg. By contrast, traditional Lead Acid Batteries,
of low cost, have an energy density about 45Wh/kg.
Table III shows the most relevant properties of these devices.

http://www.bepress.com/ijeeps/vol3/iss2/art1092
Zamora et al.: Emergent Technologies In Electrical Microgeneration 23

Table III
Batteries features
Maximum Discharge Response Energy
TECHNOLOGIES Efficiency Lifetime
power rating time time related cost

Lead-acid battery 20 MW 6 – 8 hours < 5 ms 0.85 5 years 150 €/kWh

Advanced battery
50 kW ~ 2 hours < 5 ms 0.7 > 10 years 200 €/kWh
Zn/Br

Advanced battery
300 kW ~ 1 hour ─ 0.7 5 years 245 €/kWh
Na/S

6.3. SUPER-CONDUCTING MAGNETIC ENERGY STORAGE (SMES)

In a Superconducting Magnet Energy Storage (SMES) device, a coil of

superconducting wire allows a DC current to flow through it with virtually no
loss. The current creates a magnetic field that stores the energy. On discharge,
special switches tap the circulating current and release it to feed a load. To set
the coil in a superconducting state, it has to be cooled down either to 4.2 K
(low temperature superconducting) or 77 K (high-temperature superconducting).
Technical improvements and a better knowledge of dealing with and
controlling cryogenic systems have allowed SMES to penetrate the market and
compete with more common storage systems. The dynamic performance of
SMES is far superior to most other storage technologies. Response times
below to milliseconds are possible and the energy can be transferred very
quickly. SMES are most suitable for high value/low energy applications,
where the storage requirement is for less than a few seconds, with power
requirements up to 1 or 2 MW.
Table IV shows the most relevant properties of these devices.

Table IV
SMES features
Maximum Discharge Response Energy
TECHNOLOGIES Efficiency Lifetime
power rating time time related cost

SMES 6 – 1000 MW 1 s – 5 hours < 5 ms 0.95 30 years 500 €/kWh

6.4. FLYWHEELS
Flywheel storage devices store electric power in a kinetic way of a revolving
mass.
1
kinetic Energy = ⋅ I ⋅ ω 2 , where I = moment of inertia
2

Produced by The Berkeley Electronic Press, 2005

24 International Journal of Emerging Electric Power Systems Vol. 3 [2005], No. 2, Article 1092

Moment of inertia depends on a parameter called ‘k’, which depends on the

wheel shape. Thus:
- k = 1, for wheel loaded at rim (bike fire)
- k = 1/2, for a solid disk of uniform thickness
- k = 2/5, for solid sphere
- k = 2/3, for spherical shell
In order to optimize the energy-to-mass ratio, the flywheel needs to spin at the
maximum possible speed. This is because kinetic energy only increases
linearly with mass but goes as the square of the rotational speed. Also, quickly
rotating objects are subject to centrifugal forces that can rip them apart and
goes as M·R·ω2. Thus, while dense material can store more energy it is also
subject to higher centrifugal force and thus fails at lower rotational speeds than
low density material. Therefore the tensile strength is more important than the
density of the material.
These flywheels are loaded absorbing energy from the network, increasing
the rotation speed, up to 100.000 rpm. In the download process, wheel
supplies energy decreasing its speed. The output is variable and an inverter is
used to obtain AC. They have an operation range of 40 kW ÷ 1,6 MW, for 5-
120s and are manufactured with steel or composites.
Flywheel combined with microsources satisfies microgrid peaks of
demand and fluctuations that can affect to power supply quality. They are
usually used in applications that require energy storage in a range from 5
seconds to 5 minutes. The typical power density is about 200 Wh/kg.
Table V shows the most relevant properties of these devices.

Table V
Flywheels features
Maximum Discharge Response Energy
TECHNOLOGIES Efficiency Lifetime
power rating time time related cost

Flywheel:
1650 kW 3 – 120 sec < 20 ms 0.9 20 years 300 €/kWh
Low speed

Flywheel:
750 kW ~ 1 hour < 20 ms 0.93 20 years 25000 €/kWh
High speed

6.5. SUPERCAPACITORS

They are high capacity electrochemical devices that store energy in an

electrostatics way. They consist of two electrodes which are placed very close.
Their surface dimensions affect directly to the energy stored as a DC field and
they will need an inverter to the charge and discharge processes. They can
have very high discharge rates and be able to answer very quickly when there
is a quick load variation in a microgrid. This is because they answer with a
limited quantity of energy in a short time.

http://www.bepress.com/ijeeps/vol3/iss2/art1092
Zamora et al.: Emergent Technologies In Electrical Microgeneration 25

Capacity values are of hundred of Farads, several times bigger than the
capacity of a conventional capacitor. They have efficiencies typically from
85% to 98%, bigger than the best battery and can operate in a wide range of
temperatures and humidity conditions. There are commercial products with
ratios of 2MVA and with 400 kJ of storage energy.
Supercapacitors are interesting in the field of fuel cells, because they are
complementary devices. On this way, whereas cell is able to produce electric
energy in a continuous way, supercapacitor is able to supply peaks of energy.
Both devices are connected in parallel, coordinated by means of an interface.
Table VI shows the most relevant properties of these devices.

Table VI
Supercapacitors feautures
Maximum Discharge Response Energy
TECHNOLOGIES Efficiency Lifetime
power rating time time related cost

10.000 82.000 €/
Supercapacitors 100 kW 10 sec < 5 ms 0.9
cycles kWh

6.6. COMPRESSED AIR ENERGY STORAGE (CAES)

The electricity is stored by compressing air via electrical compressors in huge

storage facilities, mostly situated underground in caverns created inside
appropriate salt rocks, abandoned hard-rock mines, or natural aquifers.
Recovery takes place by expanding the compressed air through a turbine, but
the operating units worldwide incorporate combustion prior to turbine
expansion in order to increase the overall efficiency of the system. Hence
CAES can be regarded as peaking gas turbine power plants, but with a higher
efficiency, thanks to the decoupling of compressor and turbine, and much
lower overall cost.
Deployment is often dependent on the availability of suitable underground
reservoirs but custom built high pressure storage tanks can be used.
Table VII shows the most relevant properties of these devices.

Table VII
CAES features
Maximum Discharge Response Energy
TECHNOLOGIES Efficiency Lifetime
power rating time time related cost

CAES 220 MW days sec - min 0.79 30 years 50 €/kWh

Produced by The Berkeley Electronic Press, 2005

26 International Journal of Emerging Electric Power Systems Vol. 3 [2005], No. 2, Article 1092

6.7. PUMPED HYDRO (PHES)

It is the most widespread energy storage system currently in use on power

networks. PHES uses the potential energy of water, transferred by pumps
(charging mode) and turbines (discharge mode) between two reservoirs
located at different altitudes. Currently, the overall efficiency is in the 70-88%
range although variable speed machines are now being used to improve this.
The efficiency is limited by the efficiency of the deployed pumps and turbines
(neglecting friction losses in pipes and water losses due to evaporation). Plants
are characterized by long construction times and high capital costs. One of the
major problems related to building new plants is of an
ecological/environmental nature.
Table VIII shows the most relevant properties of these devices.

Table VIII
Pumped hydro features
Maximum Discharge Response Energy
TECHNOLOGIES Efficiency Lifetime
power rating time time related cost

Pumped Hydro 4.000 MW ~ 12 hours minutes 0.87 30 years 10 €/kWh

7. CONCLUSIONS
Modern energy generation microsystems are acquiring more importance
because they are implying DG in the residential and domestic area. Some
technologies like microturbines, fuel cells and photovoltaic systems of low
cost have just been incorporated to microgeneration. Besides, because of
dimensions of the areas where they are focused, they have a strategic
importance.
This paper has presented the most relevant properties of these
microgeneration technologies, power range, operation modalities, efficiencies,
operation temperatures, electronic devices associated to their integration in
microgrids, etc.
Modifications in the electric system operation standards and the
integration in the network of small generators, suggest a promising future in
this field. Several technologies have already been highlighted by their high
efficiency and contribution to the sustained development.
A very high potential market exists for the installation of these
technologies of electric microgeneration, which also include heat and cold
production, and energy storage. Nevertheless, they require to be investigated
more in depth to get a better knowledge about their characteristics.
In relation to the storage technologies, currently investigations are being
developed focused to the adaptation of the big ones to the power ranges of the
electric microgeneration.

http://www.bepress.com/ijeeps/vol3/iss2/art1092
Zamora et al.: Emergent Technologies In Electrical Microgeneration 27

REFERENCES
[1] Ph. Strauss, W. Kleinkauf, J. Reekers, G. Cramer, G. Betzios: Kythnos Island 19 Years
Experience of Renewable Energy Integration. International Conference Renewable
Energies for Islands, Chania / Kreta, Greece, 14-16 June 2001.
[2] P.G. Pligoropoulos, E.K. Bakis (PPC) Athens (Greece). A Engler, M. Vandenbergh, P.
Strauss. IEET. Kassel (Germany). Wind diesel battery systems for the Greek Islands.
2nd European PV-Hybrid and Mini-Grid Conference. Kassel, 2003.
[3] B. Buchholz, H. Frey, N. Lewald, T. Stephanblome, Z. Styczynski, C. Schwaegert, Otto
von Guericke. Siemens AG, Erlangen. EnBW, Karlsruhe. Stadtwerke, Karlsruhe GmbH.
EUS Gmbh, Dortmund. Universität Magdeburg. Germany.
[4] D. Satué, X. Vallvé, “Multi-User Solar Hybrid Mini-Grids for Electrification of Isolated
Sites” EuroCaribbean RES Conference. Saint Lucia, 2002.
[5] RESPIRE Project. Number NNES-2001-00740. Fifth Framework Programme “EESD”
ENERGIE. EUROPEAN COMMISSION.
[6] N. Hatziargyriou et al., “Energy Management and Control of Island Power System with
Increased Penetration from Renewable Energy Sources”, IEEE PES, Vol. 1, pp 335-339,
2002.
[7] P.A. Pilavachi, “Mini and Micro-gas Turbines for Combined Heat and Power”. Applied
Thermal Engineering, 22, 2003-2014, 2002.
[8] M. Nagpal, A. Moshref, G.K. Morison, et al., “Experience with testing and modelling of
gas turbines”, Proceedings of the IEEE/PES 2001 Winter Meeting, pp. 652-656,
Columbus, Ohio, USA, January/February 2001.
[9] J.C. Bruno, LI. Massagués, A. Coronas; “Power Quality and Air Emission Tests in a
Micro Gas Turbines Cogeneration Plant”. International Conference on Renewable
Energy and Power Quality. Vigo, Spain. 2003.
[10] “519 IEEE Recommended Practices and Requirements for Harmonic Control in
Electrical Power Systems”, 1992.
[11] “CENELEC EN 50160 Voltage Characteristics of Electricity Supplied by Public
Distribution Systems”, 1999.
[12] I. Zamora, J.I. San Martín, A.J. Mazón, S. Díaz, J.J. San Martín, J.Mª. Arrieta, V.
Aperribay “Performance analysis of fuel cells by modelling”. International Conference
on Renewable Energies and Power Quality. Zaragoza, Spain. March 2005.
[13] D. Audring, G. Balzer; “Supplying Micro-Grids with Stationary Fuel Cell Systems”.
17th International Conference on Electricity Distribution. Barcelona. Spain. 2003.
[14] J. Padullés, A. Dysko, J.R. McDonall, “Modelling and Control aspects of a fuel cell
power plant exposed to transients in power output”, IEE UKACC International
Conference on Control, Cambridge, September 2000.
[15] Y. Zhu, K. Tomsovic, “Development if models for analysing load following
performance of microturbines and fuell cells”, Electric Power Systems Research 62, pp
1-11, 2002.
[16] A. Creus, “Renewable Eenergies”, Technical Editorial.CEYSA, 2004.
[17] J.A. Gow, C.D. Manning. “Development of a Photovoltaic Array Model for Use in
Power-Electronics Simulation Studies”, IEE Proceedings on Electric Power
Applications, vol. 146, no. 2, pp. 193-200, March 1999.
[18] European Project Large Scale Integration of Micro-Generation to Low Voltage Grids.
WORK PACKAGE A. December 2003.
[19] E. Lorenzo, “Solar electricity: Engineering of photovoltaic systems”, IES. UPM. 1999.

Produced by The Berkeley Electronic Press, 2005

28 International Journal of Emerging Electric Power Systems Vol. 3 [2005], No. 2, Article 1092

[20] P. Sanchis, I. Arocena, “Present state and perspectives about renewable energies,
photovoltaic and eolic systems”, Ed. Ulzama Digital, 2004.
[21] J.L. Rodríguez, J.C. Burgos, S. Arnalte “Aeolic Systems for the Production of Electric
Energy”. Rueda Editorial S.L., Madrid. Spain. 2003.
[22] S. J. Chapman “Electric Machinery Fundamentals”, 2nd edition, New York: McGraw-
Hill, 1991.
[23] P.C. Krause, “Analysis of Electric Machinery”, IEEE Press, 1994.
[24] N. Hatziargyriou et al., “Modelling New Forms of Generation and Storage”, CIGRE
Brouche TF 38.01.10, April 2001.
[25] “Study of Electricity Storage Technologies. Final Report Project-RE/HC/03/001.
Funded by SEI, 2004.

http://www.bepress.com/ijeeps/vol3/iss2/art1092