AP Lab Manual PDF

Applied Physics
V-1.11
Revised Date
February, 2015
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

THE UNIVERSITY OF LAHORE
The University of Lahore
Revision History
Revised Date Revised By Revised Topics
1. Experiment Length and

February 20, 2015 Anwar ul Haq measurements is updated.
2. An experiment on parallelogram law

of vectors is included in the applied
physics lab manual.
3. Free fall method experiment is

deleted from the manual.
4. Theory of compound pendulum is

added in lab manual
1. An experiment on neon flash lamp is

January 1 , 2013 Anwar ul Haq included in the applied physics lab
manual.
2. Bell Crank Lever experiment is
deleted from the manual
Page iii
CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL
It is certified that the lab manual titled “Applied Physics”, in scope and in quality, covers the
objectives and topics defined in the course outline.
Remarks by Mentor: ----------------------------------------------

Lt. Col. (R) Salamat Ullah
Associate Professor
Department of Electrical Engineering
Remarks by HOD: -------------------------------------------------

Dr. Asrar ul Haq Sheikh
Professor
Department of Electrical Engineering
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Experiment 1-Length And Mass Measurement 1
Experiment 2-To measure the displacement, velocity and acceleration by ticker tape timer 10
Experiment 3-To determine height of an inaccessible object by sextant. 15
Experiment 4-Time Measurement - The Simple Pendulum 21
Experiment 5- To find the weight of a given body using the parallelogram law of vectors.. 23
Experiment 6-To determine the frequency of A.C supply by Melde,s apparatus.
Error! Bookmark not defined.
Experiment 7-Study The Compound Pendulum and Determine The Value Of g 33
Experiment 8-To determine the elastic constants of a wire by a spiral spring 39
Experiment 9- To Determine The Modulus Of Rigidity Of Wire By Dynamic Method 44
Experiment 10-To determine the modulus of rigidity of wire by Maxwell needle 49
Experiment 11-To Find The Low Resistance By Carey Foster Bridge 54
Experiment 12-Conversion of galvanometer into an ammeter 59
Experiment 13-Conversion of galvanometer into a voltmeter 66
Experiment 14-Calibration of an ammeter by potentiometer 72
Experiment 15-Calibration of a voltmeter by potentiometer 77
Experiment 16-Measurement of resistance using neon flash lamp and capacitor. 82
Appendix-A. 88
Page v

EXPERIMENT 1-LENGTH AND MASS MEASUREMENT
Objectives:
1. To become familiar with the three length-measuring instruments commonly
used in a physics laboratory
2. To know the use of the Vernier Calipers.
3. To measure the diameter of a small spherical / cylindrical body.
4. To measure the length, width and height of the given rectangular block.
5. To learn how to use the meter ruler and micrometer
Introduction and Theory overview:

Vernier Caliper: A calliper is a device used to measure the distance between two opposing sides
of an object. It can be as simple as a compass with inward or outward-facing points. First the tips
of the calliper are adjusted to fit across the points to be measured and the calliper is then removed
and the distance between the tips is measured using a ruler.
The modern Vernier calipers was invented by Joseph R. Brown in 1851. It was the first practical
tool for exact measurements that could be sold at an affordable price to ordinary machinists.
The Vernier Calliper consists of a main scale fitted with a jaw at one end. Another jaw,
containing the vernier scale, moves over the main scale. When the two jaws are in contact, the
zero of the main scale and the zero of the Vernier scale should coincide. If both the zeros do not
coincide, there will be a positive or negative zero error.
Parts of a Vernier Caliper
1. Main Scale: The main scale consists of a steel metallic strip graduated in centimeters at one
edge and in inches at the other edge . It carries the inner and outer measuring jaws. When the two
jaws are in contact, the zero of the main scale and the zero of the Vernier scale should coincide.
If both the zeros do not coincide, there will be a positive or negative zero error.
1 Page 1
2. Vernier Scale: A vernier scale slides on the strip. It can be fixed in any position by the
retainer. On the Vernier scale, 0.9 cm is divided into ten equal parts.
3. Outer Measuring Jaws: The outer measuring jaws helps to take the outer dimension of an
object
4. Inner Measuring Jaws: The inner measuring jaws helps to take the inner dimension of an
object.
5. Retainer: The retainer helps to retain the object within the jaws of the Vernier calipers.
6. Depth Measuring Prong: The depth measuring prong helps to measure the depth of an
object.
7. Least Count: The least count or the smallest reading which you can get with the instrument
can be calculated as;
Least count = one main scale (MS) division – one vernier scale (VS) division -------(1)
OR
First calculate the least count and only then place the object between the two jaws.
Record the position of zero of the Vernier scale on the main scale.
Calculating the Reading
When a body is between the jaws of the Vernier Caliper;
If the zero of the vernier scale lies ahead of the Nth division of the main scale, then the main
scale reading (MSR) is;
MSR = N
If nth division of Vernier scale coincides with any division of the main scale, then the Vernier
scale reading (VSR) is;
VSR = n× L.C ( L.C. is least count of vernier calipers)
Total reading,
Page 2
The
e Universityy of Lahore
TR = MSR + VSR
V = N + (nn × L.C ) ---------------------(2)
Volume of
o a Sphere
where 'r' is the radiuss of the spheere.
Volume of
o a Rectang
gular Blockk
where 'l' is length of the block, 'bb' the breadthh and 'h' the height of thee block.
Screw Gauge:
G The screw
s gauge is an instrumment used foor measuringg accurately the diameterr of a
thin wiree or the thicckness of a sheet of meetal. It connsists of a U-shaped
U fraame fitted with
w a
screwed spindle whicch is attacheed to a thimbble
Parallel to
t the axis off the thimblee, a scale graaduated in mm
m is engravved. This is called
c pitch scale.
s
A sleeve is attached to
t the head ofo the screw..
The headd of the screw has a ratcchet which avoids

a unduee tightening of the screw
w. On the thiimble
there is a circular scale known as
a head scalee which is divided
d into 50 or 100 eqqual parts. When
W
the screw
w is worked, the sleeve moves
m over the
t pitch scale.
A stud with
w a plane ende surface called the annvil is fixed on the ‘U’ frame
f exactlly opposite to
t the
tip of thee screw. Wh
hen the tip of
o the screw is in contacct with the anvil,
a usuallyy, the zero of
o the
head scalle coincides with the zerro of the pitcch scale.
3 Page 3
The
Pitch of the Screw Gauge: Thhe pitch of the t screw iss the distancce moved byy the spindle per
revolutioon. To find this, the distance advaanced by thee head scalee over the pitch
p scale for a
definite number
n of co
omplete rotaation of the screw
s is deteermined.
The pitchh can be reprresented as;
Least Coount of the Screw Gaugge: The Leaast count (LC C) is the disttance movedd by the tip of
o the
screw, when
w the screew is turned through
t 1 diivision of thee head scale.
The leastt count can be

b calculatedd using the foormula;
Zero Errror and Zerro Correctioon: To get thhe correct measurement,

m , the zero errror must be taken
t
into accoount. For thiis purpose, the
t screw is rotated forwward till the screw just touches
t the anvil
and the edge
e of cap is on the zerro mark of the
t pitch scaale. The Screew gauge is held keepinng the
pitch scaale vertical with
w its zero down
d wards.
When this is done, anyyone of the follow

wing three situationns can a
arise:
1. T
The zero marrk of the cirrcular scale comes on the t reference line. In thhis case, the zero
errror and the zero correcttion, both aree nil.
2. The
T zero marrk of the cirrcular scale remains r aboove the referrence line annd does not cross
itt. In this casse, the zero error
e is posittive and the zero correcttion is negatiive dependinng on
how many div visions it is above the reeference line.
3. The
T zero marrk of the heaad scale is beelow the refeerence line. In this case, the zero errror is
negative and the zero corrrection is poositive depennding on how many divvisions it is belowb
thhe reference line.
Page 4
The
To find the diametter of the leead shot: With

W the leadd shot betw ween betweeen the screw
w and
anvil, if the
t edge of the
t cap lies ahead
a of the Nth divisionn of the lineaar scale.
Then, linnear scale reaading (P.S.R

R.) = N.
If nth divvision of circcular scale liies over referrence line.
Then, cirrcular scale reading

r (H.S
S.R.) = n x (L
L.C.) (L.C. is least countt of screw gaauge)
Total reaading (T.R.) = P.S.R. + corrected

c H.S
S.R. = N + (nn x L.C.).
2. If D be
b the mean diameter
d andd l be the meean length off the wire.
Then, volume of the lead shot,
To find the
t diameteer and hencee to calculatte the volum
me of the wire:
Place thee wire between the anvil and the screew and note down the PS
SR and HSR
R as before.
The diam
meter of the wire
w is givenn by;
If r is raddius of the wire,

w and l bee the mean leength of the wire.
w Then, volume of thhe wire,
To find the
t thicknesss of the glaass plate
5 Page 5
The
The glass plate is grripped betw

ween the tip of the screww and the annvil. The PS
SR and HSR
R are
noted as before. The thickness off the glass pllate is;
To find the
t Volumee of glass plaate (irregullar lamina):: Find the thhickness, t off irregular laamina
as beforee. Then placee the laminaa over a grapph paper andd trace its outtline on the graph paperr. The
area A of the laminaa is taken froom the graph paper. The volume off the glass plate p is calcuulated
from the equation;
The rangge of lengths that may be

b measuredd by each of
o these meaasuring instrruments and their
accuraciees are shown
n below.
Meassuring Raange of lenggths

Accuracy
Instru
ument m
measurable
± 1/5
Rulerr > 10 cm
mm
± 1/10
Verniier caliper < 10 cm
mm
± 1/100
Micro
ometer < 2.5 cm
mm
Pre-Labb Preparation:
Intrroduction too Excel: coomplete thiss exercise before
b com
ming to the first laboraatory.
Thiis pre-lab sho
ould be donee entirely onn your own
 Working knowledge of basic featuress of Excel caalculations

W
 W
Working knowledge of grraphing in Excel
E
 Saving and Prrinting data in Excel
Equipm
ment:
Weighingg balance, meter rulerr, vernier calipers,
c miccrometer, piiece of coppper wire, metal
m
cylinder, metal cube or rectanglee, glass marbble.
Page 6
Procedure:
Measure the lengths and diameters of each of the given objects using the instrument that will
give you the greatest accuracy and record the values in the table below. Weigh each object on
the balance to the nearest 0.1 g and record its mass in the table below.
Calculations :
Calculate the volume of each object using the relations
volume = length x breadth x width, for a cube

volume =  (diameter)2 x length, for a cylinder
4
4 
volume =  (radius)3, or (diameter)3, for a sphere
3 6
Calculate the density of each object using the relation
Mass
Density=
Volume
Look up the accepted values of the densities of each object in physical tables and
compute the percent error using the relation
 measured .value  true.value 
Percent error =    100
 true.value 
OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION:
Cylinder:
Diameter = ________ cm Length =________ cm
Cube:
Length = ________ cm Breadth = ________ cm Width = _______ cm
Wire:
Diameter = ________ cm Length = ________ cm
Sphere:
Diameter = ________ cm
Value of
Volume Mass Density Percent
Object density
in cm3 in g in g/cm3 error
from tables
7 Page 7
Cylinder
Cube
Wire
Sphere
Learning Outcomes
1. Students get to know the use of vernier calipers.

2. Students know what is the Least count of vernier calipers.
3. Different parts of the screw gauge.
4. How to use a screw gauge.
5. How to calculate the least count of screw gauge.
6. How to calculate the zero error and zero correction of a screw gauge.
7. How to calculate the volume of a lead shot by measuring its diameter.
8. How to calculate the volume of a glass plate by measuring its thickness.
Questions:
1: Define the principle of vernier calipers?

2: State the reading of the vernier calipers?
3: State the reading of the screw gauge?
Page 8
9 Page 9
Each student is required to perform the lab and submit the following Performa along with the lab
report.
1= Unsatisfactory 2= Fair 3= Satisfactory 4= Very good5= Excellent
Questions Rating Remarks

(1 to 5)
1. To what extent did you learn on the material in
the lab?
2. Are you able to apply knowledge gained in the
lab to similar problems?
3. Are you able to analyze and interpret data
recorded in the lab?
4. Are you able to identify, formulate and solve
electrical engineering problems based on the
knowledge acquired in the lab?

5. Can you design a system, component or process
to fulfill certain specifications based on the
6. Were you able to function as a group in the lab?
7. Were you able to interpret effectively the
procedures and questions asked in the lab?
8. Comment whether your work in the lab has an impact
on the society.
Additional Comments (if any):
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Page 10
EXPERIMENT 2-TO MEASURE THE DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY AND

ACCELERATION BY TICKER TAPE TIMER
Objectives
After completing this experiment, you should be able to:
1. Measure the short time interval
2. Measure the speed and acceleration of objects
3. Determine the acceleration due to gravity of falling objects
Introduction and Theory overview:

A recording timer is a device for measuring the time it takes an object to move a short
distance. It consists of an electromagnet and a clapper, very much like that in an electric
doorbell. A paper tape is inserted under the clapper, and a disk of carbon paper is placed
face down between the clapper and paper tape. Thus, each time the clapper strikes, it
makes a dot on the paper tape. Waxed paper tape is used in some timers, thus eliminating
the necessity for carbon paper disks. Other timers employ motor driven chains to produce
the dots. When the paper tape is pulled through the timer, the distance between the two
dots on the tape is the distance the tape moved during one back and forth vibration of the
clapper. The time required for a single vibration is called the period of the timer. Once the
period is measured, it can be use to determine the time interval for any motion of the
paper tape.
11 Page 11
Pre-Lab Preparation: Use the simulation to understand the working of ticker tape time
http://www.patana.ac.th/secondary/science/anrophysics/unit1/resources/tickertape[1].swf
Equipment
Recording timer, tape, stopwatch, step-down transformer, connecting wire, push-button
switch, C-clamp, string, meter-stick and set of masses.
Procedure
Calibrating the timer: fasten the recording timer to the table and connect it to the
battery. Chose a location that will enable you to pull along section of paper tape
through the timer in the straight line with out hitting any obstacles. Insert the end of
the tape between the clapper and the carbon paper disk as shown in fig, making sure
that the tape can move freely. One student should hold the role of tape by passing a
pencil through the center as an axis. The other student should hold the end of the tape
in one hand and a watch in the other. Turn on the timer by closing the watch. Then
pull the tape steadily through the timer for three or four seconds, using the stopwatch
to measure the time accurately. Walking away from the timer at a steady pace does
this. Turn off the timer and mark first and the last dots on the tape. Count the number
of dots, starting with the second dot. Ignore any variation in the spaces between the
dots, the spaces between the dots represent equal time interval regardless of variation
in the spaces. Repeat this procedure several more times. Make sure you have at least
three trials that are in good agreement with each other. Record all data in table.
Speed and acceleration of falling objects: set up the timer as shown in fig. Cut a
piece of paper tape that is at least 20cm. Longer then the distance between the
tabletop and the floor. Pass the end of the tape through the timer and fasten a mass of
200gms to the end of the tape. Double the tape over for added support before hooking
the mass through it. Hold the mass at convenient level near the top of the table. Start
the timer and let the mass fall to the floor. Stop the timer when mass hit the floor.
Repeat the procedure, using masses of 300gms. And then 400gms. Using the tape for
200gms. Label the second and third dots A and B, respectively. Count four dots from
B and label the seventh and eighth dots C and D, respectively. Repeat this procedure
for the remainder of the dots that were produced before the mass hit the ground.
Repeat the procedure for the remaining trials.
Page 12
Observation and Calculation

Calibrating the Timer:
Trial Time NO. of dots Period (sec)

1
2
3
4
Average Period = ---------------- Sec.
Acceleration of falling Object:

Observation:
Distance (m)
Trial Mass
A-B C-D E-F G-H
1
2
3
Calculations:
Velocity Acceleration
Trial
VAB VCD VEF VGH a1 a2 a3 aav
Mean acceleration = acceleration due to gravity = ----------------- (m/s)
Actual value of g =--------------------- (m/s)
Percentage Error = --------------------- %

Learning Outcomes
1) Students understand the general relationships among position, velocity, and

acceleration for the motion of a particle along a straight line,
2) Students can differentiate constant and variable velocity and acceleration.
13 Page 13
Questions
1. Fill in the blank the speed of moving object with (slow / faster /getting faster )
2. Tick the slow uniform speed following two tapes?
3. Differentiate slow and faster acceleration?
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15 Page 15
EXPERIMENT 3- TO DETERMINE HEIGHT OF AN INACCESSIBLE OBJECT BY

SEXTANT.
Objectives
1. After completing this experiment, you should able to:
2. To know the principle of sextant, telescope and microscope.
3. Measuring the vertical distance between two points.
4. To find the height of an inaccessible object.
Introduction and Theory overview

The angle AOP which the ray from an object’s eye at O At a higher level, makes with
horizontal ray OA through O is measured with sextant and by the formula, h =d tan,
vertical height h of an object from position A can be found.

A
O
d
Page 16
Pre-Lab Preparation
Prepare yourself for Statistical Analysis for example measurements, uncertainties and
significant figures etc.
Equipment
Measuring tape, sextant apparatus and iron stand heavy type
Procedure
a) The Calibration Of The Sextant

1. Determine the vernier constant of the sextant. Mark a horizontal arrow A on the wall
with a marker at about four foot from the floor and mark another arrow B vertically
above it near the top of the wall. Clamp the sextant in a rigid stand and adjust its height
so the that the axis of the telescope is in level with the lower mark A. focus the telescope
on the lower mark A to have its direct image. Now move the arm to your right hand till
the image of the same horizontal mark becomes visible in the telescope after reflection
from the two mirrors. This occurs when index and horizon mirrors are parallel. Note the
reading when the two images overlap. Keeping the eye in the same position, turn the
arm to our left hand till the image of the upper mark B (reflected by M1 & M2)
approaches the direct stationary image of lower mark A. Note the vernier reading when
the two image overlap again. Measure the distance‘d’ between the lower mark A and the
center of the index glass with the measuring tape. Record your observations as shown
and use the relation h= d tan  to calculate vertical height ‘h’ between two points.
b) HIGHT OF AN INACCESSIBLE OBJECT

B
1 2
S d T A
Make a mark A at the base of the building at a height h in level with your eye and point
the sextant in that direction. A ray from ‘A’ comes directly to the eye through the
horizon glass M2 and another ray from ‘A’ will be reflected from the index glass M1 to
the horizon glass M2 and then to the eye. Rotate the index arm till two images of the
mark A are seen side by side. This occurs when the two mirrors M1 and M2 are parallel
to each other. Note vernier position in this position. Keeping your eyes fixed in the same
position, turn the index arm to your left hand till the image of the top of the building
17 Page 17
(reflected by M1 and M2) approaches the direct stationery image of the mark ‘A’. Note
the vernier reading when the two image overlap again.
Repeat a similar observation by placing the sextant in the position T and find out 2.
Measure the distance d =ST (between two positions of index mirror M1) Record your
d
observation as shown and use the relation. h
cot  1  cot  2 
To work out the height between the mark ‘A’ and top of the building
d
h
cot  1  cot  2 
Then calculate the total height of the building by using the relation.
d
H= + h/
cot 1  cot  2 
Observations Calculations
Vernier constant of the sextant= -------------------
Angle
Vernier reading against the scale ss submitted
Horizontal
Trial by the Tan  Height
Distance d
vertical h=d tan
(m)
distance
Initial Final ()
1
Mean Vertical Distance=

Actual Height by Direct Measurement=
Percentage Error= %
Page 18
b) Height of an inaccessible Object:
OBSERVATIONS CALCULATIONS
Reading at position S Reading at position T Distance d d

h
Trial (between S and cot  1  cot  2 
Initial final 1 initial final 2 T positions)
(m)
1
2
3
Mean hight =h =
Hight of the sextant= h/ =
Actual Hight = h +h/ =
Learning Outcomes
1. Students know the law of reflection, law of refraction and image formation by convex
lenses.
2. Students know visual angle and angular magnification of instruments.
3. Students know the principle of sextant
4. Student understand the astronomical telescope
Questions
1. How will you define inaccessible object?
2. Why is this instrument called sextant?
3. Name some other uses of sextant?
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Page 20
EXPERIMENT 4-TIME MEASUREMENT - THE SIMPLE PENDULUM
Objectives
1. To measure time with a stopwatch and
2. To calculate the acceleration due to gravity using a simple pendulum.
Introduction and Theory Overview

The period of oscillation of a simple pendulum is given by the relation
L
T  2
g
Where T is the period in seconds, L is the length in meters and g is the
acceleration due to gravity. The standard value for g is 9.81 m/s2. If the value of T is
measured for a particular length of pendulum L, an experimental value for g may be
determined by rewriting the above equation to give
4 2 L
g
T2
Pre-Lab Preparation
Before coming to lab, you should visit the following web site:
http://www.myphysicslab.com/pendulum1.html
This simulation shows a simple pendulum operating under gravity. For small oscillations
the pendulum is linear, but it is non-linear for larger oscillations. You can change
parameters in the simulation such as mass, gravity, and friction (damping). You can drag
the pendulum with your mouse to change the starting position.
Equipment
Stand, clamp, metal sphere, string, stopwatch and meter ruler.
Procedure
Set up the stand and clamp and suspend the metal sphere by the string from the arm as
shown. Adjust the length of the pendulum to be 100 cm to the nearest mm. This is the
length from the point of support to the center of the metal sphere. Displace the sphere
between 5 and 10 cm sideways and time 20 complete oscillations of the pendulum with
the stopwatch. Read the time to the nearest 0.01s. Remember to count zero when you let
go of the metal sphere. Repeat procedure (2) with the length of the pendulum 95, 90, 85,
80, 75, 70, and 65 cm and enter the data in the table. In each case set the length of the
pendulum to the nearest mm.
21 Page 21
Calculate the period of oscillation for each length of the pendulum to 3 decimal places by
dividing the times by 20. Calculate the values of the acceleration due to gravity to 3
significant figures using the equation above. Determine the average value of the
acceleration due to gravity and its percent error from the standard value.
OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION

Time for 20
Length of pendulum Time Period Calculated value of g in
Trial oscillations in
in cm in seconds m/s2
seconds
1
100
2
95
3
90
4
85
5
80
6
75
7
70
8
65
Average value of acceleration due To gravity (g) = ________ m/s2
Percent Error = ________

Learning Outcomes
1. Students knows the effect on the time period of the simple pendulum
L
2. Students knows equation T  2 and can show work of its derivation.
g
Questions
1. From your data what effect does changing the mass have on the period (for a given value
of the length L)?
2. What role, if any, does air resistance have on your results? Explain your reasoning.
3. Would you conclude that Galileo was correct in his observation that the period of a
simple pendulum depends only on the length of the pendulum?
4. You pull a simple pendulum of length 0.24m to the side through an angle of 3.5o and
then release it from rest. The mass of the pendulum bob is 500g. (a) How much time does
it take the pendulum bob to reach its highest speed? (b) What is the kinetic energy of the
pendulum at that time?
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23 Page 23
EXPERIMENT 5- TO FIND THE WEIGHT OF A GIVEN BODY USING THE

PARALLELOGRAM LAW OF VECTORS.
Objectives
1) Verify the law of equilibrium
2) To understand the principle of parallelogram law of vectors
Introduction and theory overview

Law of parallelogram of forces: When two forces simultaneously acting at a point are represented in
magnitude and direction by two adjacent sides of a parallelogram, then their resultant is represented both in
magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram passing through the point of intersection of the two
forces. If a third force is applied at point of intersection of the two forces such that the common point of application
of all the forces is in equilibrium, then the third force is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the sum of
the other two forces. This third force is called the equilibrant force. In this experiment, the unknown weight
provides the equilibrant force. Therefore the magnitude of the resultant of the two known forces P and Q, which is
represented by the length of the diagonal OC, gives the magnitude of the unknown weight. Mathematically, if R
and R’ be the magnitudes of their resultant and equilibrant respectively, then
R’2 = 2 cos
Where θ is the angle between the two forces, that is between the lines OA and OB in the figure.
But it must be noted that in this experiment, we are not using this formula to find the unknown
weight. We are measuring the length of the diagonal and then finding the unknown weight by
using the scale employed to represent the forces P and Q
Pre-Lab Preparation
Learn the correct way to state the resultant of any measurement is to give your best
estimate of the quantity and the range within which you are confident the quantity lies:
Best estimate ± Uncertainty
or: x ± δx
Equipment
A vertical wooden board with two pulleys (Gravesand apparatus), slotted weights, two hangers, a string,
four sheets of paper, drawing pins, a strip of mirror, wooden slab, set square, protractor, strong thread
(about1 meter in length) and a spring balance
Page 24
Fig.: Gravesand Apparatus
Procedure
(1) Clamp the board in the vertical position by using a plumbline and fix a sheet on it with drawing pins.
(2) Take sufficiently long piece of fine string and tie the two hangers at its ends. Tie another short string in the
middle of the first string to make a knot at ‘O’. Tie the unknown weight at the other end of the string.
Arrange them on the pulleys as shown in figure with slotted weights on hangers.
(3) Adjust the weights so that the knot O is in the middle of the paper. Mark a point O just underneath the
knot with a pencil. To mark the direction of the force acting along a string, place a mirror strip below the
string. Adjust the position of the eye so that there is no parallax between the string and its image and mark
the two points E and Fat edges of the mirror where the image of string leaves mirror. Similarly mark the
directions of other two forces (i) by points G and H, (ii) by points I and J along the strings.
(4) Remove the hangers along with weights and note carefully the weight of each hanger and the slotted
weights on them.
(5) Keep the board flat on the table with the paper on it. Join the three pairs of points marked on the paper to
meet O. These three lines represent the directions of three forces, the tension in each string being given by
the weight suspended on it. Select the suitable scale (say 50 g wt = 1 cm) and cut off lengths OA and OB
to represent forces P and Q respectively acting at the point O. With OA and OB as adjacent sides,
complete the parallelogram OACB. Ensure that the scale chosen is such that parallelogram covers
maximum area of the sheet.
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(6) The diagonal OC should be in continuation of the straight line OX and its length measures the magnitude
of unknown weight X (neutralizing force is acting along OC). In case OC does not lie in continuation of
XO, produce XO to meet BC or AC at C’ and measure angle COC’. This is a measure of the error
produced in the experiment
(7) Repeat the above set of observations using three different sets of weights P and Q and calculate mean
value of unknown weight X.
(8) Precautions
i. `The board should be kept vertical and using a plumb line should test it.
ii. . `The pulleys should be frictionless. If necessary, pulleys should be oiled.
iii. The hangers carrying the weights should not touch the board.
iv. Mark the points (only when the hangers get steady) with the help of mirror strip using a
pencil.
v. Take a proper account of the zero error of spring balance while measuring weights with it.
(9) Source of Error
i. Some friction at pulleys may persist even after oiling them.
ii. The weights may not be accurate.
iii. Slight inaccuracy may creep in while marking the points.

For equal weights:
Scale : 1 cm = ----------------g wt.

Sr. No. Force Sides Resultant Weight
P Q OA OB OC Force R W
(g wt.) (g wt.) (cm) (cm) (cm) (g wt.) (g wt.)
1
For unequal weights:

Scale : 1 cm = ----------------g wt.
Sr. No. Force Sides Resultant Weight
P Q OA OB OC Force R W
(g wt.) (g wt.) (cm) (cm) (cm) (g wt.) (g wt.)
1
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Learning Outcomes
1. Students get to know the principle of equilibrium
2. Understand the effect of change in angle on the resultant
3. How to find the resultant
4. To formulate the parallelogram law precisely
Questions
1. Why do you think this is called the Parallelogram Law?

2. Under what conditions is the system underdetermined?
27 Page 27
Each student is required to perform the lab and submit the following Performa along with
the lab report.

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EXPERIMENT 6-TO DETERMINE THE FREQUENCY OF A.C SUPPLY BY MELDE’S

APPARATUS.
Objectives
After completing this experiment, You should be able to:

1. Understanding the stationary and travelling waves.
2. Understanding the alternating and direct current.
3. Determine the frequency of a.c. supply.

A steel wire with a hook on one side is made to pass through solenoid and a horse shoe
magnet. When 220 volts a.c. Current is passed through the solenoid the steel wire reverse
with every charge of a.c current direction and vibrates with the frequency of a.c. Mains.
The frequency is calculated as is done in melde's apparatus . One end of string is attached
to a vibrator moving at right angle to the length of the string. The other end passes over a
pulley and carries a weight. For certain length of the string between vibrator and pulley
standing waves are produced. By measuring the length of the string, the frequency of the
vibrator, f, can be determined.
1 T
f 
2 m
where T is the tension applied to the string and m is its mass per unit length.
Pre-Lab Preparation
Study the property of standing wave and understand the concept of direct current and
alternating current
Equipment
Melde’s apparatus, thread, analytical balance, weight box. Pulley and meter rod.
29 Page 29
Procedure
Select a thin steel strip B about 6 inches long . fix its one end vertically on a wooden
block and place it parallel close to the electromagnet which can exited by A.C supply by
special arrangement(i.e, melde’s app.). Take stout but thin cotton nearly one meter long.
Attached one end of the thread to the free end of the steel strip and pass its other end over
a friction less pulley clamped to the table. Attach a light scale pan of known weight to the
other end of the thread. Excite the steel strip by passing A.C. current through the coil of
electromagnet and put a small weight in the scale pan. The thread vibrates in one segment
under the forced vibration of the steel strip. Note the tension T and measure length ℓ of
the loop. Make the string vibrate in two , three ,…. So on loops by reducing the tension
to1/4th, 1/9th ,…….. so on of its original value. weight 5-10 meter long similar thread and
1 T
find its mass per unit length “m”. use the relational f  , work out frequency of
2 m
the vibrating segment of string in the case.
Mass of thread 100 meters in length, M= -------------- grams
Mass of thread 1 cm in length, m= -------------- grams
Mass of the scale pan, m1 = --------------- grams
Trial NO. Distance Length of Mass of the Tension in 1 T

loops between each loop pan+mass, dynes f 
2 m
P extreme ℓ = L/p m added to T = m 981
(vib/s or Hz)
nodes L (cm) it (dynes)
(cm) (g)
1
2
Mean frequency of vibrating segment , f = ---------------------- vib /s
Frequency of a.c. main = frequency of vibrating segment = ------------ cycles /s
Given value of a.c. frequency = ------------------ cycles /s or Hz.
Percentage Error = ------------------- %

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Learning Outcomes
Students know the significant of Melde’s experiment
Questions
1. What type of vibration is made by the vibrator?
2. What are the stationary waves?
3. What are the supersonics and infra-Sonics?
4. Name some devices for producing ultrasonic?
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EXPERIMENT 7-STUDY THE COMPOUND PENDULUM AND DETERMINE THE

VALUE OF g
Objectives
1. To learn the moment of inertia
2. To measure the radius of gyration
3. To study the application of simple harmonic motion
Pre-Lab Preparation
Try plotting the graph in Microsoft Excel yourself. Measure the gradient and intercept.
The compound pendulum is schematically shown in Figure below, and it consists of a uniform
slender bar of total mass m and length l, which may be suspended at various points A along the
bar with the aid of a sliding pivot situated at any distance h from the centre of gravity of the
pendulum.
(For this case, the centre of mass is at the middle of the rod).
As a result of an initial angular displacement , the pendulum oscillates also with a time-
varying angle (t) with the vertical direction.
neutral neutral
position position
A
Rod
 h (l,m)
l
Centre of
Gravity CG 
l/2
m
(a) (b)
Simple Pendulum Compound Pendulum
Figure-Schematic representation of the (a)simple pendulum (b)compound pendulum
For the compound pendulum, the dynamic equilibrium equation is obtained by

taking the moments about pivot point A as given below:
33 Page 33
I A  mgh sin   0 (1)
where; IA is the mass moment of inertia of the rod about the pivot point A.
Assuming small angle of oscillation and simple harmonic motion for (t), leads to the
following expressions for the natural frequency n and period T, respectively:
mgh
n  (2)
IA
IA
T  2 (3)
mgh
The mass moment of inertia about the pivot point IA, is defined in terms of the mass
moment of inertia about the centre of gravity ICG and the distance h between the centre of
gravity and the pivot point A as:
I A  I CG  mh 2 (4)
or
I A  m( K CG
2
 h2 ) (5)
where; KCG is the radius of gyration of the rod about the centre of gravity.
Using eqns-3 & 5, then the period of oscillation of the compound pendulum is given
by the expression:
2
K GC  h2
  2 (6)
gh
Equipment
Compound pendulum with two knife edge, iron stand, sharp wedge
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Distance from CG G Distance from CG
Procedure
1. Keeping the knife edge at extreme holes, balance the pendulum on the wedge
and mark the position of center of gravity G.
2. Suspend the pendulum on support. Draw vertical line with a marker along the
holes of the pendulum.
3. Displace the pendulum slightly less then 5 and release it to vibrate.
4. Note the time for 50 vibration and measure the length from G to bottom of the
hole about which the pendulum vibrate.
5. Now change the upper and lower knife edges to the second holes on both sides
to keep the CG in its initial position and find out the time for 50 vibrations.
Measure the distance from g to the bottom of the second hole.
6. Repeat the process to note the time of 50 vibrations for each hole on both
sides. Also measure the corresponding distance from G for each case.
7. Calculate the time period in each case and draw graph by taking T along y-
axis in middle of the graph paper and distance from G along x-axis by
suitable scale and getting smooth curves on both sides of y-axis.
8. Draw a line ABCDE parallel to the x-axis but not near the bends of the curve.
k2
The length of the equivalent simple pendulum L  I  =AD or BE, i.e.,

35 Page 35
k2
AC=  and CD= , D being the centre of oscillation. Similarly CE=  and

k2
BC= , B being the centre of oscillation.

L
9. Calculate g using the relation g= 4 2 , where T is the value of time period
T2
at c.
10. Draw another line A/BC/D/E/ and get another value of g.
Weigh the pendulum and find out the mass M. From above calculate
K2= A/C/ .C/D/ = B/C/ .C/E/ and

A C .C D  B C .C E
K= or
2
A / C / .C / D /  B / C / .C / E /
K=
2
Find out mean K
11. Find out the moment of inertia of the pendulum using the relation I=MK
OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION

Side A -For the hole above G Side B- For the hole below G
No of Time for 30 vib Time Distance No of Time for 30 vib Time Distance
holes 1 2 Mean Period from G holes 1 2 Mean Period from G
AD  BE
Value of g i) Length of equivalent Simple Pendulum =L = =----------------cm
2
From the graph= value of time period at C= T =-----------------------seconds
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L
g= 4 2 2
= ---------------------- cm/s2
T
A/ D /  B / E /
ii) Length of equivalent Simple Pendulum =L = =----------------cm
2
From the graph= value of time period at C/= T =-----------------------seconds
L
g= 4 2 2 = ---------------------- cm/s2
T
Radius of gyration K and moment of inertia: Mass of pendulum = M =-------------------gm
AC.C / D /  BC.C / E
From graph: K=          cm
2
I = M K2 ,Mean value of I =------------------------gm-cm2
Mean value of K= --------------------------- cm
Learning Outcomes
1) Students know concept of moment of inertia.
2) Students understand that why does the compound pendulum have the identity of
possessing two values of h corresponding to the same period of oscillation ?
Questions
1) What do we mean by “Simple Harmonic Motion” (SHM)?
2) Why did we use two masses with identical geometries for the simple pendulum
experiment?
3) What is the physical meaning of h being equal to zero? What is the corresponding period
of oscillation?
4) Based on the equation of motion, what is the difference between the simple and
compound pendulums? How can we replace the compound pendulum with a simple
pendulum having the same period of oscillation?
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EXPERIMENT 8-TO DETERMINE THE MODULUS OF RIGIDITY OF A WIRE BY A

SPIRAL SPRING
Objectives
1. To measure the time period
2. To measure the modulus of rigidity
B A
Consider a flat spiral spring made of closely wound wire whose radius r is small
compared with the radius R of the spring itself. Let the ends of the spring be bent twice at right
angles as that the free ends BC is along the cylindrical axis of the spring. If the spring is
suspended vertically and loaded with a mass M at the lower end, the force Mg, acting along the
axis, exert a couple tending to twist the wire. If the wire of length  from the fixed end and
radius r be twisted through an angle  , the couple acting up it is
r 4
C ------------------(1)
2
Where  is the modulus of rigidity of the wire. In case of the spring we apply this
formula when  represents the total length of the wire used in making the spring. If the
spring has N turns, then length  =2  RN and thus
r 4 r 4
C = ----------(2}
2(2RN ) 4 RN
Take a section of the spring at A, shown enlarge in figure. When couple is applied the
arm AB is twisted through an angle  by couple c and takes up the position AB´. As R is
4 RNc
large, x  R . From (2),  = , thus
r 4
B A

X
B`
39 Page 39
4 R 2 Nc
x= --------------(3)
r 4
If F be the restoring force on M due to the wire, the couple C = Force × force arm =FR
C
Or F= ----------------------------(4)
R
Putting value of C from (3) in (4), we get
r 4
F= x -------------------------(5)
4R 3 N
The equation of motion of moving mass M is therefore,
d 2x r 4
M = x
dt 2 4R 3 N
This represent simple harmonic motion whose period is
4 MNR 3
T = 2 .----------------(6)
r 4
Knowing the periodic time of the spring oscillation vertically,  , the modulus of rigidity
of the material of the spring, can therefore be obtained. If m is the mass of the spring,
Then above expression can be written as
m
4 NR 3 ( M  )
T = 2 3 .-------------(7)
r 4
m
M
16 2 R 2 N 3)
 4
( 2
r T
Typical Values for The modulus of Rigidity for different Spring materials are listed below
Material Modulus of Rigitity = G

- (x 10 3 N/mm 2 )
Carbon Steel 78,6
316 Stainless 68,9
Brass 34,5
Phos Bros 41,4
Monel 65,5
Iconel 72,4
Berylium copper 50,0
Pre-Lab Preparation
Prepare and submit an outline that includes:

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 Brief description to types of modulus
 Possible sources of experimental uncertainty and a plan for quantifying these

errors
 Brief description of the work plan
 Any equations or physical parameters that may be needed during the laboratory
Equipment
Spiral spring, hanger with slotted weight, rigid stand, stop watch, physical balance with weight
box, screw gauge, vernier calipers and a rectangular metallic bar.
Procedure
Modulus of Elasticity:
1. Take a flat spiral spring with ends bent twice at right angles so that they are
along the cylindrical axis of the spring.
2. Find out the diameter of the wire using a screw gauge and outer diameter of
the spring by a vernier calipers. Calculate the radii r and R/ and determine the
effective radius R= R/-r of the spring.
3. Count the total no. of turns N of the spring.
4. Weigh the spring carefully to find out its mass m.
5. Suspend the spring vertically from a rigid heavy stand and hang a suitable
mass M from its lower end to produce a small extension.
6. Pull the mass downward slightly and the release it to oscillate up and down.
Find out the time for 20 oscillations using a stop watch and calculate the time
period. Repeat the observation with different masses. Calculate the T2 for each
observation.
7. Calculate the modulus of rigidity of the wire using the relation
m
M
16 R N
2 2
3)
 4
( 2
r T
Observation And Calculation
Least Count of screw gauge = -------------- mm=-----------cm

Zero Correction of screw gauge =------------
Vernier Constant of Vernier Calipers=--------------- cm
Zero Correction of vernier clipers=-------------------cm
Corrected diameter of the rod=1)---------------------cm2)--------------cm 3)--------------cm
41 Page 41
Mean diameter =d=--------------------------------cm

d
Radius of the rod= r= =-------------------------cm
2
Corrected diameter of the spring= 1)----------------cm 2)--------------cm 3)-------------cm
Mean diameter D=--------------------cm
D
/ 
Outer radius of the spring R = 2 ------------------cm
Effective radius of the spring= R= R/- r =-----------cm

No. of turns of spring= N=---------
Mass of the spring:=m = -----------gm
Sr. # Mass Time for 20 vibration Time
suspended 1 2 Mean period m
T2 M
time t t 16 2 R 2 N 3)
T= Sec2  (
20 r 4
T 2
Mean  = --------------------------dynes/cm2
Learning Outcomes
1. Students know how to find the modulus of rigidity of material
2. Student understand the effective radius of spiral spring
Questions
1. Why is the use of spiral of radius sufficiently large compared to the radius of wire
recommended?
2. How does the mass of spiral spring affect its time period?
3. What type of graph will you get between T2 and M?
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43 Page 43
EXPERIMENT 9- TO DETERMINE THE MODULUS OF RIGIDITY OF WIRE BY

DYNAMIC METHOD
Objectives
1. To measure the time period of oscillating rod
2. To determine the moment of inertia of rod
3. To study the shear stress, shear strain and modulus of rigidity of wire

Consider a wire of length ‘l’ to be made up of a large number of thin coaxial cylinder
tubes, whose radii vary from 0 to R. Let us consider one of these cylindrical tubes, having
radius r and thickness dr. When a couple is applied to the lower ends of this tube, suppose
a generating line AB takes the position AB َ◌and a radius OB of the lower end takes the
position OB ٓ◌, such that
BOB/ =θ and angle BA B َ◌= φ. In this case then, the angle of shear is φ and the angtwist is θ.
From fig it is clear that BB   r ---------------(1)
Also B B    ---------------(2)
And   r

 r ------(3)

Generally the angle of twist  is noted and the angle of shear can be measured from
equation (3) . The shear strain  is produced by the shearing stress applied at the lower
end of the wire and if  is the modulus of rigidity of the wire. Then
shearing..stress

shearing..strain( )
OR shearing stress =  
Shearing stress means the tangential force per unit area acting on the lower end of the
tube. The face area of the tube is 2r.dr. Therefor the tangential force F acting on the
bottom of the tube is F= Stress ×area =   × 2r.dr.
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r  2r 2 dr
=  2rdr 
 
The moment or couple of this force about the axis of the tube
 2r 2 dr  2r 3 dr
= Force × Force arm= F × r = ×r= which is the couple
 
required to twist the thin tube of the radius r through an angle  . Similar expressions give
the couples required to twist the other tubes which are imagined to form the whole wire.
Hence the Couple C required to twist the wire can be found by adding together the
couples required to twist all the tubes whose radii vary from r=0 to r=R i.e,
r R
 2r 3 dr R 4
C  = ----------------------(4)
r 0
 2
The couple per unit twist can be obtained by substituting  =1 in above equation which
R 4
is C = . The wire whose modulus of rigidity is to be found out is attached to the
2
middle of the metal rod , rectangular or cylindrical in shape, whose moment of inertia can
be easily calculated. The rod is suspended by clamping the wire at the upper end and
displaced through a small angle from its mean position and it begin to oscillate on
releasing it. When the angle of twist is  , the restoring couple c acting on the rod to
R 4
bring it back to the mean position is given by C= - c  . Where c= , the couple
2
per unit twist. If I is the moment of Inertia of the rod, then the restoring couple c is also
d 2 d 2
given by C= I α = I , where α= is the angular acceleration when angular
dt 2 dt 2
d 2
displacement is  . I = -c 
dt 2
d 2 c
+ =0
dt 2 I
Hence the motion of rod is simple harmonic motion and its time period is given by
I
T= 2
c
R 4
8I
Putting the value of c= and squaring both sides, we get T2= 4
2 R
8I
or  = 4 2
R T
Mass(length 2  Breath 2 )
For rectangular rod, I=
12
length 2 radius 2
And for cylindrical rod, I= Mass(  )
12 4
45 Page 45
Pre-Lab Preparation
Students will prepare to understand the modulus of the material via simulation
http://cofrest.info/md1.htm
Equipment
Solid cylindrical rod, steel wire, stand, screw gauge, vernier calipers, electronic
balance and stop watch.
Procedure
Take an oscillating metallic rod provided with a screw collar. Measure the length L of the
rod by placing it on meter rod. Measure the diameter of the rod at three different points
d
by a vernier calipers and find out its mean diameter d. Calculate the radius r  of the
2
rod. Weigh the rod by spring balance to find out its mass M. Calculate its moment of
L2 R 2
Inertia of the rod using the relation I  M (  ) , if the rod is cylindrical or
12 4
L2  R 2
I  M( ) , if it is rectangular. Clamp one end of the wire in the rigid support and
12
screw up its lower end in the collar of the rod. See that the rod hangs the horizontally.
Now tie a fine thread from one end of the rod and pull it to produce a twist of about 30°
in the wire without displacing the rod as whole. Burn the thread near the rod to set it into
the vibration or give a wire the desire twist and place an iron stand behind the rod.
Remove the stand gently to set the rod vibrating. When the motion of the rod has become
steady i.e., it is pure rotation in horizontal plane without up or down movement,
determines the time for 20 vibrations thrice. Find out the mean time t and calculate the
time period T and T2.
8
Calculate the modulus of rigidity of wire using the relation.   4 2 I
RT
Least Count of screw gauge = -------------- mm=-----------cm

Zero Correction of screw gauge =------------ 
Vernier Constant of Vernier Calipers=--------------- cm
Zero Correction of vernier clipers=-------------------cm
Length of the rod=L = -------------------------cm
Corrected diameter of the rod=
1)----------cm 2)----------cm 3)-----------cm
Mean diameter =d=--------------------------------cm L
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d
Radius of the rod= r= =-------------------------cm
2
Mass of the rod= M= ------------------------------gm
Moment of the Inertia= I=---------------------------gm-cm2
Length of the wire=  =---------------------------cm
Corrected diameter of the wire=
1) ----------cm 2------------cm 3)-----------cm 4)-----------cm 5)-------------cm
Mean diameter D= ---------------------------cm
Radius of the wire=R= ----------------------cm
Sr. # Time for 20 vibration Time period T=

1 2 3 Mean time t Seconds t
20 T2 ( S2 )
1
8
Modulus of Rigidity of wire=   I =------------------ dynes/cm2
R 4T 2
Learning Outcomes
1. Students know the hock’s law
2. Student know how to calculate stress, shear strain and modulus of rigidity of wire
Questions
1. Which posses higher value of modulus of rigidity, thin wire or thick wire of given
material?
2. Which type of graph will you get between load and twist?
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Page 48
EXPERIMENT 10-TO DETERMINE THE MODULUS OF RIGIDITY OF WIRE BY

MAXWELL NEEDLE
Objectives
1. To measure the different time periods by changing the moment of inertia of
oscillating Maxwell needle
2. To study the modulus of rigidity of metallic wire
Introduction and theory Overview
We know that the moment of inertia of a body about any axis is equal to its moment of
inertia about a parallel axis through its centre of gravity, together with the moment of
inertia of the whole mass collected at its centre of gravity about the given axis.
Thus, let m be the mass of a body whose moment of inertia about a certain axis is I; let a
be the distance of the centre of gravity from that axis, and /I the moment of inertia about a
parallel axis through the centre of gravity.
Then I = /I + ma2.
Moreover, the moment of inertia of a body is the sum of the moments of inertia of its parts.
Now, let m1 be the mass of each of the heavy tubes, and a the distance of the centre of
each of them from the axis round which the whole is twisting when in the first position. Let
I1 be the moment of inertia of each of the heavy tubes about a parallel axis through its
centre. Let m2 I2 have the same meaning for the empty tubes, and let b be the distance of
the centre of each of these from the axis of rotation.
Let I be the moment of inertia of the empty case.
49 Page 49
Then 2 2 2 2
(1)
In the second position, a is the distance from the axis of rotation of the centre of each of
the masses m2, b of that of the masses m1.
To find the moment of inertia of the whole, therefore, we require simply to interchange a
and b in equation (1), and this moment of inertia is K+k. Thus,
2 2 2 2
(2)
from (1) and (2) k=2(b2 - a2)(m1 - m2).
Thus, we do not need to know I, I1 or I2 to find k. Now the length of each of the tubes is
one-fourth of that of the whole bar A B. Calling this c, we have
and
To find m1 and m2 we require merely to determine by weighing the number of grams which
each contains. Our formula for τ becomes
and it only remains to measure l. This can be done by means of the beam compass or a
measuring tape. We must, of course, measure from the point at which the upper end of the
wire is attached, to the point at which it is clipped by the screw D.
The wire it will be found fits into a socket at the top of the apparatus C D. Be careful when
fixing it initially to push it as far as possible into the socket; its position can then be
recovered at any time. Unloose the screw D and draw the wire from above, up through the
tube which supports it, and measure its length in the ordinary manner.
The value of τ thus obtained gives the modulus of torsion for the particular specimen of
wire. If the modulus of torsion for the material is required, we must make use of the
additional law of torsional elasticity that the torsional couple in wires of the same material,
differing only in area of section, is proportional to the fourth power of the radius of the wire.
To find the value of the modulus of torsion of the material, the value of r must be divided by
πr4/2 where r is the radius in centimetres .
Page 50
Pre-Lab Preparation
Students will read the moment of Inertia and parallel axes theorem.
Procedure
1. Suspend the Maxwell needle horizontally from a rigid support by long wire
about1. 5 m length.
2. Put the solid cylinders SS on the out side and check the Maxwell needle is
horizontal. Press one end of the needle slightly backward to make it vibrate in
a horizontal plane. Pause the few minutes for the motion to become steady.
3. Start the stop watch, find time for 20 oscillation and repeat it twice. Calculate
the time period T1.
4. Proceed in the same manner by putting the hollow cylinders HH outside and
calculate the time period T2.
5. Measure the length of the tube a and that of the wire  . Measure the diameter
of the wire at about 6 different places. Determine the average mass of m1 and
m2 of the solid and hollow cylinders. Calculate the modulus of rigidity by the
relation
8a 2 (m1  m2 )

r 4 (T12  T22 )
Equipment
Maxwell needle with a screw collar, a rigid support, screw gauge, vernier calipers, stop
watch, spring balance
Length of the wire=--------------cm
Total length of needle=2a=---------------cm
Half length of needle=a=-----------------cm
Average mass of solid cylinder=m1=-------------gm
Average mass of hollow cylinder=m2=-----------gm
51 Page 51
Diameter of the wire=d=------------------cm
Radius of the wire= r =--------------------cm
Arrangement Time for 20 oscillation Time period

1 2 mean
Solid cylinder T1=
Hollow cylinder T2=
8a 2 (m1  m2 )
 =-------------------------dynes/cm2
r 4 (T12  T22 )
Correct value of  =---------------------------dynes/cm2
Percentage Error =------------------------
Learning Outcomes
1. Students know moment of inertia and their application
2. Students understand the importance of measurement of radius of wire with special care?
Questions
1. What is chief marit of this method?
2. What do you understand by modulus of elasticity?
3. Why should the Maxwell needle be arranged to vibrate in a horizontal plane?
4. How will you determine the moment of inertia of a body of irregular shape?
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53 Page 53
EXPERIMENT 11-TO FIND THE LOW RESISTANCE BY CAREY FOSTER BRIDGE
Objectives
1. to familiar with slide wire bridge circuit
2. to measure low resistance
3. understand the bridge circuit for different applications
P
R S Q
1 2 3 4
A B

A carey-foster bridge is a modified form of a simple slide-wire bridge, in which it is not
necessary to know the ends resistances when an unknown resistance is to be determined.
This bridge has four gaps unlike the sliding wire bridge which has only two gaps. The
unknown resistance P and a nearly equal unknown resistance Q are connected to close the
outer gaps 1 and 4. Two other approximately equal resistances R and S whose values may
not be known, are connected to close the inner gaps 2 and 3. a galvanometer and a cell are
connected as shown in diagram. Let at A and B, 1 and 2 be the end resistances and  be
the resistance per unit length of the bridge wire. If a balance point is obtained at a
distance  1 cm from the end A, then
R p   1   1

S Q  (100   1 )   2
Now P and Q are interchanged and new balance point, let be obtained at a distance  2
from the end A, then
Page 54
R Q   2   1

S P  (100   2 )   2
p   1   1 Q   2   1
 
Q  (100   1 )   2 P  (100   2 )   2
Adding unity to both sides,
p   1   1 Q   2   1
1  1
Q  (100   1 )   2 P  (100   2 )   2
p   1   1  Q  (100   1 )   2
Q  (100   1 )   2
Q   2   1  P  (100   2 )   2

P  (100   2 )   2
p  Q  100   1   2 p  Q  100   1   2
OR 
Q  (100   1 )   2 P  (100   2 )   2
Since the numerators are equal, therefore
Q  (100   1 )   2 = P  (100   2 )   2
P  Q = ( 2   1 )
Equation (1) shows that the difference between P and Q is equal to the
resistance of the length of the bridge between the two balance points and it is independent
of the resistances of the ends and of the total length of the wire. To determine  , P is
replaced by a thick copper strip of negligible resistance, that is P=0 and a balance point is
obtained say, at a distance  3 from the end A. The copper strip and Q are interchanged
and anew balance point is obtained at a distance  4 from the end A. Then from equation
(1), we have
0  Q = ( 2   1 )
Q
Or = (2)
( 3   4 )
Thus from (1) and (2)
Q
P  Q  ( 2   1 )
( 3   4 )
   1 
P= Q+  2 Q
 3  4 
   1 
P= 1  2 Q
 3  4 
55 Page 55
Pre-Lab Preparation
Students prepare the topics ohm’s law, KVL, KCL, current division and voltage division
by using Pspice.
Equipment
Carey foster bridge, thick copper shorting strip, cell, galvanometer, two resistances boxes,
fractional resistance box, unknown low resistance, connecting wires and key
Procedure
1. Connect up the circuit as shown in the diagram. The unknown resistance P and the
fractional resistance box for Q are connected to close the end gaps 1 and 4. R and S
are two resistances boxes connected to close the inner gaps 2 and 3. E is the cell
connected through key k and G is the galvanometer whose one terminal is connected
to jockey for locating the balance point C.
2. Take outs knobs for about 5 ohms resistance from the resistance box R and S and a
suitable resistance (may be one ohm or less) from the fractional resistance box Q.
Plug in the key k and obtain a balance position C at a distance  1 from A. Note down
the values of R, S and Q.
3. Interchange the P and Q and obtain a balance point C at a distance  2 from A.
4. Close the gap 1 by thick copper strip and gap 4 by fraction resistance box keeping the
value of Q constant as in the two previous steps. Plug in the key k and obtain a
balance point at a distance  3 from A.
5. Interchange the copper strips and Q and again obtain the balance point at distance  4
from A.
6. Calculate the unknown resistance P, using the relation:
   1 
P= 1  2 Q
 3  4 
7. Repeat the experiment for number of observations by changing Q by the fraction of

an Ohm.
Page 56
Observation & Calculation
Resistance Distance of balance point Unknown

Trial from A resistance
R S Q 1 2  4    1 
P= 1  2 Q
  3   4 
Mean P=-------------Ohm
Learning Outcomes
Students know how this arrangement made measurement more sensitive than meter bridge
Questions
1. In what respects is this method superior to the post office box and meter bridge method?
2. Why don’t you use post office box method to determine a low resistance?
3. When is the bridge most sensitive?
4. Is the arrangement is independent of the end resistance?
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EXPERIMENT 12-CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER INTO AN AMMETER
Objectives
1. To understanding the working of electrical instruments
2. To know how to construct and work ammeter from galvanometer.
3. Understand the use of ammeter.
.

A moving coil galvanometer is used to detect very small current. It can measure the
current of the order of microampere. An ammeter on the other hand, is meant to measure
very large currents, from fraction of an ampere to many amperes. A moving coil
galvanometer can be converted into an ammeter by connecting a suitable low resistance
in parallel with its coil. This low resistance is known as shunt. In a shunted galvanometer
most of the current flows through the shunt and a very small fraction of it passes through
the coil. The scale is graduated showing the total current passing through the shunt and
the coil.
Rg
Ig
G
I-Ig
I
RS
Suppose we want to convert a galvanometer into an ammeter which can measure a

maximum current I. Let the resistance of the galvanometer be Rg and it gives full scale
deflection, when a current Ig passes through it. For this purpose we use a shunt resistance
Rg such that Ig current passes through galvanometer coil and the remaining current I  I g
passes through the shunt. Since the galvanometer coil R g and shunt Rs are in parallel, so
that the potential across them must be the same. If this potential difference is V, then
according to ohm’s law (V= IR)
V  I g Rg (1)
and V  (I  I g )R (2)
comparing (1) and (2), we have. I g R g  ( I  I g ) RS
59 Page 59
Ig
Or RS  Rg (3)
I  Ig
Which gives the value of shunt RS which is to used to convert the galvanometer into an
ammeter reading I. The resistance of the shunt is usually so small that just a piece of
copper wire serves the purpose. An ammeter is connected in series with the circuit and its
resistance is very low so that its introduction may not decrease the strength of the current.
The length of the wire, having resistance equal to RS, can be calculated using the relation
 R A
Rs   or   s
A 
Where A= Area of a cross section of the wire R= r 2 , r being the radius of the wire, 
specific resistance of the material of wire which can be noted from table
Diagram
K1
K2
H.R.B G
K1 F.B
K2
RS
G
Fig:2
Fig:1
Pre-Lab Preparation
Students will understand theory of basic circuitry galvanometer, voltmeter and ammeter
Equipment
A moving coil galvanometer, ammeter, voltmeter, battery, high resistance box, fractional
resistance box, two keys, connecting wires, rheostat, screw gauge and shunt wire.
Page 60
Procedure
1. Note down the zero reading of the galvanometer. Determine the resistance of the
galvanometer by half deflection method. Make the connection as shown in diagram
(1). Keeping k2 open. Close the key K1 and taking out knob for suitable resistance X
from the high resistance box H.R.B. so that the deflection of the galvanometer large
but in the scale. Note down the deflection in number of divisions marked on the scale.
Close the key K2 and see that the galvanometer needle comes to zero when no
resistance is taken out of the fractional resistance box F.B. Now take out suitable
shunt resistance S from the fractional resistance box until the deflection of the
galvanometer is half of the deflection previously noted. If the galvanometer resistance
X S
Rg is much smaller than X, then Rg = S otherwise use the relation Rg =
X S
2. Note down the emf E of the cell using a voltmeter. Now connect the galvanometer to
the cell through a high resistance box and key. Take out knob for a suitable resistance
R to obtain a large deflection  of the galvanometer. It is not necessary to obtain a
full scale deflection as some time suitable resistance is not available for the purpose.
Calculate the current I flowing through the galvanometer with resistance R, using the
E
relation i  ,since R and Rg are in series. If the total number of divisions on
R  Rg
the either side of the galvanometer scale is n, then calculate current required to
i
produced full scale deflection as I g   n

3. To convert the g-meter into an ammeter calculate the shunt resistance Rs using the
Ig
relation Rs   R g , where converted galvanometer can read up to I.
I  Ig
4. Now take a thick copper wire to be used as shunt and measure its diameter at three
different points along two mutually perpendicular directions by a screw gauge.
Calculate the mean diameter, D, and radius, r, of the wire. Note down the specific
resistance  of the copper from the constant tables. Find out the length  of the wire
r 2 RS
having RS ohms using the relation I 

5. Convert length  of the wire between terminals of the galvanometer to convert it into
an ammeter reading up to 1 ampere. Care must be taken that no portion of the
measured length is under the terminals of the galvanometer.
6. Connect up the shunted galvanometer, battery, rheostat a standard ammeter as shown
in diagram (2) for its accuracy. Pass large current through the circuit and note down
the shunted galvanometer deflection  and the reading of the ammeter. The deflection
61 Page 61
I
of  division indicates the current   amperes. See that this current is equal to the
n
current read by standard ammeter, iif not note down the difference which is the error
in the shunted galvanometer.
Resistance of the galvanometer:
Zero reading of the galvanometer = -----------------------
Trial Resistance Deflection of Half Shunt Galvanometer

from galvanometer deflection Resistance Resistance
H.R.B. Observed Corrected Div. from F.B. R g = S ohms
X ohm Div. Div. S ohms
Mean R g =----------------Ohms E.m.f. of

the battery, E=--------------------volts
Resistance used for deflection of galv., R=--------------------Ohms
Deflection Produced,  =------------------Div.
E
Current through the galv., i  =-------------------------amp.
R  Rg
No. of divisions on the galv. Scale, n =-------------------------Divs
i
Current for full scale deflection, I g   n =-----------------amp.

Current that ammeter should read, I = 1.0 amp.
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Ig
Shunt resistance required to convert the galv., Rs   R g =------------Ohms
I  Ig
Diameter of the shunt wire =(1)------------mm (2)------------mm (3)------------mm
(4)------------mm (5)------------mm (6)------------mm, Mean Diameter=---------mm
D
Radius of the wire, r = =--------------------mm
2
Special resistance of the shunt wire,  = -----------------ohm-cm (From the Table)
r 2 R
Length of the shunt wire having RS ohms resistance,  = =--------------cm

i) Checking the accuracy of the converted galvanometer:
Ig 1.0
Each division on shunted galv. Reads = = =----------------------amp.
n n
Deflection of Current indicated Reading of standard

Trial shunted galv. by shunted galv. ammeter Error in the galv.
 1.0 amp. Amp.
  amp.
n
Result:
To convert the given galvanometer into an ammeter reading upto 1.00 ampere,
it must be shunted with a resistance of --------------------------------------Ohms
Learning Outcomes
Students know how to convert galvanometer to ammeter
Questions
1. Outline the difference between a galvanometer and an ammeter?
63 Page 63
2. Why do we use a shunted coil instead of a thick coil in the galvanometer to measure
strong current
3. When is the value of shunt resistance greater i) conversion into a range of 3 amperes ii)
for conversion into a range 30 amperes?
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65 Page 65
EXPERIMENT 13-CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER INTO A VOLTMETER
Objectives
2. To know how to construct and work voltmeter from galvanometer.
3. Understand the use of voltmeter.
.

A voltmeter is used to measure the potential difference between two points of an
electrical circuit or the voltage of the source. It is always connected in parallel with the
circuit. Its resistance should be high so that its insertion may not upset the flow of current
between the two points appreciably. A moving coil galvanometer can be converted into a
voltmeter by connecting a suitable high resistance in series with its coil. Hence a
voltmeter is a high resistance moving coil galvanometer.
Rg
RX
G
Ig
I
Fig (1)
Suppose we want to convert a galvanometer into a voltmeter which can read up to 1 volts.
. Let the resistance of the galvanometer be Rg and it gives full scale deflection, when a
current Ig passes through it. For this purpose we use a suitable high resistance RX in series
with the coil of the galvanometer fig (1). Since R X and R g are in series, their combined
resistance is R g + R X . As Ig current is passing through the circuit. According to Ohm’s
law (V= IR)
V  I g ( Rg  R X )
V
 Rg  R X
Ig
Page 66
V
Or RX   Rg (1)
Ig
Equation (1) gives the value of the high resistance Rx which is to be used for converting
the galvanometer in to a voltmeter reading up to V volts. The scale of the converted
galvanometer is graduated to read voltage from 0 to V volts.
Diagram:
R.B V K
K
R.B
G
G
RX
Fig (2)
Fig (3)
Pre-Lab Preparation
Students will understand theory of basic circuitry galvanometer, voltmeter and ammeter
Equipment
A moving coil galvanometer, ammeter, voltmeter, battery, high resistance box, fractional
resistance box, two keys, connecting wires, rheostat, screw gauge and shunt wire.
Procedure
1. Note down the zero reading of the galvanometer and find out its resistance, Rg by half
deflection method.
67 Page 67
2. Note the e.m.f., E of battery or cell using standard voltmeter. Connect the
galvanometer to the cell through the high resistance box, R.B. and key K as shown in
diagram (2). Take out knob for suitable resistance, R from the resistance box and
insert key to obtain the large deflection  of the galvanometer, not necessarily
a full scale deflection. Calculate the current flowing through the circuit to produce
E
deflection  of the galvanometer using the relation. i  , since R and Rg are in
R  Rg
series.
3. Note down the total number of divisions n on the either side of the galvanometer
i
scale, then calculate current required to produced full scale deflection as I g   n

4. To convert the galvanometer into a voltmeter reading up to V volts, calculate the
V
suitable high resistance Rx using the relation R X   Rg
Ig
5. Take a high resistance box and connect it up in series with the galvanometer. Take out
knobs for resistance RX from the resistance box, thus converting the galvanometer in
to voltmeter reading up to V volts. The free terminals of the resistance box and the
galvanometer are two terminals of the voltmeter to be used. Each division of the
V
converted galvanometer reads volts.
n
6. To check the accuracy , connect the converted galvanometer and good voltmeter in
parallel with a resistance box R.B. as shown in diagram (3). Then connect them to a
battery through a rheostat. Take out a suitable resistance from resistance box to
produce a large deflection and pass current through the circuit. Note down the
deflection  of the converted galvanometer and reading of the standard voltmeter.
V
The potential difference indicated by the converted galvanometer is   volts which
n
should be equal to the reading of the standard voltmeter. If their readings are not
equal, note down their difference as the error in the convert galvanometer. Take a
number of reading by changing the resistance from resistance box in regular steps.
Page 68
1. Resistance of the galvanometer:
Zero reading of the galvanometer = -----------------------
Trial Resistance Deflection of Half Shunt Galvanometer

from galvanometer deflection Resistance Resistance
H.R.B. Observed Corrected Div. from F.B. R g = S ohms
X ohm Div. Div. S ohms
Mean R g =----------------Ohms
E.m.f. of the battery, E=--------------------volts
Resistance used for deflection of galv., R=--------------------Ohms
Deflection Produced,  =------------------Div.
E
Current through the galv., i  =-------------------------amp.
R  Rg
No. of divisions on the galv. Scale, n =-------------------------Divs
Voltage thet voltmeter should read, V=5. volts
V
High resistance required to convert the galv., R X   R g =------------Ohms
Ig
69 Page 69
2. Checking the accuracy of the converted galvanometer:
V 5
Each division on shunted galv. Reads = = =----------------------volts.
n n
Resistance Deflection of P.D. indicated Reading of

Trial from R.B. converted by converted standard Error in the
Ohm. galv. 5 voltmeter converted galv.
 div. galv.   volts. volts.
n
volts.
Result:
To convert the given galvanometer into a voltmeter reading upto 5 volts, A high a
resistance RX = --------------------------------------Ohms must be connected in series with it.
Learning Outcomes
Students know how to convert galvanometer to voltmeter
Questions
1. How does a voltmeter differ from a galvanometer and an ammeter?
2. Why should a voltmeter have a very high resistance?
3. Why is a voltmeter always connected in parallel?
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71 Page 71
EXPERIMENT 14-CALIBRATION OF AN AMMETER BY POTENTIOMETER
Objectives
2. To know how to work a potentiometer.
3. Understand the potentiometer can measure the potential difference without drawing
any current.
4. To calibrate the ammeter.

The actual potential difference to be measured is considerably altered if the potential
measuring instrument draws some current from the circuit. Thus the potential measuring
instrument can read the correct potential only when it doesn’t draw any current from the
A C B
R
r
X G
Fig (1)
Circuit across which it is connected. A potentiometer can measure the potential difference
with out drawing any current from the circuit and thus it is best device for comparing the
emf.s or potential differences.
A potentiometer simply consists of a long resistance wire of uniform area of cross-section
with two terminals soldering to its ends. The wire may be bent in three or four parallel
length of any easy approach to every point on it. If the potentiometer wire AB, of length
L and resistance R is connected to a battery of emf. E, fig (1) the current flowing through
E
it is I  . A terminal C can slide over the wire and resistance between A and C is r < R
R
r
for a certain position of C, Then the potential difference between A and C = Ir  E . It
R
Page 72
means that the potential difference between A and C can be varied from 0 to E by sliding
C from A to B (potential divider arrangement). Now the unknown source, whose the
potential difference or E.M.F. is to be measured, is connected in parallel with the
potentiometer wire through the galvanometer G to the terminals A and C. The terminal C
is moved over the wire, until the galvanometer shows no deflection. For such position of
C, the potential drop across AC is equal to the potential drop across X and the two
terminals of the galvanometer are at the same potential due to which no current flows
through it to produce any deflection. It means that the P.D. or E.M.F. of the unknown
r
source X is equal to the P.D. between A and C i.e, X  E
R
Since the wire is of uniform area of cross section, the resistance is proportional to the
 L
length of wire  R    . If length AC of wire is  , then
 A

X E
L
When the E.M.Fs, E1 and E2 of two cells are to be compared by potentiometer, they are
connected one by one between A and C and balancing lengths  1 and  2 are obtained.
Thus
 
E1  E 1 and E 2  E 2
L L
E1  1
On dividing 
E2  2
Pre-Lab Preparation
Students will investigate to common sources of error in calibration of instruments:
i. Environment factor ii. Instrument factor. iii. Failure to check zero of instrument

iv. Parallex v. instrument drift vi. Personal error
Equipment
Potentiometer of four wire lengths, two rheostats, two keys, one two ways key, a
fractional resistance box, connecting wires, standard cell, moving coil galvanometer, two
batteries, ammeter, a jockey.
Procedure
To calibrate an ammeter with the help of potentiometer:
73 Page 73
B1
K2
C
G
II
RS
A
K1
B2 I
1. Connect up the circuit as shown in the diagram. AB is the potentiometer whose end
terminal A is connected to the positive terminal and B to the negative terminal of a
battery B1 through the rheostat and a key K2. the positive terminal of the standard cell
ES is also connected to A and negative to one of the terminals of a two-way key. The
middle terminal of the two-way key is connected to galvanometer to the jockey which
acts as sliding terminal C. The current I to be measured flows through a standard
resistance RS (may be of two ohms or a fractional resistance box from which
resistance is taken out) which is connected to a battery B2 through a rheostat, key K1
and ammeter. The terminal of RS at positive potential is connected to A and that at
negative potential to the third terminal of the two way key.
2. Plug in the key K1 and pass a suitable current I through RS to produce a large
deflection of ammeter. Close the gap I of the two-way key and key K2. obtain a
balance point by moving the sliding terminal C over the potentiometer wire . Note the
balance length  1 from the end A and the ammeter reading I. The potential difference
across RS balanced by wire length  1 is E  IRS according to the ohm’s law.
3. Open key K1 and gap I. Close the gap II and obtain a balance point for the standard
cell ES at length  2 from the end A of the potentiometer wire.
4. Using the principle of potentiometer, calculate the current I as:
E1  1 IRS  1
 OR 
E2  2 E2 2
Put I  I g , the calculated current
ES  1
Ig 
RS  2
5. Take a number of readings by changing the current I with the help of rheostat.
Compare I and I g and note down the difference between their values, if any.
Page 74

E.M.F. of the standard cell, ES = ------------------------------- Volts
Value of the standard resistance RS =--------------------------Ohms
Calculated current Ammeter Difference

Trial Balancing length for E  reading Ig  I
P.D. across RS E.M.F. ES Ig  S 1 I
RS  2
1 2
Learning Outcomes
Students know the necessity of calibration and have skill to calibrate various electrical
instruments
Questions
1. Explain the different terms related to measurement?
2. Differntiate between different types of errors?
3. Identify sources of errors?
75 Page 75
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Page 76
EXPERIMENT 15-CALIBRATION OF A VOLTMETER BY POTENTIOMETER
Objectives
2. To know how to work a potentiometer.
3. Understand the potentiometer can measure the potential difference without drawing
any current.
4. To calibrate the voltmeter.
.

The actual potential difference to be measured is considerably altered if the potential
measuring instrument draws some current from the circuit. Thus the potential measuring
instrument can read the correct potential only when it doesn’t draw any current from the
A C B
R
r
X G
Fig (1)
Circuit across which it is connected. A potentiometer can measure the potential difference
with out drawing any current from the circuit and thus it is best device for comparing the
emf.s or potential differences. A potentiometer simply consists of a long resistance wire
of uniform area of cross-section with two terminals soldering to its ends. The wire may be
bent in three or four parallel length of any easy approach to every point on it. If the
potentiometer wire AB, of length L and resistance R is connected to a battery of emf. E,
E
fig (1) the current flowing through it is I  . A terminal C can slide over the wire and
R
resistance between A and C is r < R for a certain position of C, Then the potential
77 Page 77
r
difference between A and C = Ir  E . It means that the potential difference between A
R
and C can be varied from 0 to E by sliding C from A to B (potential divider arrangement).
Now the unknown source, whose the potential difference or E.M.F. is to be measured, is
connected in parallel with the potentiometer wire through the galvanometer G to the
terminals A and C. The terminal C is moved over the wire, until the galvanometer shows
no deflection. For such position of C, the potential drop across AC is equal to the
potential drop across X and the two terminals of the galvanometer are at the same
potential due to which no current flows through it to produce any deflection. It means that
the P.D. or E.M.F. of the unknown source X is equal to the P.D. between A and C i.e,
r
X E
R
Since the wire is of uniform area of cross section, the resistance is proportional to the
 L
length of wire  R    . If length AC of wire is  , then
 A

X E
L
When the E.M.Fs, E1 and E2 of two cells are to be compared by potentiometer, they are
connected one by one between A and C and balancing lengths  1 and  2 are obtained.
Thus
 
E1  E 1 and E 2  E 2
L L
E1  1
On dividing 
E2  2
Pre-Lab Preparation
Prepare chart for understanding various electro-mechanical instruments and
1. Search various latest measuring instruments available in market
Equipment
Potentiometer of four wire lengths, two rheostats, two keys, one two ways key, a
fractional resistance box, connecting wires, standard cell, moving coil galvanometer, two
batteries, ammeter, a jockey.
Procedure
1. Connect up the circuit as shown in the diagram. AB is the potentiometer whose end
terminal A is connected to the positive terminal and B to the negative terminal of a
battery B1 through the rheostat and a key K2. the positive terminal of the standard cell
ES is also connected to A and negative to one of the terminals of a two-way key. The
middle terminal of the two-way key is connected to galvanometer to the jockey which
acts as sliding terminal C. Compute the potential divider circuit using the battery B2,
Page 78
key K1 and a rheostat PQ. Connect the standard voltmeter in parallel between the
sliding terminal S and fixed terminal P of the rheostat so that the voltmeter reads the
varying voltage or P.D. obtained between P and S. Connect the positive terminal of
the voltmeter to A and negative to the third terminal of the two-way key K.
B1
K2 A
G
V
Q
P
S K1
B2
2. Plug in the key K1 and close the gap I of the two-way key. Obtain a balancing point
by moving the sliding terminal over the potentiometer wire . Note the balance length
 1 . This length balances the P.D. across PS. Note down the reading of voltmeter V.
3. Open key K1 and gap I and close the gap II and obtain a balancing point at length  2
for E.M.F of the standard cell ES.
4. Using the principle of potentiometer, calculate the current P.D. as:
E1  1
 as follows
E2  2
P.D.across.P S  1

ES 2
V  
Let P.D. across PS be V, then  1 OR V  E S 1
ES  2 2
5. Take a number of readings by changing the potential differences between P and S.
Compute V g and V and note the difference if any.
79 Page 79
E.M.F. of the standard cell, ES = ------------------------------- Volts
Calculated P.D. voltmeter Difference

Trial Balancing length for  reading VS  V
P.D. across PS= E.M.F. ES VS  E S 1 V
2
1 2
Learning Outcomes
Students know the calibration and its importance and calibration of ammeter and
voltmeter.
Questions
1. Explain the working principle of DC potentiometer?
2. Explain the working principle of various bridges?
3. Select a bridge to determine various electrical parameters?
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81 Page 81
EXPERIMENT 16-MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE USING NEON FLASH LAMP

AND CAPACITOR.
Objectives
 To learn about RC circuit and their application
 use neon bulbs to investigate which object in a pair is giving up and which is
receiving electrons
 to learn how to find unknown resistance or capacitance

The connection of neon bulb circuit is shown in the diagram. C is the capacitor and R is a
mega ohm resistance when a potential difference of 240 volts is supplied to the circuit
from a power supplies the capacitor charges through the high resistance Until the
Vo
VS
V Vq
Time
potential difference between capacitor plates attain the “striking voltage” Vs of the neo
bulb at which it glows suddenly. The neon gas in the bulb then ionizes and the capacitor
is the discharged until its potential differences is reduced to a value Va known as
quenching voltage. At this voltage ionization stops and the cycle of operation charging
and then discharging of the capacitor result in the flashing of the neon bulb. The flashes
Page 82
occur at regular intervals of time and the time between tow cosecants flashes is called
flashing period. Let t1 be the time for the capacitor to charge up to Vs volts
and t2 is the time for it changes it unto Vq volts. When a voltage Vo is applied to a
capacitor to charge through a resistor R and its plates attains a potential difference of
volts after time it then.
 
t


V  V 1  e Rc 
 
t

V  V  V e Rc
V  V
t

 e Rc
V
t
V
 e Rc
V  V
V
t  CR log e
V  V
using this relation, we can write
V
t1  CR log e
V  VS
83 Page 83
V
t1  CR log e
V  VQ
The flashing period T is therefore, given by

 Vo Vo 
T  t1  t 2  CR log e  log e 
 Vo  VS Vo  VQ 
 
Vo  VQ
T  CR log e Provided the much smaller
Vo discharge
VS time ignore
Flash periods for the neon bulb are determined by changing the resistance R in regular
steps of mega ohms and a graph is plotted between T and R which comes to be a straight
line from the graph the unknown resistance can be computed after determining flashing
period of it.
Pre-Lab Preparation
Prepare the topics before coming into the perform lab:
1. What is Capacitor?
2. General uses of Capacitors?
3. Charging and discharging a Capacitor?
4. Types of Capacitors Paper Capacitor Air Capacitor Plastic Capacitor Plastic Film
Capacitor Silvered Mica Capacitor Ceramic Capacitor Mixed Dielectric

Capacitor Electrolyte Capacitor
Equipment
Power supply, neon lamp capacitor of known capacitance, mega ohm resistances,
stop watch.
Page 84
Procedure
1. Connect up the circuit as shown in diagram.The capacitor C should have the
capacitance from 0.2  F to 0.5  F and R should be of the order of mega ohms. To
carry the resistance R, We use known resistances one after the other with their
resistance increasing in regular order. A Power supply should be preferred to supply a
voltage to the circuit which is greater then the striking voltage of the length.
2. In order to check the striking voltage connects the neon bulb directly with the output
terminal of the power supply and increase the voltage gradually. Not the striking
voltage, when a sudden flash in the bulb occurs.
3. Adjust the valued of C and R so as to obtain a measurable rate of flashing of the neon
bulb. After this adjustable does not change the capacitance C and the applied voltage.
4. When flashes occur in regular manner, start the stop watch and note down the time for
20 flashes. Repeat the observations and fine out the mean time t for 20 flashes
calculate flashing period , T=t/20 of the bulb.
5. Go on increasing the value of R in regular steps and repeat the observation. For each
value of R to find out the corresponding flashing period.
6. Now connect the unknown in place of R and find out flashing period for it as done
previously.
7. Plot a graph between the resistance R and flashing period T which will be straight line
(diagram). From the graph read the flashing period of the unknown resistance and
determine the value of the resistance.
85 Page 85
Observations & Calculations
Striking voltage of the bulb , Vs=----------------------volts
Capacitance of the capacitor, C=------------------------  farad
Resistance R Time for 20 flahes Flashing period

No. of obs. R 1s 2s Mean T=t/20
Ohms Ts
Time for 20 flashes for the unknown resistance = _______ s

Flashing period for unknown resistance = T = ______ s
Value of unknown resistance from the graph = ______ ohm
Learning Outcomes
Students know how to find unknown capacitance or resistance by neon flash lamp
Questions
1. What is an Argon/Neon bulb?
2. What is the principle of Neon /Argon bulb?
3. What is flashing potential?
4. What is quenching potential?
5. Why the bulb flashes and quenches?
6. What is flashing and quenching time?
7. Why neon/argon is used in the bulb?
8. Why high resistance is needed in series with the circuit?
Page 86
Each student is required to perform the lab and submit the following Performa along with the
lab report.

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87 Page 87
Table SI prefixes
Factor Name Symbol Factor Name Symbol
1024 yotta Y 10-1 Deci d
1021 zetta Z 10-2 Centi c
1018 exa E 10-3 Milli m
1015 peta P 10-6 Micro µ
1012 tera T 10-9 Nano n
109 giga G 10-12 Pico p
106 mega M 10-15 Femto f
103 kilo k 10-18 Atto a
102 hecto h 10-21 Zepto z
101 deka da 10-24 Yocto y
A.1. Appendix
SI base units
The SI is founded on seven SI base units for seven base quantities assumed to be mutually
independent, as given in Table.
SI base unit
Base quantity Symbol
Name
length meter m
mass kilogram kg
time second s
electric current ampere A
thermodynamic temperature kelvin K
amount of substance mole mol
luminous intensity candela cd
Page 88
A.2. Appendix
Some physical Quantities

Derived quantity Name Symbol
Area square meter m2
Volume cubic meter m3
speed, velocity meter per second m/s
acceleration meter per second squared m/s2
wave number reciprocal meter m-1
mass density kilogram per cubic meter kg/m3
specific volume cubic meter per kilogram m3/kg
current density ampere per square meter A/m2
magnetic field strength ampere per meter A/m
amount-of-substance concentration mole per cubic meter mol/m3
Luminance candela per square meter cd/m2
kilogram per kilogram, which may
mass fraction kg/kg = 1
be represented by the number 1
A.3. Appendix
Some physical Quantities
Expression Expression
Derived in terms of in terms of
quantity Name Symbol other SI units SI base units
plane angle radian Rad - m·m-1 = 1 (b)
solid angle steradian sr - m2·m-2 = 1 (b)
Frequency hertz Hz - s-1
Force newton N - m·kg·s-2
pressure, stress pascal Pa N/m2 m-1·kg·s-2
energy, work,
quantity of joule J N·m m2·kg·s-2
heat
power, radiant
watt W J/s m2·kg·s-3
flux
89 Page 89
The
A.4. Ap
ppendix
Basic Mech
hanical Pro
operties
Elastic Shear
Pois
sson's
Material Modulus Modulu
us
Ratiio
(GPa) (GPa)
Aluminum
m [Al] 70 26 0.33
3
Aluminum
m Alloy 70 - 79 26 - 30 0.33
3
Brass 96 - 110 36 - 41 0.34

4
Brass; Noval
N 100 39 0.34
4
Brass; Red
R (80% Cu,, 20% Zn) 100 39 0.34
4
Brick (Co
ompression) 10 - 24 - -
Bronze; Regular 96 - 120 36 - 44 0.34

4
Bronze; Manganese 100 39 0.34

4
Carbon [C]
[ 6.9 - -
Ceramic 300 - 400 - -
Concrete
e 18 - 30 - 0.1 - 0.2
Copper [Cu]
[ 110 - 120 40 - 47 0.33
3 - 0.36
Copper Alloy
A 120 47 -
Cork - - 0
Glass 48 - 83 19 - 34 0.2 - 0.27
Gold [Au
u] 83 - 0.44
4
Iron (Cast) 83 - 170 32 - 69 0.2 - 0.3
Iron (Wrrought) 190 75 0.3
Page 90
Magnesium [Mg] 41 15 0.35
Magnesium Alloy 45 17 0.35
Monel (67% Ni, 30% Cu) 170 66 0.32
Nickel [Ni] 210 80 0.31
Nylon; Polyamide 2.1 - 2.8 - 0.4
Platinum [Pt] 145 - 0.38
7.0 × 10-4 - 2.0 × 10-4 -

Rubber 0.45 - 0.5
4.0 × 10-3 1.0 × 10-3
Silver [Ag] 76 - -
Solder; Tin-Lead 18 - 35 - -
Steel 190 - 210 75 - 80 0.27 - 0.3
Stone; Granite (Compression) 40 - 70 - 0.2 - 0.3
Stone; Limestone (Compression) 20 - 70 - 0.2 - 0.3
Stone; Marble (Compression) 50 - 100 - 0.2 - 0.3
Tin [Sn] 41 - 0.36
Titanium [Ti] 110 40 - 40 0.33
Titanium Alloy 110 - 120 39 - 44 0.33
Wood; Ash (Bending) 10 - 11 - -
Wood; Douglas Fir (Bending) 11 - 13 - -
Wood; Oak (Bending) 11 - 12 - -
Wood; Southern Pine (Bending) 11 - 14 - -
Zinc [Zn] - - 0.25
91 Page 91
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Applied Physics

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Revised Date Revised By Revised Topics

1. Experiment Length and

2. An experiment on parallelogram law

3. Free fall method experiment is

4. Theory of compound pendulum is

1. An experiment on neon flash lamp is

Remarks by Mentor: ----------------------------------------------

Remarks by HOD: -------------------------------------------------

Experiment 1-Length And Mass Measurement 1

Experiment 3-To determine height of an inaccessible object by sextant. 15

Experiment 4-Time Measurement - The Simple Pendulum 21

Experiment 6-To determine the frequency of A.C supply by Melde,s apparatus.

Error! Bookmark not defined.

Experiment 7-Study The Compound Pendulum and Determine The Value Of g 33

Experiment 8-To determine the elastic constants of a wire by a spiral spring 39

Experiment 9- To Determine The Modulus Of Rigidity Of Wire By Dynamic Method 44

Experiment 10-To determine the modulus of rigidity of wire by Maxwell needle 49

Experiment 11-To Find The Low Resistance By Carey Foster Bridge 54

Experiment 12-Conversion of galvanometer into an ammeter 59

Experiment 13-Conversion of galvanometer into a voltmeter 66

Experiment 14-Calibration of an ammeter by potentiometer 72

Experiment 15-Calibration of a voltmeter by potentiometer 77

Experiment 16-Measurement of resistance using neon flash lamp and capacitor. 82

EXPERIMENT 1-LENGTH AND MASS MEASUREMENT

Introduction and Theory overview:

Parts of a Vernier Caliper

Calculating the Reading

When a body is between the jaws of the Vernier Caliper;

VSR = n× L.C ( L.C. is least count of vernier calipers)

where 'r' is the radiuss of the spheere.

The headd of the screw has a ratcchet which avoids

The pitchh can be reprresented as;

The leastt count can be

Zero Errror and Zerro Correctioon: To get thhe correct measurement,

When this is done, anyyone of the follow

To find the diametter of the leead shot: With

Then, linnear scale reaading (P.S.R

If nth divvision of circcular scale liies over referrence line.

Then, cirrcular scale reading

Total reaading (T.R.) = P.S.R. + corrected

Then, volume of the lead shot,

If r is raddius of the wire,

The glass plate is grripped betw

The rangge of lengths that may be

Meassuring Raange of lenggths

 Working knowledge of basic featuress of Excel caalculations

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION:

1. Students get to know the use of vernier calipers.

1: Define the principle of vernier calipers?

3: State the reading of the screw gauge?

Questions Rating Remarks

EXPERIMENT 2-TO MEASURE THE DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY AND

Introduction and Theory overview:

Observation and Calculation

Trial Time NO. of dots Period (sec)

Acceleration of falling Object:

Mean acceleration = acceleration due to gravity = ----------------- (m/s)

Actual value of g =--------------------- (m/s)

Percentage Error = --------------------- %

1) Students understand the general relationships among position, velocity, and

2. Tick the slow uniform speed following two tapes?