Murali Rao, Henrik Stetkaer - Complex Analysis - An Invitation - A Concise Introduction To Complex Function Theory-World Scientific Publishing Company (1991) PDF

A Concise Introduction to Complex Function Theory
COMPLEX
ANALYSIS
AN INVITATION
IL Murali Rao
Henrik
S
COMPLEX
ANALYSIS
AN INVITATION
A Concise Introduction to Complex Function Theory
COMPLEX
ANALYSIS
AN INVITATION
Murali Rao
Department of Mathematics
University of Florida
USA
Henrlk
Institute of Mathematics
University of Aarhus
Denmark
%bworId Scientific
Singapore • New Jersey • London • I-long Kong
Published by
World Scientific Publishing Co. Pie. Lid.
P0 Box 128, Farrer Road, Singapore 9128
USA office: 687 Hattwefl Street, Teaneck, NJ 07666
UK office: 73 Lynton Mead, Toucridge, London N20 8DH
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication data is available.
COMPLEX ANALYSIS. An Invitation

CopyTig$n e 1991 by World Scientific Publishing Co. Pie. Lid.
All rights reserved. This book, or pilLs thereof. may not be in any form
orbyanymeans, electronic or mechanical. includisg photocopying, recording orany
storage and retrieval system now known or to be without
written pirmi sswnfrcen the Publisher.
ISBN 981-02-03756
981-02-0376-4 (pbk)
Printed in Singapore by JBW Printers & Binders Pte. Ltd.

Preface
This textbook is a rigorous introduction to the theory of functions of one complex
variable. Much of the material has been used in both graduate and undergraduate courses
at Aarhus University. ft is our impression that courses in complex function theory these
days at many places axe postponed to leave space for other topics like point set topology
and measure theory. Thus we have felt free to assume that the students as background
have some point set topology and calculus of several variables, and that they understand
e6 arguments. From Chapter X on we even use Lebesgue's dominated and monotone
convergence theorems freely. But the proofs are meant for the students and so they
are fairly detailed.
We have made an effort to whenever possible to give references to literature that is
accessible for the students and/or puts the theory in perspective, both mathematically and
otherwise. E.g. to the Chauvenet prize winning paper [Za] and to the fascinating gossip
on Bloch's life in [Ca] and its sequel [CFJ. Our goal is not to compete with the existing
excellent textbooks for historical notes and remarks or for wealth of material. For that
we refer the interested reader to, say the monumental work [Bu] and the classic [SG].
We have tried to reach some of the deeper and more interesting results (Picard's
theorems, Riemann's mapping theorem, Runge's approximation theorems) rather early,
and nevertheless to give the very basic theory an adequate treatment.
Standard notation is enforced throughout. A possible exception is that B[a,r] is the
closed ball with center a and radius r in analogy with the notation for a closed interval.
An important part of any course is the set of exercises. We have exercises after
each chapter. They are meant to be doable for the students, so we have quite often
provided hints about how to proceed.
A couple of times we have succumbed to the temptation of making a digression to
an interesting topic, that will not be pursued, e.g. Tauber's theorem, Fladamard's gap
theorem and the prime number theorem. We hope that the reader will be irresistibly
tempted as well.
The authors welcome correspondence with criticism and suggestions. In particular
about literature on the level of students that axe about to start their graduate studies
in mathematics.
V
facts.
Contents
Preface • V
Chapter 1. Power Series ...

Section 1 Elementary
._.4
Section2ThetheoremsofAbelandTauber
Section 3 Liouville's theorem
Section 4 Important power series
.............. 1
1
7
8
Section 5 Exercises 9
Chapter 2. Holomorphic and Analytic Functions ......... .13

Section 1 Basics of complex calculus 13
Section 2 Line integrals 17
Chapter 3. The Exponential Function, the Logarithm and

the Winding Number
Section 1 The exponential function 23
Section 2 Logarithm, argument and power 24
Section 3 Existence of continuous logarithms 28
Section 4 The winding number 31
Section 5 Square roots 35
Chapter 4. Basic Theory of Holomorphic Functions ...

Section 1 The Cauchy-Goursat integral theorem 43
Section 2 Selected consequences of the Cauchy integral formula 50
Section 3 The open mapping theorem 53
Section 4 gap theorem 58
Chapter 5. Global Theory ....... ......... 1
Section 1 The global Cauchy integral theorem 71

Section 2 Simply connected sets 75
Chapter 6. Isolated Singularities..... .......... ............ ...................... 79

Section 1 Laurent series 79
Vu
Contents
Section 2 The classification of isolated singularities .82

Section 3 The residue theorem 84
Topic 1 The statement 84
Topic 2 Example A 85
Topic 3 Example B 87
Topic 4 Example C 89
Section 1 Liouville's and Casorati-Weiersuass' theorems 99

Section 2 Picard's two theorems 100
Section 4 Alternative treatment 108
Section5Exercises 112
Chapter 8. Geometric Aspects and the Riemann Mapping Theorem ...................... 113
Section 1 The Riemann sphere 113
Section 2 The Mobius transformations 115
Section 3 MonteL's theorem 120
Section 4 The Ricmann mapping theorem 122
Section 5 Primitives 125
Chapter 9. Meromorphic Functions and Runge's Theorems..... ................. 129

Section 1 The argument principle 129
Section 2 Rouches theorem 131
Section 3 Runge's theorems 135
Section 4 The inhomogeneous Cauchy-Riemann equation 140
Chapter 10. Representations of Meromorphic Functions ..... .......... 147

Section 1 Infinite products 147
Section 2 The Euler formula for sine 151
Section 3 factorization theorem 153
Section 4 The r-function 157
Section 5 The Mittag-Leffler expansion 161
Section 6 The g- and p-functions of Weierstrass 163
vu'
Section 7 Exercises .165
Chapter 11. The Prune

Section 1 The Riemann zeta function .169
Section 2 Euler's product formula and zeros of ç .173
Section3Moreaboutthezerosofç 176
Section 4 The prime number theorem 177
Chapter 12. Harmonic Functions ............. ...... .......... .. ..183

Section 1 Holomorphic and harmonic functions 183
Section 2 Poisson's formula 187
Section 3 Jensen's formula 192
Chapter 13. Subharmonic Functions................ 199

Section 1 Technical results on upper semicontinuous functions 199
Section 2 Introductory properties of subharmonic functions 201
Section3Onthesetwhereu=_oo 203
Section 4 Approximation by smooth functions 205
Section 5 Constructing subharmonic functions 208
Section 6 Applications 210
Topic 1 Radó's theorem 210
Topic 2 Hardy spaces 211
Topic 3 F. and R. Nevanlinna's theorem 215
Sectionl Exercises 216
Chapter 14. Various Applications............. ........ ...... ........ .. 219

Section 1 The Phragm6n-Lindelöf principle 219
Section 2 The Riesz-Thorin interpolation theorem 221
Section 3 M. Riesz' theorem 223
References 231
Index 237
ix
Chapter 1 Power Series
SectIon 1 Elementary facts

This section contains basic results about convergence of power series. The simplest
and most important example is the geometric series
which converges absolutely for any z in the open unit disc. It emerges in so many other
contexts than complex function theory that it may be considered one of the fundamental
elements of mathematics (See the thought-provoking paper [Ha]).
Definition I.
A power series around E C is a formal series of the form
00
k
(1)
k=O
wherethe coefficients 0k E Care fixed and wherez E C.
We shall very often only consider the case = 0, i.e.
(2) >.akzk
because it will be obvious how to derive the general case from this more handy special
case.
We shall in Chapter Vl,* 1 encounter Laurent series, i.e. "power" series in which
the summation ranges over Z, not just N. A Laurent series will be a
a power series in z and another in the variable l/z.
Proposition 2.
Considerthe power series (2), and let us assume that the set {a&(klk = 0,1,2,...)
is bounded/or some C.
Then/or any p < the power series (2) converges absolutely and umformly in the
closed disc B[0,]] = {z E CIIzI p}.
Proof: Because of boundedness IakII(kI M for some M and all k. Thus if

Izi p < 1(1 then
k
Iakz9 < IakIICIkpkICI
Chapter 1. Power Series
So the series is dominated by a convergent series (the geomethc) and the proposition
follows from Weierstrass' M-test. 0
Proposition 2 says that the power series (2) either converges for all complex z or
there is a number m such that sup akmk I = oo. We define the radius of convergence
k
p E [0, co), of the power series (1) by
(3) p:=inf{m>olsuplakmkl=oo}
and the circle of convergence as {z E CIIz — zol = p} , provided p < oo . The
reason for this terminology is that (1) converges at each interior point of the circle
of convergence, and diverges at each exterior point.
A side remark: If z is not a complex number but, say a matrix, then the series
may converge even if the norm of z is bigger than p; that can happen in exponentiating
a matrix.
Theorem 3.
Let p denote the radius of convergence of the power series (I).
(a) (The Cauchy-Hadamard radius of convergence formula)
1
(4)
limsuplaki
k—co
(b) (The quotient formula). If 0 for all n, then
an
p= n—co
hm
provided that the limit exists in [0, oo]

(c) (1) converges for any 11 < p uniformly on the disc B[zo, R) ,and it converges
absolutely on B(zo, p).
Proof. (a) We prove that

I 1
limsuplakir —
k—co P
by contradiction: If
urn sup <

k—co P
then there exists m > p such that
urn sup <

k—co m
Section 1. Elementary facts
So except for finitely many k we have < 1 , i.e. Iakmkl is bounded,

contradicting the definition of p.
Next we shall prove that
limsuplakl S—
k—co P
or equivalently
urn sup S
for any b < p. In this case we note that there exists an M > 0 such that Iaklbk 5 M
for all k. Hence
1
k—co k—oo
(b) is left to the reader as Exercise 2.

(c) is part of Proposition 2. 0
As examples we note that the geometric series has radius of convergence 1, and
that the series
has radius of convergence p = 00.
Corollary 4.
If the power series E akzk has radius of convergence p. then so does the formally
differemuiaied series Eak+1(k + l)zk.
Proof Note that E ak.tl(k + l)zk converges if E a&kz' does. Then use Cauchy-
Hadainard and that lirn
k—co
=1. 0
Recalling that a uniformly convergent series of continuous functions has continuous
sum, we get
Proposition 5.
The sum of a power series is continuous inside its circle of convergence.
Much more is true inside, as we will discover in the next chapter, in which we
discuss differentiability. The behavior of the power series at the convergence circle is
more delicate, and aspects of it will be treated in §2.
3
c_ I.
An Nth order polynomial which is 0 at N +1 points is identically 0. A primitive
extension of this to power series, viewed as polynomials of infinite order, is the
following:
Proposition 6.
Assume that the power series (1) has positive radius of convergence, and let f denote
its sum.
(a)!! f(z) = Ofor z in a set which has zo as an accwnulation point, then the
coefficients are all 0.
(fi) In particular. f dezennines the coefficients uniquely.
Our final version of Proposition 6 will be the "Unique Continuation Theorem"

(Theorem IV.l 1).
Proof of the proposition: (8) is an immediate consequence of (a), so we will only

do (a). We also take = 0.
Let be a sequence from C, such that zk —, 0 as k oo . 0 and
f( z,) = 0 for k = 1,2,.... By the continuity of f we get
no = f(0) = urn f(zk) = 0
k—oo
But then
so replacing 1(z) by f(z)/z and by repeating the argument we find that = 0.

Proceeding in this way we get successively that a,, = 0 for n 0, 1,2,.... 0
For more detailed information on power series we refer the reader to [KnJ.
Section 2 The theorems of Abel and Tauber

In this paragraph we will in special cases study the behavior of the power series
(2) on its circle of convergence. Unfonunately, in general almost anything can happen.
One can here mention a famous example, due to L Fejér, of a power series that
converges uniformly, but not absolutely, on the closed unit disc. (See p. 125 if of
(ZaJ or p.122 of [Hil). Of course, absolute convergence on the circle of convergence
holds either everywhere or nowhere. In case of absolute convergence the power series
even converges uniformly on the closed disc B[0,p] = {z E Clizi p} , where p is
the radius of convergence. We are thus left with the case of nonabsolute convergence
which is technically unpleasant.
Section 2. The theuems ol Abel Thuber
Theorem 7 (Abel's theorem).

Assume thai the power series
f(z) =
converges for z = 1 and hence for each Izi 1.

Then E converges uniformly to 1(x) on the closed interval (Oil. In partic-
ular, f Ls continuous on (0,11 ,so
as x—il in [0,11
Proof: Note that the sequence
m>k
converges to 0 as k —. oo. In particular it is bounded so that the series Erkzk

converges whenever Izi 1. Now, for any z such that Izi 1 and any natural number
N we have
N 00 00
f(z)_>akzk=
k=O k=N+1 k=N+1
=
k=N+1 k=N+l
= — z)
from which we for z = x E 10,1] get the estimate

N 00
f(x) — sup {IrkI} xk(l — + IrNI sup {IrkI} + rNI
k=O k>N k=N+l k>N
Thus we have for any x E [0, 1] that
— 2 sup {IrkI}
k=O
the case x = 1 being trivial. 0

Chapter 1. Power
Examples 8.
A combmadon of Abel's theorem with the identities
for zl<1
arctan z = for Izi < 1
yields the following pretty formulas
Log2
which are called respectively Brouncker's series and Leibniz' series.
Our next theorem provides a partial inverse to Abel's theorem.
Theorem 9 (Tauber's theorem).

111(z) = EaLz' converges on the unit disc, kak —' 0 as k —' oo and limf(x)
exists for x 1_ , then E 0k converges.
Proof. Introducing
:= and w(n) := sup {klakl}

k=O
we find since
1_xkk(1_x) and
that
(5) If(x)_snIElakI(1_xk)+w(n+1)
k=1 kn+1
<w(0)(n+1)(1—x)+
The expression on the right hand side of (5) is of the form At + and when
= B/A it equals So when satisfies
)2 w(n+1)
(1—x
(n + 1)2w(O)
6
Section 3. Ucuvile's theorem
we have from (5) that
— + 1)
0
RemarL More difficult is Uttlewood's Tauberian theorem which requires only
that { } is bounded. For an accessible proof (due to Karamata and Wieland) see
p.129 if of [Za].
Even though the following identity is easy to state and prove it is often useful in
manipulations with explicitly given series. We used it, without actually saying so, in
the proof of Abel's theorem.
Proposldon 10 (Abel's partial swnmation formula).

k
Let ckand dk , k = O,1,•",n be complex numbers, and put 3k := Ed1 for
1=0
k = O,1,"•,n.
Then
(6) >ckdk
SectIon 3 LIouville's theorem

Liouville's theorem (that a bounded entire function is constant), is not only interest-
ing in itself, but it is also useful in many unexpected situations. It has a generalization
which says that a power series that grows ax most polynomially at oo is a polynomial.
We present the generalization here:
Theorem 11 (Liouville's theorem).

Let the power series
1(z) =
h.we infinUe radius of convergence.

(i) 1ff is bounded then f is constant.
(LI) More generally, if f for some nonnegative constants a, b and m satisfies the
estimate
jf(z)I for oil IzI > b
then m.
7
Chapter). Power
Of course Liouville's theorem does not hold for smooth functions of one or more
real variables. For example, the function f(x) = sin x is a bounded, smooth function
of one real variable, but it is certainly not constant.
Liouville's theorem can be generalized to harmonic functions (See Chapter XII.
Exercise 10).
Pmof. It suffices to prove (ii). The coefficient may for any n = 0, 1,2,..- be
found by the formula
=
J for any R > o
which crops up when we introduce the power series expansion of f on the right hand
side. In particular we get the estimate
lani
<
Substituting the estimate for I from (ii) into this we find that
forall R>b
Letting R .—' 00 we see that = 0 whenever n > m, so the power series reduces to
N
thepolynomialf(z)= ,whereNistheintegerpartofm. 0
n0
For proof without calculus (!) see [Le].
SectIon 4 Important power series
In this paragraph we collect the most important power series expansions. Some
of them will be derived later. In particular we will discuss the exponential function
in the next chapter.
Section 5. Exetcises
00
1
for IzI<1
n0
00
ez=>— n!
for zEC
n=O
e+e_ix 00 fl
cosz= = for z E C
2
n=o
(2n)
00 n
e — (—1) 2n-i-1
S1flZ (2n+l)!r for z C
2i —
—
n0
00
cosh z=
2
n0
00
— 1
2ti+1
sinhz= — (2n+l)!Z for z C
2
n0
00
z" for IzI<1

n1
00
(1 +Z)a = for Izi < 1 (principal branch)

>
n0
00 n
(—1)
arctanz => for IzI < 1
n=o
+1
00
1•3•5 (2n—1) 2n+i
arCSiflZ=> 2.4•6
Z
2n
for JzI<1
n=O
2w
J
0
00
(
= for z C (Bessel function)
n=0
n ÷ 1)
SectIon 5 Exercises
1. Determine the radius of convergence and study the behavior on the circle of
convergence of the following four power series
00 k 00 j 00
k=1 k=0
where n is a positive integer.

2. Let >0 and bn E C\{0} for n =
9
Chapter I. Power Series
(a) Show that
hminf—
n—oo n—.oO
<limsup—
(,9) Show that the radius of convergence of is Jim , provided

n=n
that the limit exists in [0, ooj
3. Let a 0. Show that the radius of convergence of the power series
1 +...
is 1/(eIbI).
4. Find an example of a power series that converges only at z = 0.
5. (a) Let and be power series with radii of convergence p and
a respectively. Consider the product series , defined by
for n=0,1,•.
Show that its radius of convergence r satisfies r mm (p, a) , and that
= whenever < min(p,a)
(/9) Let E a,1 and E be convergent series of complex numbers, and let E
n—O n=O n=O
denote the series given by
cn=>akbfl_k for
Show that
provided that E is convergent.

n0
6. (EnestrOm-Kakeya)
(A) If ... ai >0 , then
0 for all IzI > 1
10
Section 5. Exercises
(Hint: Abel's partial summation formula).

(B) Deduce from (A), that > an_I > > ai > > 0 implies that EOL.Zk
hasall its roots in the open disc IzI <1.
For extensions of the Enestrom-Kakeya result consult e.g. [DO]. The result has
applications in digital signal analysis, where it is used in examinations of stability of
filters.
7. In this problem we generalize the Alternating Series Theorem from the real
domain to the complex domain (point (a)). We consider a power series E where
{ak} is a sequence of positive numbers decreasing to 0. We let 1(z) denote its sum.
(a) Prove Abel's test (due to E. Picard): The series converges everywhere on the
unit circle except possibly at z = 1.
Hint: Abel's partial summation formula. Or use the geometrical proof in the short
note [Be].
(8) Give an example in which the series diverges at z = 1 and another in which
it converges at z = 1.
as z—'
8. Let 1(z) := Eaaz' have radius of convergence p > 0. Show for each such
that = 1 and such that as not a root of unity [i.e. 1 for all n 11 that
=0
uniformly in z on compact subsets of B(0, p).
Deduce the Cauchy inequaluy
sup lf(z)t foreach rE]0,p(
zlr
9. (A generalization of Abel's theorem)
Let us assume that the power series f(z) := >2akzL converges for z = 1 and
hence for each Izi < 1
(a) Let C > 0. Show that Eakzk converges to f(z) uniformly on the set
B(0,1) c} u (1)
(.8) Let B E . Show that Eokzk converges to f(z) uniformly on the set
(sketch it !)
{zEB(0,1)II1—zIcos9 ,
10. Show by dint of an example that the assumption kak —. 0 in Tauber's
L—oo
theorem cannot be deleted.
11
Chapter 2 Holomorphic and Analytic Functions
SectIon 1 BasIcs of complex calculus

Definition 1.
Let f be a complex valued function defined on an open set in the complex plane.
f is said ta be complex differentiable at E C if the limit
f(zo+h)—f(zo)
(1) lim
h—O h
exLct.s in C.
The limit is called the complex derivative off at zo and is denoted
f
Lv holomorphic on is complex differentiable a: each point of Il. The
function f : —. C is then called the complex derivative of I or just the derivative. If
there exists a holomorphic function F defined on such that F' = f. we say that F is
a primitive off. III is holomorphic in all of C then f is said to be entire.
Like in real variable theory we find that I is continuous on an open set Q if it is

holomorphic on ft
By routine calculations the usual rules for differentiation also hold in the complex
case:
Theorem 2.
(a) 1ff andgare holomorphic on Il then so are f+gandfg, and(f + g)' =
(fg)' f'g + fg'.
(b) Let f and g be holomorphic on ft If g is not identically 0 on c then f/g is
holomorphic on the open set {z E O}, and on this set
(fV_ f'g—fg'
g2
(c) The chain rule: 1ff is holomorphic on g on and f( is contained in IZ1,

then the composition g o f is holomorphic on fl, and
(go f)'(z) = g'(f(z))f'(z) for all E fl
As is easy to see from the theorem, the set of functions which are holomorphic on
fl forms an algebra over the complex numbers. We denote this algebra
Examples.
(a) Constants are holomorphic and their derivatives are 0.
13
Chapter 2. Holomo$ic and Analytic Functions
(b) The function z is holomorphic and its derivative is 1.

z
(C) The function z is holomorphic on C for n = 0,1,2,... , and on C\{0}
for n = -.1, —2,.... In both cases with derivative (z")' =
(d) A polynomial p(z) = Eaazk is entire and p'(z) =
Theorem 3.
Let 1: Q —' C , where is an open subset of the complex plane, and write
f= u + iv . u
where and v are real valued functions.
(a) 1ff it holomorphic on ci then all the first order partial derivatives of u and v
exist in ci and the Cauchy-Riemann equations are satisfied there, i.e.
OuOv ,40u Ov
or in a more compact notation

Of
=0, where 0 := 110 +z
.0
(b) 1ff E C'(f 1) satisfies the Cauchy-Rie,nann equations in ci then f is holomorphic
Proof
(a) This is seen from (I) by letting h tend to 0 along the real and the imaginary
axes respectively. (b) Left to the reader as Exercise 4. 0
Remarks on the Cauchy..Rlemann equations: The differentiability conditions in
point (b) of the theorem can be relaxed considerably. One generalization is the Looman-
Menchoff theorem:
Let f C(ci). Then f HoI(f), if Of/Ox and Of/Oy exist in all of ci and
satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann equations there (See Theorem 1.6.1 p.48 of [Na]).
Another generalization: It suffices that the Cauchy-Riemann equations are satisfied
in the sense of distributions (See [Tr,Theorem p.36]). For more information see
[GM].
The Cauchy-Riemann equations say roughly speaking that I does not depend on
1, and so it is a function of z only.
If f is holomorphic on an open set then (use the Cauchy-Riemann equations)

= Igradul2 = Igradvl2 , and lgradul2 = (Ou/Ox)2 + (Ou/Oy)2. In particular,
1' = 0 throughout ci implies that f is constant on each connected component of ci.
Not all functions are holomorphic: E.g. z is not.
As we saw in an example above, the functions fo = 1 and fi(z) = z are entire.
Hence so is each polynomial in z. And each rational function, i.e. each function of
14
Secdcn 1. Basics at conipici calculus
the form / = P/Q where P and Q are polynomials, is holomorphic off the zeros of
the denominator Q. It turns out (Propositions ilLS and 11L20 of the next chapter) that
continuous roots and logarithms are holomorphic, too. So are power series; we give
a direct proof here. A shorter, but more sophisticated proof is given below following
Lemma 12.
ProposItion 4.
The swn of a power series is holomoiphic inside its circle of convergence, and its
derivative can be go: by term-by-term differentiation: If
1(z) = —
has radius of convergence p > 0 , then I is holomorphic on B(zo, p) and
f(z) = >aRn(z — z B(zo,p)
In particular all the complex derivatives f', f",... exist in B(zo, p).
Proof: Observe that the formula for f makes sense by Comflaiy 1.4. Let us for
convenience of writing assume that zo = 0.
The technical key to the proof is the following inequality:
+ h)R — ZR — +
validfornEN,h,zEC suchihat O<JhIo.
f(z+h)—f(z)
= — —
as h—eO
The inequality follows from the binomial formula:
(z + h)R — Zn — — z'1 —
=
= k=2 = {t2
15
Chapter 2. and Analytic Funcdons
so
I(z + — —
k=2
k=2 = k=2
= (Izi +
Definition 5.
Let be an open subset of C. Afuncnon f : —. C is said tobe analytic on cZ if
for each point zo C there exists an open disc B(zo,p) in Q in which can be written f
as the swn of a power series centered at zo, i.e. I can be written
1(z) = — zn)" for z E B(:o,p)
We have already observed that the coefficients } in the power series around zn
are uniquely determined by f (Proposition 1.6). By help of Proposition 4 we can even
say what the coefficients are
= for n = 0,1,2,...
So, restricting to the real line, we see that the power series expansion of an analytic
function coincides with its Taylor series expansion. Given any sequence (an) of
complex numbers the power series E may or may not converge around 0. There
always exists a C°° function on the real line with E an as its Taylor series. Many
in fact (Sec e.g. [Me]). But such functions will in general not be restrictions of power
series to the real line.
A consequence of Proposition 4 is that an analytic function is holomorphic, a result

which is nice, but certainly not surprising. What is surprising and remarkable is that
the converse is true (as will be proved in Chapter IV). Under the (apparently) humble
assumption that I is complex differentiable, we shall infer that I is infinitely often
differentiable and even that f around each point in its domain of definition can be
expanded in a power series.
The situation is vastly different in the case of functions on the real line. There the
derivative of a differentiable function need not even be continuous, let alone expandable
in a power series.
But for complex plane the word "holomorphic" is synonymous with

functions in the
the word "analytic". However, until we have proved that result, we must distinguish
between the two concepts.
16
Sccuon 2. Line integrals
SectIon 2 LIne Integrals

In this paragraph we introduce the line integrals which axe important tools in
complex function theory.
We shall until further notice not require any finer theory of integration and con-
vergence theorems. All we need is to consider piecewise continuous functions on the
real line and uniform convergence.
Definition 6.
A curve (i.e. a continuous map) [a, bJ —. C where —oo < a < b < oo, is said
•
to be a path it is piecewise thfferentiable. This means that there are points
such that the derivative exists in the open subi,uerval Jt,, t,+i[ and extends to a
continuous function on the closed subinten'al [t1, for each j = 0,1,2,....
The length 1(7) of the path is the number
1(7) := 17'(t)Idt E [0, oo[

I
To be precise, we distinguish between the curve which is a map, and its image
-(([a, bJ) which Is a compact subset of C.
We will say that a complex number z belongs (or does not belong) to the curve
z E 7' (resp. z We express the same thing by saying that 7 passes through z
(resp. does not pass through z).
The curveis saidto be closed -,'(a) =
If' Is contained in a subset (1 of C then we will say that is a curve in (1.
Examples 7.
(a) The positively oriented circle around C with radius R> 0, i.e. the curve
(t) = zo + Re" for I (0,2x1
is a closed path with length 2,rR. We will often write Iz — zoI = R instead of .
(b) The line segment [A, BJ, where A and B are complex numbers, i.e. the curve
[A,BJ:=(1—t)A+tB for IE[O,1J

isapath of Length l([A,B1) = lB—Al
(c)LetA,B,CE C.
and C (the order is important!) we understand the closed curve defined by
([A,BJ(t) fcrt€[0,1J
{
[B,C](t—1) foriE[1,2]
L[C,A](t—2) fortE[2,3]
17
chapter 2. Holomoqthic and Analytic Functions
his apath of length = IB—AI+IC—BI+IA—Cf.
The length of a path does not depend on its parametrization. More formally:
Proposition 8.
Let-y: (a,b) C bea path. Ic,dj [a,b] bea
monotone map of [c,dJ onto [a,b]. Then 1(7) = 1(70
Proof:
The change of variables theorem. 0
Definition 9.
Let : [a,b] —. C be apath, and letf : = -,((a,bJ) C be a continuous
function. The line integral of f along 7 is the complex nwnber
Ji = J f(z)dz :=J
To emphasize what the variable is, we sometimes write f f(w)dw or the like instead
of ff(z)dz.
The next proposition collects properties of the line integral which will be useful
for us in the sequel.
Proposition 10.
Let (a, 6) —. C be a path, and let f be a continuous, complex-valued function
ony'. Then
(a)
J f(z)dz
7
sup
zEir
(b) (A primitive version of the fact that the line integral is invariant under orientation-
preserving changes of parameter).
Let —oo < c < d < 00. If 4: [c, d] (a, bJ has the form
c6(s)=ks+1,sE(c,d),wherek,1ER
and if ,naps (c, d] onto (a, b] then
Ji = sign(lc)J i
18
Section 2. Line integrals
For two points A and B in C we have in particular
Jf=-Jf
IA,Bl LB,A)
(C) LetcE]a,b[ and define paths 7J and 72 by
:= 7(1) for t E [a,cj

72(t) := 7(1) for I E [c,bl
Then
Jf=Jf+Jf
If C E [A, BJ' , where A and B are points of C, then in particular
11= 1
tA,Bl [A,CJ
1+ fi
IC,B)
(d) If {f,j is a sequence of continuous functions on -y' that converges wufonnly

on to f, then
j as n —+
/ /
(e) If f is defined on a neighborhood of-y and has a prisninve, say F, there, then
Ji = F(7(b)) — F(7(a))
Ifflirthennore -y is closed then ff = 0.

7
Proof: Left to the reader. 0

We conclude this chapter by some applications of line integrals. They are invest-
ments for the future.
Definition 11.
A subset A of is said to be starshaped, if there exists a point a E A such that
oil the segments
{tx+(1—t)aItE[0,1J} , xEA
are contained in A; we say that A is slarshaped with respect to a.
19
Chapter 2. Holocnopldc and Analytic Functions
Clearly any convex set is starshaped. An interval is a simple, but important special
case.
Lemma 12.
Let ci be an open subset of C which Is starshaped with respect to a point a E ci.
Letg E C(ci)have:hepropersythat f g=O,wh never in Il witha
8A
as one of its vertices. Then the fisnction
zEfZ
(a,zJ
is holomorphic on Cl and G' =g. Inparticularghasaprhnitive.
Proof: Let z E ci. If hE C is so small that [z,z+h) is contained in Cl then we

get from our assumption that
G(z+h)—G(z)= J g—Jg= J 9=hJ9(z+th)dt

(a,zJ ts,a+hJ 0
Division through by h and use of the continuity of g at z gives us the lemma.
We can now give the promised simpler proof of Proposition 4:
Proof of Proposition 4: Let us, as in the earlier proof, for convenience take zo =0.
The power series
g(z)
converges according to Corollary 1.4 uniformly on compact subsets of B(O, p) , so term

by term integration is permitted and yields
1(z)
= J g(w)dw+ao for zEB(O,p)
I0,zJ
By Lemma 12 it now suffices to prove that the integral of g along any triangle in
B(O, p) vanishes. But that is easy: Indeed,
/ g(z)dz = >aitnJ z"1dz = 0
because the integral of z"t vanishes (z"1 has a primitive, viz. zn/n).
20
Sec*ioz 2. Exercises
Lemma 13.
Letçó: —. Thenthefuncuon
, zEC\7'
is anoiytic, hence holomorphic and
f(")(z) for n = 0,1,2,...

= (w
If C\7' then the power series expansion off around zo converges everywhere
in the open disc aivund zo with radius dist(zo,
As support for our memory we note that the formula for appears when we
differentiate f under the integral sign.
Proof:
If — zol <dist(zo,7') , then the geometric series
00
converges uniformly for w E y' to

1
W—ZO
so writing
(
— j(w—zo)
W ZO
we find
q%(w)
2irf(z)= f w—t dw= dw
J J 0\w—zoJ
7
dw
W ZO W zO
7
dw}(z — zo)R
= (w
which exhibits the power series expansion of f around zo. 0

21
Chapter 2. Holomoq,hic and Analylic Funcuons
SectIon 3 ExercIses
1. Let f be holomorphic on an open subset Cl of the complex plane. Define a
function f on C := (a Cl) by f(z) := f(s) for z Cr.
Show that f is holomorphic on Cr.
Suppose that f has the power series expansion f(z) = Eanzv* on Cl. Find the
power series expansion of f' on Cr.
2. Show that the function 1(z) := 1z12 has a complex derivative at z = 0 but
nowhere else.
3. Is the function f(z) = entire ?
4. Let u and v be real valued functions on an open subset Cl of C. We assume that
their first partial derivatives with respect to x and y exist and are continuous.
Show that f := u + iv is holomorphic in Cl if the Cauchy-Riemann equations hold.
5. Show that
1(z) exp z C\{0}

z=0
is a discontinuous function, that nevertheless satisfies the Cauchy-Riemann equations
everywhere.
6. Show that the pair of functions
u(x,y)=22 and v(x,y)=—22

satisfiesthe Cauchy-Riemann equations on C\{0}
Hint: You need not differentiate.
7. Let -y be a closed path in C. Show that f is purely imaginary.
8. Assume that the power series 1(z) = E converges in B(O,p). Show that
f is analytic on B(O,p).
Hint:
1
I
w—z
dwwhenlzl<R<p
j
lwkR
9. Let f be holomorphic on an open subset Cl of the complex plane. Let
:J — 1,1(—+ Cl be differentiable at t = 0
Show that f o is differentiable at i = 0 and that
d(foY)(0)
22
Chapter 3 The Exponential Function, the
Logarithm and the Winding Number
SectIon 1 The exponential function
We assume that the reader is familiar with the exponential function, the logarithm
and the cos and sin functions on the real line.
We define the exponential function exp : C —. C by
for zEC
By Theorem 1.3(c) the power series converges absolutely and uniformly on compact
subsets of C, and by Proposition 11.4 its sum 1(z) = exp (z) is entire and satisfies
f,
f' = f(O) = 1. On the real line exp reduces to the well known real exponential
function.
Let us study the exponential function on the imaginary axis in C : For any r E R
we have
=
exp(ix) = +
n0 m=O ,n=O
(2m+1)!
00 2m 00 2,n+t
= +
+ 1)!
= cos S + j Sin S
From this we see in particular that := exp (ix) maps the real line onto the
unit circle {zECIIzI=1}
The most important property of the exponential function is that it couples the
additive and multiplicative structures of C as follows:
Theorem I (The Addition Theorem).

exp(a + b) = exp(a)exp(b) for all a.b E C
Proof. When we differentiate g(z) := exp(z)exp(a + b — z) we get g'(z) = 0

so g is constant. The contents of the theorem are g(0) = g(a). 0
Note that exp never vanishes (by The Addition Theorem).
The power series for exp has real coefficients. Therefore exp (ii) = exp (a), which
by the addition theorem implies that
Iexp(a)12 = exp(a + = =
23
Chapter 3. The Exponential Function, the Logarithm and the Winding Numbcr
so Iexp (a)I = exp (na). From this we deduce that
a study of the exponential function on C : Writing w E C\{O} in

the form w = we can by the above results express w as
w=exp(x)exp(iB)=exp(z+i9) for some x,OER

so exp(C) = C\{O}. Finally,
exp(a)=exp(b) a—bE2iriZ
Proof:
<=: An immediate consequence of The Addition Theorem.
=>: Lctexpa=expb. Thenexp(a—b)=1,andsoa—bEiR,saya—b=iO.
Then cos9 + isin9 = expi8 = exp(a — b) = 1, 50 8 E 2irZ. 0
Lemma 2.
Let 4,(8) := exp (16) for 8 E R. Then 4, is 1-1 on any ha If open i,uerval of the form
[a, a + 2ir[ , and it is a homeomorphism of the open interval Jo, a + 2ir[ onto the arc
{z E IzI = 1, z exp(ia)}
A homeomorphism is a bijection which is continuous both ways.
The lemma expresses the geometrically obvious fact that the angle of a point depends
continuously on the point.
Proof. The only non-trivial statement is the one about the homeomorphism property.
4' is, however, clearly continuous, so left is just the continuity of the inverse of 4,, i.e.
the following claim:
If where 8n,8E]a,a+2ir[ then —.8
To see this claim, let 90 be any limit point of the sequence 90 must belong to
the closed interval Ea, a + and exp(i8) = exp (i90). Now, Oo cannot equal any of
the end points because exp there equals exp(ia) exp(i8), and because exp is 1-1 on
)a,a + we must have 8 = 8o. 0
Section 2 Logarithm, argument and power
By § I the restriction of the exponential function to C is the familiar real exponential
function. Its inverse mapping is (by definition) the logarithm, which here will be denoted
by Log. If z E C\{O} we can write
(1) z = = exp (Log IzI) exp(iO) = exp (Log Izi + iO)
24
Seclion 2. Logarithm. aiBument and power
with B real. From §1 we see that 0 is unique if we restrict it to lie in any given
half-open interval of length 2,r.
Definition 3. Let z C\{O}. The sets
(1) argz:={oeRIexp(io)=f1} anti

(2) Iogz:={aeClexp(a)=z}
are called the argument of z and the logarithm of z, respectively. We will, however, use
this terminology in an ambiguous way: Any real nwnber in the set (2) will be called an
argument of z and denoted by arg z; any complex number in (3) will be called a logarithm
of z and denoted by log z. Jr will be clear from the context which interpretation we hove
in mind.
The geometrical meaning of arg z is the following: Let I be the ray in C starting
at the origin and passing through z. Then arg z is the set of values of the angles from
the positive real semi-axis to the ray I.
We see from the definitions (1) and (2) that every non-zero complex number has an
infinity of logarithms and arguments. Any two arguments differ by an integer multiple
of 2,r, and any two logarithms by an integer multiple of 2,ri. We can write
(4) for zEC\{O}
Definition 4.
1ff is a never vanishing complex valued function, defined on some topological space,
then by a continuous logarithm of f (or a branch of log f) we mean any continuous
complex valued function F such that exp F = f, and by a continuous argument of
I (or a branch of arg f) we mean any continuous real valued function 0 such that
I = Iflexp(iO).
Of course, if 1: X oo[ is continuous, then Log I is an example of a branch
of log 1.
From the discussion above we get a uniqueness result : If f is a never-vanishing
continuous complex valued function on a connected topological space, then any two
continuous logarithms of f differ by a constant integer multiple of 27ri; and any two
continuous arguments of f differ by a constant integer multiple of 2,r.
We now turn to the question of regularity of logarithms and arguments. The fol-
lowing theorem tells in particular that any branch of log z automatically is holomorphic.
But more is true: In Chapter IV we shall present a generalization in which we replace
exp by any non-constant holomorphic function (Proposition IV. 18).
25
Chapter 3. The Exponential Function, the Logarithm and the Winding Number
Theorem S.
Let f be holomorphic on an open subset Q of the complex plane, and let F be a
continuous logarithm off in
Then F is also holomorphic in fl, and F' = 1,/f.
Proof:
We shall show that F has a complex derivative at each point z E fl. From the
defining relation expF(a) = 1(a) for any a E fl we get
as h—iO
and division through by exp F(z) = 1(z) yields

exp(F(z + h) — F(z)) — 1 f'(z)
(5) as h —' 0
Expansion of the exponential function in (5) shows that
F(z+h)—F(z) 1 {F(z+h)—F(z)}" f'(z)

h +h
n2
so it suffices to prove that
(6)
(z+ for h—.0
Now Ie° — ii IaI/2 when is small. Indeed,
C° — 1
1 as a —. 0
a
Therefore we find, putting a = F(z + h) — F(z) in (5), that IF(: + h) — F(:)I/IhI is
bounded for small h, i.e. there exist C > 0 and S E JO, 1[ such that
IhI + h) — F(z)I S
By help of this we may for Ihi <6 estimate the left hand side of (6) as follows:
26
Section 2. Logaruhm. argument and power
Example 6.
Consider, for given Go R, the open set
:= E C\{O} I exP(iOo)}
Let 0(z) for z Il denote the value of arg z in the open interval }Oo, Go + 2ir[. Then
(a) z —, 0(z) is a branch of argz in
(8) z —+ Log Izi + iO(z) is a branch of log z in Q. In particular it is a holomorphic
function.
Proof:
(a) is a consequence of the last statement of Lemma 2, while (/3) follows from
(a). 0
Example 7.
Let us take = —ir in Example 6, so that fI = C\{: E RI: <0). Let Arg: for
z fl denote the value of arg z in the interval — it, ir[. Then z .4rg: is a branch
of arg z in il. It is called the principal branch of arg z. The corresponding continuous
logarithm of z in Q is called the principal branch of log: and denoted Log: . So
Log z is holomorphic according to Theorem 5.

Note that the principal branch of log z extends the function Log on R from earlier
so that the notation is unambiguous. If x E R+ and nothing is specified to the contrary,
we will very often be sloppy and write log x instead of the more precise term Log x.
Note also that (Log z)' =
Now we can define complex powers : Let a 0. For any fixed choice of log a -
and we have a countable infinity of choices -
1(z) exp(zloga)
is called the zh power of a. f is clearly holomorphic in the entire complex plane, i.e.
f is entire. The Addition Theorem tells us that f satisfies the relations
f(z+w)=f(z)f(w), f(0)=1, f(1)=a

In particular
f(n)=a" for n=0,l,2,•.•

so it is natural to use the notation aX for 1(z). Note also that a" is independent of the
choice of log a. We see that exp z is one of the zth powers of e, viz the one with the
27
Chapter 3. The Exponential Function, the Logarithm and the Winding Nwnbcr
choice loge = 1 , and we shall from now on often write e' instead of exp z . More
generally, if a > 0 we shall always put
az=exp(zLoga) for :EC
Section 3 Existence of continuous logarithms

In this section we shall discuss whether branches of log f exist for given function
f. Before studying general functions f we will examine the important special case
1(z) = z. To indicate the kind of difficulties we may encounter, we present an example
to the effect that log z cannot be defined in a continuous way in all of C\{0) . However.
to make the reader happy again, we note that there do exist branches of log z in the
complex plane minus any half-ray starting at the origin (Example 6 above).
Example 8.
We claim that it is not possible to find a continuous log z on
:= (z E C Izi = 1)
I
let alone on the punctured plane C\{0}. It suffices to prove that there does not exist
any branch of arg z on S' - after all arg z is the imaginary part of log z. It is intuitively
obvious that no branch of arg z exists on S1: Let us keep track of the argument as we go
around the unit circle counterclockwise starting at I. From the geometrical interpretation
of the argument we see that arg z increases continuously, and when we have gone all
the way round it has increased by 2,r. And so it does not take its former value at I
as it should by its continuity at 1. Thus arg z cannot be defined in a continuous way
all around the unit circle.
Here is a short rigorous proof of the noh-existence of arg z: As most proofs of
non-existence it goes by contradiction, so we assume that there exists a continuous
argument 0 : S' R , so that
z =exp(iO(z)) focal! zES1

The relation shows in particular that 0 is 1-1. Thus the mapping I : S' {1, —1},
given by
f(z) —
for z E S'
is well-defined and continuous. But since 1(z) = —f(—z) it maps the connected space
S1 onto the disconnected space {1, —1). Contradiction! 0
We shall now ueat the question of whether a given function f has a continuous
logarithm log f, i.e. the existence question. We hide most of the technicalities away
in the proof of the following proposition.
28
Section 3. Existence of continuous logarithms
Proposition 9 (The homowpy lifting property).

Let X be a topological space and let F : X x [0, 1) —. C\{0} be a continuous
Assume that the restriction of F to X x (0) has a continuous logarithm, say
X x {0) —' C.
Then F has a continuous logarithm that extends
Proof: We use the abbreviation = çii(x,0) for x E X.

step.
We will prove that it suffices to verify the following localized version of the
proposition
To every x E X there exists an open neighborhood N(x) of x in X, and a continuous

map
N(x) x [0,1) —* C ,such that
Ox(Y,O) = for all yE N(x) , and
cxp(97)=F on N(x)x(0,1)
Indeed, assume that the localized version is true. Then for any x, y E X and any
E N(x) fl N(y) we have
= F(xn,t) = exp(9,(xo,t)) so
92(xo,i) — O,(xo,i) = 2irin(l) , where n(l) E Z
The left side is a continuous function of 1, so t —. n(i) is a continuous, integer valued

function on [0,11 , hence a constant. Taking the condition
= =
into account we see that the constant is 0.
We have thus shown that and agree on their common domain of definition, and
so the collection z E X patches together to a continuous function 9: X x [0, 1] —' C,
which is the desired logarithm of F.
2nd step.
We shall verify the localized version of the proposition is true, so let E X. By
neighborhood N = N(ro) of ro E X such that each
F(Nx [tk,tk+I)) , k=0,1,2,•••,n—1

is contained in a subset of C \ {0) on which there exists a branch of log z
We now define inductively continuous maps
Ok:Nx[tk,tk+1J—.Cfork=0,1,2,...,n-—1
in the following way:
29
chapter 3. The Exponential Function, the Logarithm and the Winding Number
Since there exists a branch of logz on F(N x we can form logF there, i.e.
we can find a continuous function A0 : N x [0, ti] C such that
exp(Ao) = F on N x [O,t1]
Noting that
exp(Ao(x,O)) = F(x,O) = exp(44x)) so that

Ao(x,O)) = 1
we define
9o(x,t) := Ao(x,t) — Ao(z,i) + çt(z)

Then : N x [0,t1) —. C is a continuous function that satisfies
exp(9o)=F ,and 9o(x,O)=çS(x) for xEN

Arguing in exactly the same way we find successively for k = 1,2,.. , n—i continuous
.
functions 9k : N x [tk,tk+1) C such that
exp(Ok)=F ,and Ok(x,tk)=Ok_1(x,ik) for zEN

Obviously the 9k glue together to form a continuous function 0 : N x [0, 1) C with
the desired properties. 0
Remark. Proposition 9 is a special case of a result from point set topology, viz that
a covering projection is a fibration. See e.g. [Sp;Theorem 2.2.3 p.671.
Proposition 10.
If A is a starshaped subset of R'1 then any continuous mapping I : A —' C\{0}
has a continuous logarithm.
Proot With notation from Definition 11.11 we consider the continuous map F:
Ax [0,1) C\{0} ,defined by
F(z,t):=f(tz+(1—t)a) for (z,t)EAx[0,1)
Since x F(z, 0) = f(a) is a constant function it has a continuous logarithm, hence
by Proposition 9 so does F. A fortiori so does x —. F(z, 1) = f(z). 0
As we shall see later (Theorem V.9), Proposition 10 extends to from starshaped to
simply connected spaces.
Here we will as an application of Proposition 10 present an interesting digression:
The 2-dimensional version of the famous Brouwer's fixed point theorem (Theorem
11(c) below).
30
Section 4. The winding number
Theorem 11.
(a) There is no Continuous mapping r: B[O,1) —.S' with the pmperty thatr(z) =:
for all z
(b) Any continuous mapping f: B[o, a fixed point.
1] —* B[O, 1] has
(c) Let K be a non-empty, convex, compact subset of C. Then any continuous map
f: K —. Khasaflxed point.
Proof:
(a) Let us assume that such a map r exists. BID, 1] is starshaped, so we can by
Theorem 10 find a continuous function R B[O, 11 —. C such that exp(R) = r.

Restriction to S1 yields that exp (R(z)) = z for all z S'. so R is a branch of log z on
S'. But such one does not exist (by Example 8), so we have arrived at a contradiction.
(b) If f has no fixed point then we can construct a map r as in (a) as follows: Let
r(x) be the intersection point of S' with the ray from f(x) through x.
(c) We may without loss of generality assume that K ç B[O, 1] . Let B[O, —*
K be the mapping that to z E B[O, 1] associates the nearest point to z in K. By (b) the
mapping f o has a fixed point. And that point necessarily belongs to K, because the
image of f is contained in K. 0
SectIon 4 The winding number
In this paragraph we introduce the notion of winding number (= index) which will
turn out to be of central importance.
Definition 12.
Let 7 : [a, b] C be a closed curve. If z E then the winding number or
index of 'y relative to z is the integer
log(-y(b) — z) — log(7(a) — z)
Ind7(z)
2,rz
where I log (7(1) — z) is any continuous logarithm oft —* 7(1) — z.
Pertinent remarks.
(1) By Proposition 10 there exists a branch of log (7(1) — z).
(2) Since any two continuous logarithms differ by a constant, we see that Ind7(z)
does not depend on our choice of branch of logarithm.

(3) The reason why Ind7(z) is called the winding number is the following: Let
us write
log (7(1) — z) = Log — zI + iO(t)
where 1 -.. 6(1) E arg(-y(t) — z) is a continuous argument of t —* 7(1) — z. Then
= O(b)—6(a)
31
Chapter 3. The Exponential Function, the Logarithm and the Wmdmg Number
Now, 0(t) is geometrically the angle between the positive half of the x-axis and the ray
from z through 7(t), so Ind7(z) measures the net increase in that angle as the parameter
t ranges from a to b. Thus Ind7(z) is the number of times (counted with sign) the
ray from z through 7(t) performs a full rotation (in the countemlockwise direction) as
t increases from a to b, i.e. how often the curve winds around the point z.
(4) The concept of winding number of a closed curve has been generalized to higher
dimensions, where it is replaced by the concept of degree of a map.
Example 13.
Let be the triangle with vertices I, and We will compute
the winding number of its boundary (defined in Example 11.7(c)) relative to the
origin 0.
Note that t —' Arg 8 (i) is a continuous arg z-function along the two sides
O Iio,ij and 0 112,3)
, and t —' Arg1O (t) is a continuous arg c-function along
the remaining side, where we let Arg1 denote that branch of arg: that is defined in
C\(0, oo[ and takes values in . Now
(ArgOA(t) for 0 t < 1

for 1 <t 2
for 2 t 3
is a continuous arg z-function along , so = 1.
Example 14.
Consider the positively oriented circle around zn E C with radius R, i.e. the closed
curve 7 : [0, 27r) —' C , defined by
7(t) = + Re"
32
Secuon 4. The winding number
It is easy to compute the winding number of -,' relative to zo: Indeed, t —. Log R + it
is a continuous logarithm along 7(t) — , so by definition
(LogR+i2ir)—(LogR+iO)
Ind.1(zn) = 1
= 2iri
Example 15.
The three curves : [0,27r) —' C\{0} , given by
7,(t) := exp(ijt) for j = 1, —1,2

have the same image, viz the unit circle, but nevertheless different winding numbers
relative to 0, viz 1, —1 and 2. The example shows in particular that the index of a
curve depends not just on the image of the curve but also on how the moving
point 7(t) traces the image 7.
A trivial example: A constant curve has index 0.

We have in the above examples pedantically computed the index analytically,
although the results are geometrically evident. From now on we will not bother to
do so. If a closed curve has so simple a look that it is geometrically obvious what its
index is, then we will not elaborate on the matter.
Before we list properties of the winding number we call the attention to a topological
concept that will be handy now and later.
Definition 16.
Let be a topological space.
(a) Two closed curves 70,72 [a, b] —. ii are said to be homotopic in Q, jf there
exists a continuous map (a homotopy) r: [a, b] x [0, 1] —. Q such that
r(t,0)=70(t) and 1'(t,1)=71(t) for all tE [a,b] and

r(a,s) = F(b,s) for all sE [0,1]
(fi) A closed curve is said to be null.homotopic, 4f it is homotopic to a constant curve.
The geometrical contents of (a) are that the curve 70 continuously is deformed into
71 as the parameters increases from 0 to 1. The curves t 1'(t, s) are closed curves for
each fIxed 3 E (0,1] and they form intermediate steps in the deformation of 70 into 71•
Theorem 17 (Properties of the number).

winding
(a) The winding number is independent of the parametri zation of the basic interval as
long as the orientation is unchanged: More precisely, [c, dj —+ (a, b] is continuous
and = a and = b, then
Ind7o#(z) = Ind7(z) for all z E C\7
33
Chapter 3. The Exponential Function, the Logarithm and the Winding Nwnber
(b) The winding number is a homotopy invariant, i.e. two closed curves and r
are homotopic in C\{zo) then Ind7(zo) =
(c) Let be a closed curve in C. Then the mapping z — Ind7(z) of C\7' into
Z is constant on each connected component of C\7', and is is 0 on the unbounded
component.
(d) Let 'y be a closed path that does not pass through z E C. Then we have the
following formula for the winding number:
1 1 dw
Ind7(z) = —
2ir&J w—z
7
Proof
(a) This is left to the reader.
(b) Let r: [a, b) x [0,1] —' C\{zo} be a homotopy between and r. The function
(t,3) r(t,s) — zo has a continuous logarithm F since its domain of definition is
starshaped. Now the function
F(b,s) — F(a,s)
= Indr(.,)(zo)
is a continuous, integer-valued function on [0,1) , hence a constant.

(c) Let : [a,bJ —. C . Let E C\7' aixi let r := dist(zo,-1) > 0. The
continuous mapping f: B(zo,r) x [a,bJ C\{O) given by f(z,t) 7(t) — z has a
continuous logarithm F since its domain of definition is starshaped. The formula
F(z,b) — F(z,a)
Ind7(z) fix z E B(zo,r)
= 2,ri
reveals that Ind7(z) is a continuous function of z. Being also integer-valued it is
constant on the connected components of
ft is left to prove that Ind7(zo) = 0 for just one point zo in the unbounded
component of C\7', say the point zo = 1 + sup {17(t)I E [a, bJ}. The homotopy
r(t,3) := (1— 3)-y(t) for (t,s) E [a,bJ x [0,11
contracts to the constant curve r = 0, so by homotopy invariance
Ind,(zo) = 0
(d) If h is a continuous logarithm along 7(t) — z, i.e. if exp (h(t)) = y(i) — z then
we find formally by differentiation that
'y(t)—z
34
Section 5. Square roots
which tempts us to define the function h by
h(t):=J y(s)—z
ds+c
a
where the constant c E C for later purposes is chosen so that exp(c) = 7(a) —
Note that h is continuous in [a,b] and that h is differentiable wherever is. An easy
calculation reveals that the continuous function
4(t) := (7(1) —
has a vanishing derivative at each point where 7'(t) exists, so 4 is a constant. Since
= 1 by our choice of c we have thus
eh(t) = 7(1) — z for all I E (a,b)
so h is a continuous logarithm along 7(1) — z. Finally
—
h(b)—h(a) 1 1 dw
—
2irz 2iri.j w—z
Section 5 Square roots

An imponant concept, related to the concept of logarithm, is that of root. We
concentrate on the special case of square roots and leave the generalization to nih roots
to the reader.
Definition 18.
Let f X —i C be a complex-valued function on a topological space X. By a
continuous square root of f (or a branch of we mean any complex-valued
COntinUOUS function r: X C satisfying r2 = f.
An example is the standard square root function [0, oo[—* R with the usual
convention that is the unique positive number r(x) satisfying r(x)2 = x. Of course
a —i is another example of a continuous square root.
The uniqueness of square roots is the topic for the next proposition. Then comes
regularity and finally existence.
Proposition 19.
Let and T2 be two continuous square roots of a never vanishing function, all
defined on a connected topological space.
35
Chapiar 3. The Exponential Function, the Logarithm and the Winding Number
Then either ri = or ri = . In particular, if rl and T2 agree at one point

they agree everywhere.
Proof:
r2(x)
Thus rj/r2 is a continuous integer-valued function on a connected space, hence a
constant, i.e. either + 1 or —1. 0
Proposition 20.
Let 1: —' C\ {O) be a holomorphic function defined on an open subset Q of the
complex plane. Then any continuous square root off is holomorphic on ft
Remark. It is actually superfluous to assume that f never vanishes. See the remarks
prior to Theorem IV.18.
Proof:
Let r be any continuous square root of f in Let B be any open disc in Q. Now
f has a holomorphic logarithm F in B (Theorems 10 and 5), and so exp(F/2) is a
holomorphic square root of f in B. But rIB is by Proposition 19 either exp (F/2) or
exp(—F/2). 0
Proposition 21.
Any holomorphic, never vanishing function on a starshaped open subset of C has
a holomorphic square root.
Proof:
Such a function has according to Proposition 10 a continuous logarithm F. A
continuous square root is provided by exp (F/2) , and that square root is holomorphic
by Proposition 20. 0
As we shall see later (Theorem V.9), Proposition 21 extends from starshaped to
simply connected sets.
Examples 22.
(a) The function z has on C\) — cc, 0) the continuous square root
=
which on the positive axis reduces to the ordinary square root. We call this square root
for the principal square root of z. It is holomorphic according to Proposition 20.
36
Section 6.
(b) We claim that there is no continuous square root of z on all of C\{0), not even
on S1. Indeed, let be one, and consider the curve It has the
property that 72 = r , where
r(t) = for t E [0,1J
Now 2 Ind,(O) = = 1 , which contradicts the fact that the index is integer
valued.
(c) As a third example we will study the function z2 —1 and its holomorphic square
roots which enter naturally in many considerations.
Consider for example arcsin z. This is a multiple valued function defined by
w = arcsin z sin w = z. On any open subset of the complex plane where
a holomorphic function w, satisfying sinw(z) = z , can be defined, we must have
1 1
w (z)
= cosw(z) = —
So a look at the holomorphic square root of z2 — 1 will not be a waste of time.

Our result is that the function z2 — 1 on C\[—1, 1) has exactly one holomorphic
square root which is positive for z E]1,oo[.
Proof of that: It suffices to exhibit a continuous — 1 on C\(—1, ,because

the statements about uniqueness and holomorphy are consequences of the Propositions
19 and 20. Let be the principal square root of z on C\ J — oo, OJ (described in (a)
above). If z C\[—1, 1] , then by a small computation
1— z2 E C\j — 00,0)
so we can form the composite map — . The function
r(z) z E C\[—1, 11
is the desired continuous square root of z2 — 1 on C\I—1, 1).
Section 6 Exercises
1. Show that exp maps {z E C$ — < <ir} onto C\j — 00,01 bijectively, and
that the inverse map is Log.
Determine the images by exp of lines (resp. line segments), parallel to the real
(resp. imaginaiy axis).
2. Find the image by Log of {z e C\{0} liz — =
3. Let log be that branch of log z in the snake shaped domain on the drawing
below which has log 1 = 0. What is log e ?
37
Chapter 3. The Exponential Function, the Logarithm and the Winding Nwnber
4. A topological space X is said to be conwactibie if there is a continuous map

c : X x [0, 1] —. X and a point xo E X such that
c(x,O)=x and c(x,l)=zü forall xEX
Show that the circle is not contractive.
5. Show that
for <1
Hint: Theorem 5.
6. Show that
as n—'oo
uniformly for z in any compact subset of C.
7. (a) (J. Bernoulli's paradox)
Is anything wrong in the following pretty argument: Taking Logs in the identity
(_z)2 = we get 2Logz = 2Log(—z), so Logz = Log(—z).
(b) Compute Logi and Log(—i)
(c) Is the formula Log(z1z2) = Log(zj) + Log(z2) correct ?
S. Let be complex numbers such that
1a11<1 and for j=1,2,.•,n

Show that
Lo9{H(1+afr)}
38
9. Find the values of i'.

10. Does there exist a branch of log z in
(a) {ZECI1<IzI<2}?
11. Let f,g C : C be continuous functions satisfying that f2 + g2 = 1. Show

that there exists a continuous function C —. C such that f = cos and g = sin qS.
Show that is unique modulo integer multiples of 27r, and that qS is holomorphic if
f and g are holomorphic.
Hint: + 92 = (1 + ig)(f — ig).
12. Let y,p : [0,1) —' C\{0} be closed curves. Show that
(a) = Ind,(0) +
(SB) Ind_7(O) = —Ind7(0) , where (—-y)(1) y(1 — t)
(-y) = Ind.,(0) + Indp(0) ,where
— f7(t) if tE (0,1)
— jp(t—1) ifte[1,2J
13. Let : [0,2irJ —. C\{0} be the closed curve -y(i) := 3cost + isint. Show
that Ind7(0) = 1.
14. Let A be a starshaped subset of C. Let be a closed curve in A and let
z E C\A. Show that = 0.
15. Let A : C C be an R-linear isomorphism and let -y be a closed curve in
C\{0}. Show that IndA07(0) = sign(det A)
16. A merry man walks with his dog on lead 10 times around a lamp post. He
never allows the dog so much leash that it can get around to the other side of the lamp
post of the man. Assuming that they both return to their initial positions after the man's
10 rotations, show that also the dog has been 10 times around the lamp post.
Hint: The problem is a special case of the following mathematical problem: Let
7, a: [a, b] C\{0} be two closed curves satisfying
— a(t)I I-v(t)I for all t 6 [a, b)
Show that =
(note for example that and a- are homotopic).
17. (Extension of Exercise 16). Let a- : [a, bl —+ C be closed curves satisfying
17(t) — o(t)I < I(t)I + Ic(t)I for all t E [a, b]
Show first that neither nor a passes through 0, and then that Ind,(0) = 1n4(0).
Hint: never takes values in] — oo,0) , so we may form Log(y/a-).
18. Prove the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra:
Any complex polynomial p(z) = z" + + + has a: least one zero
in C, if n 1
39
Hint: Assume not. Choose R so large that
Ip(z) — z"J < for all Izi =R

consider the closed curve
for tE[0,1]
and combine Theorem 17(b) with Exercise 17.
19. Show that the complex valued function
1(z) = z17 — 16i sin (931z122) z12 + 2
has a zero in the disc B(O,2). [For heaven's sake, don't try to compute it!I
20. Let A be an invertible 3 x 3 matrix whose entries all are 0. Show that
A has a positive eigenvalue and a corresponding eigenvector (t't, 113) such that
0, t.'2 0, V3 0.
This result is known as the Perron-Frobenius Theorem, and it is true for n x n
matrices.
Hint: Consider the compact convex set
{ E R1 I + X2 + X3 = 1, 0, 0, X3 o}
and the mapping
Ax
x
(Ax)1 + (Ax)2 + (Ax)3
21. Let C\] — 00,0] —* C be the principal square root of z. For which values
of z does the equation = z hold?
22. Consider the square root v'z2 — 1 from Example 22(c). Find — 1 for z
on the imaginary axis.

Show that v'z2 — 1 has a limit as z —* 0 through the open upper half plane, and
find it. Same question when Z --4 0 through the open lower half plane.
23. There axe many ingenious ways of showing the non-existence of a continuous
on the unit circle For the benefit of the reader we will below sketch 4 different
methods. They all proceed by contradiction. So we assume that there exists a branch
r of on 51, i.e. a continuous function r satisfying r(z)2 = z for all E We
may without loss of generality assume that r( 1) = 1.
Method 1: The one from Example 22(b).
Method 2: Show that the function := r(z)/r(—z) is a constant (indeed
c8(z)2 = —1). Derive a contradiction.
Method 3: Consider the smooth function f(i) := r(exp(it)) for t E R. Differen-
tiate the identity f(i)2 = exp (if)).
Method 4: (a) Show first that r is a continuous injective mapping.
40
(8) Show that r(S') = S' [Either by a point set topology argument ( r(S') is
homeomorphic to S' and hence not starshaped (Cf Exercise 4) , or by showing that
r(S') is a subgroup of the multiplicative group S'].
(y) Choose a point zo E S' such that r(zo) = —1 . Obtain a contradiction using
the injectivity of r2.
24. Does there exist a branch of the root of z on S' when n > 0? Exhibit a
specimen if your answer is yes.
25. Let h : S' C\{0} be continuous, and consider the closed curve 7(t) :=
h(exp(it)) for t E [0,2ir]
(a) Show that h can be written in the form h(z) = z"exp(d(z)) , where n is an
integer and C(S1) . Hint: Let F be a continuous logarithm of t h(e") and
n = Ind7(O), so that
h(c*t) = =
Note that the exponent := F(t) — mt satisfies that = and so defines

a function on S1.
(8) Show that Ind7(O) is even if h is even.
(y) Show that In particular, if h is odd then Ind7(O) 0.
26. We will in this exercise present a proof of the 2-dimensional version of the
so-called
Erouwer's Theorem on Invariance of Domain:
Let be an open subset of the complex plane, and let f : C be continuous
and 1-1. Then f(Q) is open in C.
(a) Verify that the theorem is a consequence of the following
Lemma. If the function f : B[0, 1] C is continuous and 1-1, then 1(0) is an
interior point of f(B[0,1)).
We proceed with a proof of the lemma:
(fl)Showthatwemayassumethatf(0) = 0,andthatthenr := dist(0,f(S')) >0.
(y) Show that it suffices to lead the following assumption to a contradiction: There
exists a point zo B(0,r)\f(B[0,1)).
(6) Consider now the closed curve'y(t) := for t [0,2irl. Show that
0 = Ind7(zo) = Ind7(0).
(e) Show that F: S' x [0,1] C\{0} , given by
F(z,3) := f(j-f) —
is a homotopy in C\{0} between I Is' and the odd function
h(z) := F(z,1) = —
(() Use Exercise 25(7) to arrive at the desired conclusion.
41
27. (a) Show that there at any given time are opposite ends of the earth which have
the same weather, i.e. the same temperature and the same barometer pressure. This is
a meteorological interpretation of the 2-dimensional version of
Borsuk-Ulam's Theorem.
Let S2 {
x E R3 I = 1) be the unit sphere. 1ff: S2 —+ C is continuous then
there exists an E such that f(xo) = f(—zo).
(fi) Prove the Borsuk-Ulam theorem. Hint: Consider the map !i : B[0, 1] —. C
given by
h(x + iy) := f(z,y, s/i — — y2) — x2 — y2)
and the closed curve 7(t) := h(exp(it)) in C.

(-y) Prove the following : If a balloon is deflated and laid on the floor, then there
exist two antipodal points which end up over the same point of the floor.
28. (Cf Proposition 20) Let f Hol(fZ) and assume that the zeros of I all are
isolated. Let r be a continuous square root of 1.
Show that r E
42
Chapter 4 Basic Theory of Holomorphic
Functions
While Chapter III essentially teeats continuous functions and a bit of topology of
the complex plane, this chapter specializes to holomorphic functions and their surprising
properties, derived from the Cauchy integral theorem. The contents of this chapter are
dealt with in all introductory text books on complex function theory.
SectIon 1 The Cauchy-Goursat Integral theorem

The main results of this paragraph are the Cauchy-Goursat integral theorem and
some of its surprising consequences: The integral of a holomorphic function I around
a closed curve, the interior of which is contained in the domain of definition of f, is
zero. A holomorphic function is analytic, i.e. it can be expanded in a power series.
Theorem 1 (Cauchy-Goursat).
f
Let be holomorphic in an open subset of the complex plane. Let a, b.c E Q and
assume that the triangle with vertices a, b and c is contained in ft Then
Jf(z)dz =0
Proof.
a b
Divide the triangle as in the figure, using the vertices and the midpoints of the
segments [a,bJ, [b,cJ and tc,a). We get 4 smaller triangles and as
43
Chapter 4. Basic Theory o( Holomorphic Functions
shown in the figure. Orienting all the triangles in the counter clockwise direction it is
a matter of direct verification that
J f(z)dz=> J
Denoting the absolute value of the left hand side for a, we have for at least one small
triangle call it that
Note that = where I denotes length of the path in question.

We can repeat the process to successively obtain triangles such that
= and
There is a point, say in the intersection niJI f is differentiable at so given

fi > 0 we have from a certain n on, in the entire triangle that
(*) 11(z) — f(zo) — f'(zo)(z — zo)I — 201
The constant function f(zo) and the function z — have primitives, so (by
Proposition H.1O.(e)) the line integrals of these along any closed path vanish. Thus
for any where (*) holds:
where we have used that zo and that Iz — zol ( for any z Now,
a. Since this holds for any > 0 we conclude that a = 0. 0
By a bit of ingenuity we can get a stronger looking version of Theorem I Out by
allowing the function f to have singularities
Corollarj 2.
Let be an open subset of C, and let f be holomorphic in Q\ 4 }. Assume
fiirther,nore thai (z — zo)f(z) —, 0 as z —, Then
Jf(z)dz =0
44
Section 1. The Cauchy-Cioursat integral theorem
for any triangle in Il such that zo
Proof:
b
a
Let 6 be a small triangle inside of & containing zn in its interior. Subdividing

into smaller triangles we get by the Cauchy-Goursat theorem that
Jf(z)dz =Jf(z)dZ
Let us now consider a sequence Oi, of equilateral triangles, each with Zn as

its center, and with diameters shrinking to 0. By elementary geometry, when we choose
so that = 1/n then = By assumption
lf(z)I where c(z) —' 0 as z —'
Let e > 0 be given. Choosing n so large that Ic(Z)I e for all z E we get
= [i sup =
The statement of the corollary follows since this is true for any e > 0. D
From Corollary 2 we deduce a remarkable and important regularity property: A

holomorphic function cannot possess a minor singularity at a point. If has a point it
singularity it is a serious one. This result is called "The removable singularity theorem"
or "Riemann's extension theorem":
45
chapter 4. Basic Theory of Holomorphic Functions
Theorem 3 (The removable singularity theorem).

Let be a point in an open subset Q of:he complex plane, and let f : Q\{zn} C
be holomorphic in 1Z\ (Zn).
Jf(z — zo)f(z) —. 0 as z —+ fin particular 4ff is bounded near then f can
be extended to a function which is holomorphic in all of Q.
Proof
Without loss of generality we take = 0 in the proof. Let be a triangle,
contained in Q, with = 0 in its interior, and its boundary positively oriented (Cf
Example 111.13) so that (Theorem 111.17(d))
1 fdw
1=
2irij w—z for any z E
I
For any fixed z E each of the two singularities 0 and z of the function
on
satisfies the condition of Corollary 2. Subdividing into two triangles, each with only
one of the singularities, we get
f(w)
j f(z)d =
which implies that
1(z) for any z

=
The right side is analytic and hence holomorphic off (Lemma 11.13), so the desired
extension F may unambiguously be defined by
(1(z) for
z
I. OA
0
We see that Corollary 2 actually does not strengthen Theorem 1, because the
exceptional point is not a singularity after all! The corresponding result is not true
in one real variable: The function t is not differentiable at 0.
During the proof of Theorem 3 we noticed the remarkable fact that a holomorphic
function is analytic. We shall in Theorem 8 below prove that its power series converges
in the largest possible disc.
46
Section 1. The Cauchy.Oowsat integral theoitm
As a by-product of "The removable singularity theorem" we note the following

example which will be used several times, both in the near and more distant future.
Example 4.
If f is holomorphic in the open set and a E Q then the function
g(z) := 1
for z E
If'(a) forz=a
is holomorphic in all of
Theorem 5 (The Cauchy Integral theorem).

Let f be holomorphic in an open starshaped subset of the complex plane. Then
f(z)dz = 0 for each closed path in Q.
Proof. When we combine the Cauchy-Goursat theorem with Lemma 11.12 we see
that f has a primitive in so we may refer to Proposition 11.10(e). 0
Theorem 6 (The Cauchy integral formula).
Let f be holomorphic in an open starshaped set of the complex plane. Then we
have for any closed path in the formula
Ind7(z)f(z) bra!! z E Q\'y

=
Proof
Fix z E Then the function
for w E
tf'(z) for w=z
is according to Example 4 holomorphic in fl, so by the Cauchy integral theorem its
integral along 'y is 0, i.e.
=0
Recalling the formula (Theorem 111.17(d))

1 1 dw
Ind7(z) =
2irzjI w—z
7
we get the theorem.
47
Chaper 4. Basic Theocy 01 Holomorphic Functions
As a special case we note the Cauchy integral formula for a disc:
Theorem 7.
1ff is holomorphic in a neighborhood of the closed disc Bizn, r], then we have for
each z E B( r) the formula
fH' J 'w—.zo'=r
w—z
The purpose of the next chapter is to extend the Cauchy integral theorem and
the Cauchy integral formula to more general domains than starshaped. The following
remark (which will not be used later) points in another direction.
Remark.
There is an extension of the Cauchy integral formula to general functions. It is
often called the Cauchy-Greenfornuda since Green's theorem is used to prove it (For
a proof, see e.g. [HO;Theorem 1.2.11):
Let w be a bounded open domain in C with a smooth positively oriented boundary
-y. If u is C' in a neighborhood then
1 1 u(w) 1
u(z) = dw — —I dm(x) for z E w
2irz j7 w—z ir jx—z
where dm denotes Lebesgue measure on C = R2.

Note that the last term on the right hand side drops out if u is holomorphic, so that
the formula in that case reduces to the ordinary Cauchy integral formula.
A version of the Cauchy integral theorem can be derived from the Cauchy-Green
theorem (replace u by (w — z)u(w) etc.):
11 u(z)dz _1fOu
j = j F(x)dm(z)
There is a striking contrast between R- and C-differentiability: There are exam-
plea of functions on R with the property that f is continuously differentiable and f' is
not differentiable anywhere. But as we noticed after Theorem 3 any C-differentiable
function, i.e. a holomorphic function, is in fact even analytic and hence in particular
infinitely often differentiable. In the future we will use the words analytic and holo-
morphic interchangeably. What is new in Theorem 8 below is that the power series
converges in the largest possible disc.
48
________
Section 1. The Cauchy-Goursat integral
Theorem 8.
Let f be holomorphic in an open subset fl of the complex plane. Then I is analytic
in any zo E fI the power series expansion off around zo converges
in the largest open disc in around zo.
In particular, I is infinitely often C-differentiable and all derivatives f', f",... are
holomorphic.
Also I partial derivatives of all orders with respect to the real
i.e.
variables x and y exist and are continuous.
Proof. Combine Lemma 11.13 and Theorem 7 with the uniqueness of power series
expansions. For the last statement we note that
L = and = if'
from which we by induction get
ç
—
—
OxmOyn
0
It may be remarked that Theorem 8 does not hold for an analytic function of a real
variable. To take an example, the function
f(x) for xER

1+x2
is analytic on all of the real line, but its power series expansion
f(z)= 1
converges only for —1 < z < 1. The explanation is that if we view f as a function
of a complex variable
1(z) := 1+'z2 for zEC

then f is not holomorphic = analytic on all of the complex plane, but only on the
domain C\{i, —i} , and the biggest disc around 0 in that domain is B(O, 1).
We next present a converse to the Cauchy-Goursat theorem, viz. Morera's theorem,
which is often expedient in determining whether a given function is holomorphic. It
can be used in situations where a direct resort to the definition - estimation of difference
quotients etc. - is hopeless or at least very complicated. For a more thorough discussion
of Morera's theorem we refer to the beautiful article (Za]. For the latest news see [GIl.
4°
Chapter 4. Baiic Theory ci Holomorphic Fimcucns
Theorem 9 (Morera's theorem).

Let f : — C be a continuous function on an open subset Q of the complex plane.
Assume that each point z E has a neighborhood ç Il with the property that
f f( z )dz = 0 for all triangles contained in U1.
Then f LS holomorphic in
Proof: Let z E and choose r > 0 so small that B(z,r) c U1. Ii suffices to
prove that f is holomorphic in B(z,r) for each z E f has by Lemma 11.12
a primitive F in D(z, r). Being C.differentiable means that F is holomorphic. By
Theorem 8 so is its derivative f. 0
Section 2 Selected consequences of the Cauchy

integral formula
It is a sad fact from the theory of functions of a real variable that a uniform limit of a
sequence of differentiable functions need not be differentiable, although ii is continuous.
Indeed, there exists a continuous nowhere differentiable function on 10,1], and (by the
classical Weierstrass approximation theorem) it is a uniform limit of a sequence of
polynomials.
The situation is quite the contrary for holomorphic functions, as demonstrated by
the following surprising result, in which no assumptions are made on the derivatives:
Theorem 10 (Welerstrass' theorem).

Let I i, be a sequence of functions which are holomorphic in an open subset
of the complex plane. Assume that the sequence converges, wufornily on each compact
subset of Q, toafunctionf.
Then f Lc aLso holomorphic in Furthermore, the sequence of derivatives
converges, again wufonnly on each compact subset of to f.
We shall later (Exercise VI11.10) meet a stronger version of Weierstrass' theorem,
viz. Vitali-Porter's theorem. The assumption about uniform convergence is important;
poiniwise convergence does not suffice. For a discussion see [Dii] and [Za* 111.
Proof
LetzoEQandchooser>Obesosmalltha*B[zo,r]çcl. Accordingtothe
Cauchy integral formula (Theorem 7) we have
(*)
1 t dw forall
J
50
Section 2. Selected of the Cauchy integral formula
and going to the limit n 00 we get
(**) f(z)=—1 f
i
f(w)
dw forall ZEB(zo,r)
2irz j w—z
I
which [by Lemma 11.131 shows that f is analytic and hence holomorphic in B(zo,r).
Now f E Hol(fl), the disc being arbitrary.
Concerning the last statement we may now assume that f = 0 [if necessaiy we
replace f, by — f]
By a compactness argument it suffices to show that {f } converges uniformly to

0 as n — oo on any ball D(zo, such that B[zo, ç Q. Differentiating (*) we get
[directly or using Lemma 11.131 that
J (2dW forall
1w—
z E B(zo, [Cf Proposition I1.10.(a)J:

< 1 27rr
sup = sup {Ifn(w)I}
7t (r/2) Iw—zol=r r Iw—zoI=r
sup sup
B(zo,r/2) r
The circle {w E C 11w — zol = r} is a compact subset of so the right hand side
convergestoOasn—ioo. 0
An easy corollary is the fact (Proposition 11.4) that a power series in its disc of
convergence defines a holomorphic function and that its derivative can be found by
term by term differentiation (Sec Exercise 1). More generally one can apply Weierstrass'
theorem to infinite series, the terms of which are holomorphic functions. Example: The
Riemann (-function (Exercise 26 below and Chapter XI.*1).
We next generalize Proposition 1.6.
Theorem II (The unique continuation theorem).

Let Q be an open connected subset oldie complex plane, and let g E Hol((Z).
(a) If the set of points z E Cl where f(z) = g(z) hasaliinit point in Cl, thenf = g.
(fi) In particular, the zeros off have no limit points in Il, unless f is identically 0.
We remind the reader, that a point p is a limit point of a set A, if every neighborhood
of p contains at least one point of A distinct from p.
We emphasize that the limit point from (a) and (fi) must belong to Cl; limit points
outside of Cl do not suffice.
51
Chaplu 4. BasIc Thccry c( Holomorphic Fwictions
Proof:
(fi) is a consequence of (a), so it suffices to prove (a), and it is even enough to
do so with g = 0. Consider the set
N := forall n=0,1,2,...}
Its complement in • i.e.
1l\N = E çllThere exists an a such that o}
is open because each is continuous. On the other hand, if a N• then we see

from the power series expansion
1(z)
=
f (and hence each of its derivatives, too) is identically 0 in a neighborhood of a,
so N is also open. By connectedness of Cl either N = Cl or N =0. It suffices to prove
that the limit point zo E Cl belongs to N, so that the first possibility takes place. We
shall in other words show that in the power series expansion
1(z) = —
of f around zo all the coefficients are 0.

But that is part of Proposition 1.6. 0
The unique continuation theorem is amazing: It tells us that a holoinorphic function
is determined by its values on e.g. any curve segment, be it ever so small; and that
we cannot change the values of the function in one part of the domain without it being
felt everywhere.
As an illustrative example we mention that Log thus can be characterized uniquely
as the holomorphic function on C\ I — oo, OJ that extends the ordinary real logarithm
10,001.
The unique continuation theorem implies that holomorphic functions obey the
so-called "principle of permanence of functional relationships", i.e. if hotomorphic
functions in a part of a region satisfy a certain relationship, then they do so everywhere.
As an example we infer from the well known relation sin2x + oos2x = 1, which is
true for all real x, that the same relation holds everywhere, i.e. sin2 z + z= 1
for all complex z (Exervise 16).
52
Section 3. The opai mapping theorem
DefinItion 12.
Let f be holomorphic in open subset () of the complex plane and let E Q. Then
f can in exactly one way be expanded In a power series (in the largest open ball B in
Q) around zo:
Co
k
f(z)=2__ak(z—zo) for zEB
k=O
Clearly fhasazero at if and only if an =0. Wedefinetheorderofthezeroas
sup{n+lIao=aj=...=a=0)ENU{oo)
An equivalent characterization that does no: involve the power series expansion, is that
the order is the biggest n such thai
f(zo) = f(zo) = ... = = 0
We leave it to the reader to prove, that if f has a zero of order n <00 , then f
can be factorized as
f(z) = (z — where g E and g(zo) 0
1ff has a zero of infinite order then f vanishes identically near the zero (and hence
on all of the connected component of fl that contains zo).
Section 3 The open mapping theorem

The following continuous version of Rouché's theorem will be used in the proofs of
the Open Mapping Theorem and of Bloch-Landau's theorem (Theorem VIL6). Rouché's
theorem will be discussed in more details in Chapter IX.
Theorem 13 (Rouché's theorem).

Let F E C(B[0,r]) and let H be holomorphic on a neighborhood of B = B[0,r].
Assume that
(*) JF(C) — IH(C)I for all CE OB

and that H has a zero somewhere in B[0, r].
Then F, too, has a zero in B[0,rJ. If the inequality (C) is strict then F has a zero
in the open bail B(0,r).
Proof (The proof is adapted from [TsJ). We shall derive a contradiction from the
asswnption that F never vanishes in B[0, r]. Let
:= re'1 for 0 t
53
Chapter 4. Basic Theory Fwicilons
Since F never vanishes we may divide (') by F to get that
for (EOB
which shows that H(C)/F(C) is closer to I than to 0. Hence so

we may form for 1(1 = r. Letting be a continuous logarithm of
Fo-y we get that is a continuous logarithm of Ho7 ,and
so lndHo7(O) = 1nd107(O).
The map r, defined by
F(.qrea) for (t,s) E [0,2ir] x [0,1]
is a homotopy in C\{0) between the constant map F(0) and F o -y, so
1nd1107(0) = Indpo,(0) = IndF(o)(0) 0
We arrive at the desired contradiction by proving that Indj,0.7(0) 0:
We may write H in the form
H(z) = (z — — Z2) (z — zR)g(z)
where z2,• .. , z, are the zeros of H in B(O, r) and where g is holomorphic in a

neighborhood of B[0, r] and never vanishes in B[0, rJ. In particular
H(z) 4-'z—z,
j=I
g(z)
Now,
J
1107 7
dz
2irz j z — 2,rz j g(z)
1 7
Theorem 14 (The open mapping theorem).

Let f be a non-constant holomorphic function on an open connected subset of the
complex plane. Then f(Q) is open.
It suffices to prove that there for each zo E fl exists a disc, contained in

f(fZ), around f(zo).
54
Sectkm 3. The open theorem
Consider the function H(z) := f(z)—f(zo) for z Q. By the Unique Continuation

Theorem l1(ft) there is a ball B[zo,rj in which the only zero of H is z = ZO. In
particular
R := inf {IH(OI} >0
IC—zi1r
Let now w be any point such that Jw — f(zo)j < R , and let us apply to
the two functions F(z) = f(z) — w and H : For IC — zoI = r we get
IF(C) — = If(zo) — wI <R IH(C)I

so by Rouché F has a zero in D[zo,r] ,i.e. w belongs to the range off. Since w was
arbitrary in B(f(zo), R), we have proved that any element of B(f(zo), R) belongs to
the range of f, or in other words that B(f(zo), I?) ç 1(Q). 0
A topological proof of Theorem 14 can be found in ICS].
An immediate consequence of The Open Mapping Theorem is
15 (The Maximum Modulus Principle).

Let f be holomorphic in open connected subset Q of C and assume that Ill has a
local maximum in CL Then f is constant in Cl.
Proof Make a sketch! 0

In applications the following consequence is useful.
Corollary 16 (The Weak Maximum Principle).

Let Cl be a bounded, open subset of C and let f be holomorphic on Cl and continuous
on the closure of Cl. Then 111 takes its supremum value at a boundaty point of Cl.
Proof: Since f and is compact, Ill takes its supremum value M in

= CluOCl. Let us assume that it happens at an interior point zo E Cl and then deduce
that Ill takes the same value at some boundary point, too.
By the Maximum Modulus Principle f is constant in the biggest open ball B(zo, R)
in Cl with center Since the ball is the biggest, its boundary contains at least one
point zi of &CZ. By continuity If(z')I = M. 0
We shall in the chapters XII and XIII extend these maximum principles to harmonic
and subharmonic functions.
As an example of how to use the maximum principles we shall prove Schwarz'
lemma.
55
Chaplcr 4. Basic Theory of Functions
Theorem 17 (Schwai'z' lemma).

Let 1: B(O, 1) (J[O, 1] be holomorphic with f(O) = 0. Then
(ür) If(z)I IzI for all z E B(0, 1), and If'(O)I 1.
(fi)If there existsazo E B(0,1)\{0) such that If(zo)I = Izol ,oriflf'(O)I = 1,then
f has the form 1(z) = cz for all z E B(0, 1) , where c is a constant of absolwe value I.
Proof. The function
._ for zEB(0,1)\{0}
() • lf'(O) for z=0
is holomorphic in 13(0, 1) (Cf. Example 4 above). For fri <r < 1 we infer from the
Weak Maximum Principle that
ig(z)I max {Ig(w)I} = max f

if(w)i <!
IwI=r Iu1r r r
and letting r —. 1_ we get lg(:)I 1, i.e. (a).
In each of the cases of (19) the function assumes its supremum in B(0, I),
so by The Maximum Modulus Theorem g is a constant function, g(z) = c. And
id = = 1. This proves (j9). 0
The conclusion If(z)i IzI of Scbwaiz' lemma expresses that f does not increase
modulus. It implies in particular that if z ranges over the subdisc 13(0, r) then the
values f(z) also lie in that disc. Such considerations form the basis for the so-called
Principle of Subordination. For more information on that topic we refer the reader to
the paper [Mac).
Another important application of Schwarz' lemma is to the uniqueness question of
conformal mappings, so we will return to Schwarz' lemma during our treatment of the
Riemann Mapping Theorem.
We have already earlier (Theorem 111.5) observed that any continuous function g
satisfying (exp og)(z) = z, i.e. any continuous logarithm, automatically is holomorphic.
And we have claimed that an assumption in Proposition 111.20 (that f never vanishes)
is superfluous. Both these results axe special cases of our next theorem.
Theorem 18.
Let g : ci .-. C be a continuous function on an open subset ci of the complex plane,
and let f be a non-constaju holomorphic function, defined on an open connected subset
of the complex plane containing g(ci).
If the composite map f o g is holomorphic on ci, then so is g.
Proof: Since holomorphy is a Local property we may in the proof assume that fl is
connected. Let a ci be arbitrary. We shall show that g is complex differentiable at a.
56
Section 3. The open mapping theorem
Since f is holomorphic around g(a) we can write

f(w) — f(g(a)) = (w — g(a))k H(w)
where H is holomorphic and H(g(a)) 0. So there is an open disc D around g(a)
in which H never vanishes. By Proposition 111.21 H has a holomorphic kth root fo
on D. So we write
f(w) — f(g(a)) = [(w — g(a))fo(w)Jk for all w near g(a)
Here k is an integer 1, fo E HoI(B(g(a), 6)) for some 6 > 0 and fo(g(a)) 0.
Replacing w by g(z) and using the abbreviation h for the holomorphic function
f
h = o g — f(g(a)), we get for z in a neighborhood of a, say for z in B(a, €) ç ci,
that
h(z) = [(g(z) —
so we see that the bracket on the right hand side is a continuous kth root r of the
holomorphic function h on the left hand side. There are now two cases:
1) h is identically 0 in B(a, e). In this case g(z) = g(a) near z = a, so g is clearly
complex differentiable at a.
2) h is not identically 0 in B(a, e). In this case we know by the Unique Continuation
Theorem (Theorem II) that a is an isolated zero for h. According to Proposition 111.20
the root r is holomorphic in B(a, e)\h'(O) , so a is an isolated singularity of r. But
r is continuous in B(a, e), so by the Removable Singularity Theorem (Theorem 3) r
is actually holomorphic in a neighborhood of a.
Dividing the identity r(z) = (g(z) — g(a))fo(g(z)) by z — a and noting that
r(a) = 0 we get
r(z)—r(a) = 9(Z)_9(a)f(())
The left hand side has a limit as z .-. a, and, since fo(g(a)) 0, so does the
difference quotient of g, i.e. g is differentiable at a. 0
Terminology 19.
A function is said to be univalent, it is holomorphic and infective.
Theorem 20.
1ff is univale,u in an open set Il, then f(1l) is open and is holomorphic on f(1l).
Being open, Cl is a union of open balls. f is injective so it is not constant on

any such ball. Hence f(cl) is open by the Open Mapping Theorem (Theorem 14). Since
f is an open map, f_1 is continuous, so we can apply Theorem 18 with g = f* 0
The reader might note that a result corresponding to Theorem 20 is false for
functions of one real variable: The inverse of a differentiable function need not be
differentiable (Example f(x) = x3).
57
Chapter 4. Bask Theory o( Holomorphic Functions
Theorem 21.
Let f be holomorphic in an open set of the complex plane and let E Then
there exists a neighborhood of zo on which f Is univoJetu and only if f'(zo) 0.
Proot
Let us first assume that f is univalent on the open neighborhood Q of Then
I
g = ' is holomorphic on f(1Z) by Theorem 20, so we may differentiate the identity
g(f(z)) = z . We find via the chain rule that g'(f(zo))f'(zo) = 1, so f'(zo) 0.
Let us conversely assume that f'(zo) 0. Then the Jacobian of the mapping
f=u+iv : R2—iR2
is 0 (use the Cauchy-Riemann equations), so by the inverse function theorem f is
injective on a neighborhood of zo. 0
Remark: Theorem 21 extends to the case of holomorphic functions of several
complex variables. An induction proof on the number of variables can be found in
the note [Ro].
SectIon 4 Hadamard's gap theorem

As application of Theorem 8 we make an unnecessary, but nice, digression back
to power series.
Theorem 22 (Hadamard's gap theorem).

Let fl > 0 be the radius of convergence of the power series
1(z) =
where {nk 1k = 1,2,•• .} is a sequence of natural nwnbers satisfying nk+1 (1 + O)nk

fork = 1,2,••. for some 8 > 0.
Then IzI = R is a natural boundary for f in the following sense: If there is a
holomorphic extension off to a connected open set Q 2(0, R). then Q = B(0, fl).
Proof.
We assume for convenience that R = 1 , and denote the extension of f by F. It
suffices to derive a contradiction from the assumption 11(0, 1).
Under that assumption Q fl S' 0, say 1 E Q. Choose an integer p 1/8 and
consider for w E C the convex combination
WI' + WP+l
2
58
Section 4. Hadamard's gap theorem
We have
zEB(o,1)ccz if IwI1 and ,and
z = 1 if w = 1
so z E fl for all w in a neighborhood of B[O, 1].
The composite function
is therefore defined and holomorphic in that neighborhood of B[O, 1J, and so the radius
of convergence of power series expansion around 0 is strictly bigger than 1. Let us
find the power series expansion of 9S: For w E B(O, 1) we have
(*) = + + +
The exponent of the last term in the kth bracket, viz. + , is strictly less than the
exponent of the first term in the next bracket: Indeed, since p 1/0, we see that
Pflk+1 — (pnk + nk) p(l + O)nk — (pnk + nk) (p0 — 1)n* > 0
which means that no power of w occurs more than once.
We infer that the power series expansion of is gotten by simply omitting the
brackets in (9: Indeed that power series converges, at least for <1, because
+ +... +
00
<o°
2
)
since
+
<1
2
And by (9 the power series converges to
As we mentioned above, the radius of convergence of is strictly bigger than 1.
So its power series converges for some real number r> 1 , implying that
00
k=O
2 )
converges. But then the power series of f converges at
rk + rk4i
>1
59
chapter 4. Basic Theoiy i Functions
and so the radius of convergence R of f is strictly bigger than 1.

ThatcontradictsR=1. 0
As an example we mention that the function
1(z) := for zEB(O,1)
extendsto a continuous function on all of the complex plane, but that it cannot be
prolonged to an analytic function on any domain bigger than B(0, 1).
SectIon 5 Exercises
1. In the proof of Weierstrass' theorem [Theorem 10] we used the fact that I
analytic implies I holomorphic, i.e. Proposition 1L4, so the remarks about power
series following Weierstrass' theorem are really part of a circular argument. Repair
the argument by showing directly from (**) in the proof of Weierstrass' theorem that
I is holomorphic.
2. For which n E Z will the function z —, possess a primitive 1) on all of
C\{O} 2) locally on C\{O}?
3. Let Q be an open convex set, and let f be holomorphic on Il with > 0 on
Q. Show that I is univalent on Q.
Hint: f(b) — 1(a) = (6— a)ff'(a+i(b— a))dt.
0
4. Let ')' : [a, 6] —, C\{O) be a path, and let f be continuous on Prove the
formula
Jf(z)dz
=
in which the path : [a,bJ —, C is defined by 7_1(i) = 1/7(i).
Show in particular that
J f(z)dz= J :;')dZ
Compute
f(z—a)'dzfornEZ
2,n j
1:1=,
6. Let a E C. Show that the principal branch of (1 + , ie. the branch with
(1 + 0)° = 1 has the following power series expansion
(1 + = for IzI < 1
60
Section 5. Excrcises
7. Let a C. Is the following formula correct?
8. Let I and g be continuous in the closed unit disc and analytic in the open disc.
Write them as
f(z) = >anz" and g(z) = for IzI < 1
(a) Show for any Izi < 1 that
f
Iwt=I
(fi) Show Parseval's identity
00
2r
Hint : Show first for any r 10, 1[ that
>IanI2r2n =
9. (L. Fej6r and F. Riesz)

Let f be continuous on the closed unit disc and analytic in the interior. Show that
2JIf(x)I2dx
Hint: Apply the Cauchy integral theorem for the semi-circular disc to the function
z —,
10. Let t E [—1,1]
(a) Show that 1 — 2tz + z2 does not vanish in Izi < 1.
(fi) Show that there exists a continuous square root of z —. (1 — 2t: + z2)' in
IzI<lwiththevaluelatz=0.Callit(1_2tz+z2Y'I'2.
(y) Show that z —. (i — 2tz + can be expanded in a power series
(1 — 2tz + = converging for <1
61
Chapter 4. Basic Thexy of Rolomorphic Functions
(6) Show that the are polynomials in i of degree n (They are the so-called
Legendre polynomials).
(e) Show that is a solution of the equation
(1 — — 2t1/ + n(n + l)y = 0
Hint: Term by term integration yields the following explicit formula for
J
IzI=r
11. (a) Show that z —' exp (—z2 — 2zw) for any w E C can be expanded in a
power series
exp (—z2 — 2wz) =
whose radius of convergence is 00.

(8) Show that is a polynomial in w of degree n (The so-called Herinue
polynomial of degree n).
Show that the Hermite polynomials have the following properties:
= (—1)"H,1(—w)
= —2(n + 1)H8
- + =0
=
J Hn(x)Hm(x)exp (—x2)d.r = 0 if n in
12. Consider the closed path composed of the four paths sketched below:
62
(a) Show that
=
I
(8) Show that
—---+0 as R —' 00, and that

J
e as r—.O
J z
Cl
('y) Show finally that
jI —dx
x
—' — as R —.
2
0
13. LetO <V <1. LetA= = LetCandc

denote the circle segments indicated on the figure.
63
Chapter 4. Basic Theory o( Holoinorphic Puncuons
(a) Show that
/ z—1
—. 0+
(8) Show that
0 as v
T LogIl +e"Idi
—T+o
z—1
f
0+
Show that
Log(sin O)dO —' — 2 as r —i

I
14. Does there exist a holomorphic function on B(0, 1) that in the points 1/2, 1/3,
1/4, 1/5, .. takes the following values
(a) 1, 0, 1, 0,
(8) 112, 0, 1/4, 0, 1/6, 0,
(y) 112, 1/4, 1/4, 1/6, 1/6, 1/8, 1/8,
(6) 2/3, 3/4, 4/5, 5/6, ...
15. Let f be holomorphic and non-constant in an open connected subset Q of the
complex plane. Show that I is non-constant in any open subset of Q.
64
16. We recall that
and cosz (—1)2,I

= (2n+l)!Z
=
Show that sin2 z + cos2 z = 1 for all z E C.
17. Show that
J_=Log{z_Lfl for zEC\[—1,11
18. Let and ci2 be two open subsets of the complex plane such that Q1 fl
is connected. Assume that every holomorphic function on Q, has a primitive on
for j = 1,2.
Show that every function which is holomorphic on U Q2, has a primitive on
ci1 U
19. Let f be holomorphic on an open subset Q of the complex plane. Let g be a
continuous kth root of f on
Show that g, too, is holomorphic on
20. Let g : B(a, r) B(g(a), R). Prove the following inequality which generalizes
Schwarz' lemma:
Ig(z + a) — IzI < r
Derive Liouville's theorem from the inequality.

21. Show that the maximum of sin on the square [0, x [0, 27r] equals cosh (2ir)
and is attained at z = + 2iri.
22. Let f be an entire, non-constant function and consider the corresponding
"analytic landscape"
(x,y,If(x+iy)12)ER3IX,yER} in R3
{
Show that there are no highland lakes in such a landscape: When it rains the water
collects in puddles around the zeros of f, not higher up, or runs off to infinity.
65
Chapter 4. Basic o( Hotomorphic Functions
23. Prove the

Strong Maximum Principle:
Let be a bounded, connected, open subset of the complex plane, and let I be a
holomorphic, non-constant function on Let
M := sup
Then If(z)I < Mforallz E

24. Let be a bounded open subset of the complex plane. Let {f,1) be a sequence of
functions which are continuous on and holomorphic on Assume that the sequence
converges uniformly on the boundary of
Show that {f,j converges uniformly on towards a function which is continuous
on and holomorphic on Q.
25. Show that there exists a holomorphic function A: B(O. 1) C with A(O) = 0
satisfying the identity sin (A(z)) = z for all Izi < 1.
Hint : Use Theorem 21 to get hold of A near 0. Differentiate the identity to get
A'(z)
=
26. Show that the Riemann (-function
is holomorphic on the open half-plane {z E C I > 1).

27. Show
Schwaiz' Reflection Principle:
Let be a connected open set which is symmetric with respect to the real axis. Put
= {z E > 0}
= {z <0}
Let f : U flo —. C be continuous on U , holomorphic on and such

that f(Qo) C R
Then there exists exactly one function F: —' C which is holomorphic on Q and
equal to f on It satisfies
F(z) = F(s) for all z E
28. Assume that both f E C(R) and the function
x , x ER
66
are compactly supported. Show that
J e"f(i)dt = 0 for all x E R
29. What is the maximum of the product of the four distances between a variable
point in a square and the vertices of the square?
30. Let f : B(0, 1) B(0, 1) be an analytic map which is bijective and maps
0 into 0.
Show that I has the form 1(z) = cz for some constant c E S'
31. Show that k/TI = Why doesn't the function z —. constitute a
counter example to the Removable Singularity Theorem?
32. Let f be a non-constant entire function. Show that the range of I is dense in
the complex plane. Hint: Assume not. Use Liouville.
33. We will say that an analytic function f, defined in ci C, is of exponential
type if there is a T E R and a constant C > 0 such that
If(z)I S CeTN for all z E ci
Prove
The Phragmdn-Lindelbf Theorem:
1ff is analytic and of exponetufal type in a sector ci of angular opening strictly less
than x, iff is also condnuous in the closed sector ?L and if If I < M for some constant
M on the boundaiy of 1.1, then (f I < M throughout ci.
34. Let f be holomorphic on an open subset ci of the complex plane. Let
P,Q E ci and let [a,bj —' ci be paths such that
: = = P and
70(b) = 71(b) = Q.
Assume furthermore that and are fixed end point homotopic in ci, i.e. there
exists a continuous map H : [a, b] x [0,11 ci such that
H(a, s) P, H(b, s) = Q for all s E [0, 11
Show that
f(z)dz =Jf(z)dz
35. Let ci be an open connected subset of C. Let be a sequence of continuous

functions on ci, converging locally uniformly to f E Hol(Q). Assume that none of
the f vanishes at any point.
Show that I vanishes everywhere or nowhere.
36. Derive Brouwer's fixed point theorem (Theorem 111.11) from Roucbe's
theorem.
67
Chapwr 4. Basic Theory of Holomorphic Functions
37. In this exeivise we will derive a formula which as special cases includes the
Poisson inugra!
Je_z2dx =
and the Fresnel iiuegrais
iirnf con (x2)dx = and
iirnf sin (z2)dx =
To that purpose we consider the meromorphic function
f(z) := , E C
—
(a) Show, to ease your computations below, that
1(z) + f(—z) = and
+ + — =
Consider for each R > 0 and fixed a jO, [

the following parallelogram
A, B, C, D , in which
A=-B=-Re'°,
E= F= —G =
68
Note that f is holomorphic on the interior of the parallelogram and on its boundary
only has a singularity at z = 0.
(b) Show that
I
IB,Cl
f(z)dz—.0 and J f(z)dz—.0
IA,DJ
as R—'oo
(c) Show that
J f(z)dz = —ie'° Jexp {it2e2'° }dt

IC,D1
and that
J f(z)dz + J f(z)dz = —&° fexp {ii2e2to

IA,G) IF,Bl r
Hint: Use (a).
(d) Show that the integral of f along the small half circle on the figure from G to
F as r —' 0+ converges to i
(e) Show that
R
1 +
urn fexp {ii2e2ba}dt =
R—ooj
0
69
Chapter 4. Basic Theory of Holomorphic Funcuons
(f) Derive the Poisson and Fresnel integrals.

(gJ Show the following more compact form of the result of (e):
= for a 0
I
where the principal value of is taken on the right.
The exercise is adapted from the paper [Ra].
70
Chapter 5 Global Theory
Section 1 The global Cauchy integral theorem

In this section we will state and prove a general version of the Cauchy integral
formula and the Cauchy integral theorem.
Theorem IV.6 states the Cauchy integral formula for a closed path in a starshaped
domain. We would of course like to remove the condition of starshapedness, but we
must be careful, for if we do so then some kind of restriction on the paths in question
is necessary:
Take as domain the annulus A := {z C I 1:1 < i} and consider functions
which are holomorphic in an open set containing the closure of A. It is simply not
true that
f
Kl=1
for zEA
as the function f(z) = demonstrates.

On the positive side there exists a version of the Cauchy integral formula in A, viz.
for zEA
J
IcI=1
J
(Exercise: Derive it from the Cauchy integral formula for starshaped domains by
inserting suitable auxiliary segments).
In the case of a starshaped domain Q the Cauchy theorem states that
(s)
for any closed path 7 in and any function f which is holomorphic in Q. Let now
be any open subset of the complex plane, and let be a closed path in Q. If (*) holds
for all f E Hol(cl), then in particular
forall zEC\Q
Our general version of the Cauchy integral theorem is that the converse holds. The
crucial necessary condition on the path 7, i.e. that Ind,(z) = 0 for all z C\Q,
means intuitively that does not circle any "hole" in
71
Chapter 5. Global Thcoy
Theorem I (The global Cauchy theorem and integral formula).

Let be a closed path in an open subset Il of the complex plane such that Ind7(z) =
0 broil z C\ft.
Then we have for any f E Hol(ft) that
(a) Jf(z)dz=o ,and
(fi) forall
Example 2.
Here is a drawing of a path that satisfies the condition of l'heorem 1, but which
nevertheless is not null-homotopic [Q = C\{O, 1)]
Proof of Theorem I: (due to [Dii). (a) follows from (8) when we replace I by
—.((— so from now on we may concentrate on (8).
By the formula for the index (Theorem 111.17(d)) (8) is equivalent to
lJf(z)_f(w)dwo forall zEft\7'

2in z—w
7
Introducing the function h x Q —, C given by
h(z,w) := 1
for z w
Lf'(w) (orz=w
it thus suffices to prove that
(oral! zEQ
72
Section 1. The global integral Ihecwem
We start by noting some of the properties of h and g. h is continuous in all of

x This is obvious off the diagonal in fl x fl. To prove that h is continuous
on the diagonal as well we compute
1(z) - 1(w)
=J
+ i(z - w)))di = (z - w) f'(w + i(z - w))dt
I
which implies that h near the diagonal can be expressed as
h(z, w) f'(w + t(z — w))dt

=
a formula that also holds on the diagonal. This formula proves the continuity of h on
the diagonal.
So g makes sense and is continuous in fl. By help of Morera's theorem (Theorem
IV.9) we will prove that g is even holomorphic in fl
If A is a triangle in fl then
= =
Now, the function z —, h(z, w) is holomorphic in fl for fixed w [Example !V.4J,

so according to the Cauchy-Goursat theorem
,andhence Jg=O
so according to Morera g is holomorphic in fl.
By our assumption on the path the set
:= {z E C\y' Ind7(z) = 0)
is an open subset of C satisfying fl U f1O = C
For z E fl fl flo we get:
g(z)=-J_fh(z,w)dw=_LJ f(Z)d
2ir: 27r: z—w lJ
2irz
f(W)dW
z—w
f(w)
= -1(z) Ind,(z) + 27r1
f w—z dw =
7
27r1
7
w—z
dw
The function
1 (7(w)
go(z) := I dw for z fl0
w—z
7
73
chapter s. Theoy
is holomorphic on (b (Lemma IL 13); the computation just made shows that g and go
patch together over (1 fl to an unambiguously defined function G on (1 U (bo = C,
i.e. C given by
fcvzEQ
' ' for
is entire.
The unbounded component of is by Theorem 111.17(c) contained in Qo, so for
z out there we can estimate C as follows:
IG(z)I =
..L. sup{If(w)IIwE
=
which shows that G(:) —+ 0 as z —' 00. But then C vanishes identically by Uouville's
theorem (Theorem 1.11). In particular g is identically 0 on (1, and that fact is exactly
the contents of 0
An inspection of the proof reveals that it applies to the case of several paths, not
just one. This comes in handy for, say, an annulus as mentioned in the introduction of
this section. The precise statement is
Theorem 3 (The global Cauchy theorem and integral formula).

Let 72,• ,
be closed paths in an open subset (1 of the complex plane such thai
bra!! zE C\Q
Then we have for any I E Hol(Q) that
(a) = 0 ,and
)=17,
(/3) 1(z) Ind7,(z) =
forall
Proof: Replace in the proof of Theorem 1 above
g by
Qo by
go by
J=I
74
Section 2. Simply connected sets
The details of the easy modification of the proof of Theorem 1 are left to the
0
Corollary 4.
Let f be holomorphic in an open subset of:he complex plane. Let 71,72, ,7N
and , OM be closed paths in and let n i, , nN and mi, m2,••• ,
be integers such that
N M
>2njIndi,(z) = forall z E
1=1
En,Jf = >2 miff

j=1 1=1
Corollary 5.
Let f be holomorphic in an open subset of the conzple.x plane. Let y and p be two
closed paths in which are homotopic in Then
/1=/fl
In particular, is null-homo:opic in Q. then f I = 0.

7
Section 2 Simply connected sets

The topological concept of simple connectivity is intimately relaxed to homotopy
(Definition 111.16).
Definition 6.
A topological space is said to be simply connected, if each closed cu,ve in it Lx
null-homotopic.
It is obvious that any starshaped space is simply connected. R3\{0} is an example

of a topological space which is simply connected, but not starshaped. It is intuitively
obvious that R2\{0) is connected, but not simply connected (For a rigorous proof
see the remark following Theorem 9). B(0, 1) U B(3, 1) is simply connected, but not
connected.
75
chapter 5. Global Theoiy
Theorem 7.
Let fl be a simply connected open subset of C, be a closed path in fl and let
fEHol(ffl. Thenff=Oand
7
f(z) Ind7(z) = for all E fl\7

J z
Proof: Obvious from Corollary 5. 0

Theorem 8.
Let fl be a simply connected open subset of C. Then any f E Hol(Q) has a
(holomorphic) primitive on fl.
Proof: It suffices to consmict a primitive on each of the connected components of

fl, so we may as well from the start assume that fl is connected. Choose zo E fl and
Then
F(z) := Jf(w)dw
is according to Theorem 7 independent of the choice of path from zo to z, so F is well

defined on fl. Proceeding as in the proof of Lemma 11.12 we see that P = 1. 0
We can now as promised extend Theorem 111.21 and 111.10 to simply connected sets.
Theorem 9.
Let fl be a simply connected open subset of C and let f be a never vanishing
holomorphic function on Il. Then f has a holomorphic logarithm and a holomorphic
square root on Il.
Proof: It suffices to consuuct the logarithm and the square root in each of the
connected components of fl, so we may as well assume that fl is connected. Let F
be a primitive of f'/f in fl; such one exists by Theorem 8. The function I is
constant because
(fe")' =
f= c= we see that F — w is a holomorphic
logarithm of f.
A holomorphic square root is exp [(F — w/2)]. 0
76
Seczion 3. Ewcises
In passing we note that this gives us a rigorous proof that R2\{O} is not simply
connected: Combine Example 11122(b) and Theorem 9.
For other results on simply connected sets see the discussion around the Riemann
mapping theorem (Theorem Vul.20), Chapter VflI.*4, Remark 1)1.11 and Exercise
IX.20.
SectIon 3 ExercIses
1. Consider the path -y in Example 2. What is
Jz
7
f dz
when f>Ois small?
J z—f
e _ed
J
2. Let f be holomorphic in C\{O} . Show that
J
lzl=R
i=Ji 1z11
3. Show that the function 1 has a holomorphic square root in any simply
— z2
connected open subset of the complex plane which does not contain { —1, 1) . Find
the possible values of
f dz
J y'1—z2
7
when is a closed path in such a domain.

4. Let be an open, connected and simply connected subset of the complex plane,
and let zo,al,a2,•••,aN E fi be distinct points. (loose €>Oso small that the closed
balls B[ai,e),. . . are contained in Cl and so that a' B[afr,E) when j k.
For h Hol(Cl\{ai,a2,.. ,aN}) we introduce the constants
J h(w)dwEC
lw—a, l=(
Let = be any path in Cl\{aj,a2,. . . ,aN} from to z. Show that the

following function of z
fish(w)— —•••—
CN 1
J I. w—ai w—aN)
7
77
Chapter 5. Global Theory
is independent of the choice of path from zo to z.

S. Theorem 9 deals with holomorphic functions, but the result is really a topological
one. The purpose of this exercise is to establish the following topological version of
Theorem 9:
Theorem 10.
Let be a simply connected open subset of the complex plane and let 1: —,
C\{O} be continuous. Then I has a continuous logarithm on
It suffices to prove the theorem for each of the connected components of so we

may as well assume that Q is connected.
(a) Prove that Ind;07(0) = 0 for all closed curves in
(fi) Let : [0,1) —.. be continuous curves such that 7i(0) = 72(0) and
71(1) = 72(1). Let 10,1) —+ C be continuous logarithms of 10 and 1072
respectively, starting at the same point =
Show that =
Fix zo and wo E C such that exp wo = f(zn). Find for any z E a
curve such that 7(0) = zo and 7(1) = z and take a continuous logarithm of 107
such that = wo.
Show that does not depend on the choice of the curve so that we unam-
biguously may define F(z) := 7(1)
(6) Show that F is a logarithm of f.
(e) Show that F o is continuous for any curve from (y).
(C) Show that F is a continuous logarithm of 1. 0
78
Chapter 6 Isolated Singularities
We begin the present chapter with a study of functions which are holomorphic in
an annulus; we show that they can be expanded in Laurent series in much the same
spirit as functions which are holomorphic in a disc can be expanded in power series.
The special case of a holomorphic function, defined in a punctured disc is the topic
of the remainder of the chapter. The center of the disc is in that case said to be an
isolated singularity of the function. We classify isolated singularities into removable
singularities, poles and essential singularities. We finally prove the Residue Theorem
and use it to evaluate definite integrals of various types; this is certainly one of the high
points of any introductory course on complex analysis.
A deeper study of essential singularities can be found in the next chapter in which
the two Picard theorems are derived.
SectIon 1 Laurent series

Definition 1.
A Laurent series is a series of the form
(1)
where the coefficients for n E Z are conzple.x numbers, and where z is a complex
number different from 0.
If the two series
(2) = and
(3)
both are convergent with sums S_ and respectively, then we will say that the Laurent
series (1) converges and that its sum is S_ + If at least one of the series (2) and
(3) diverges, then we will say that the Laurent series (1) diverges.
The concepts of absolute convergence and uniform convergence are defined sim-
By definition the convergence of the Laurent series (1) means convergence of the
two series (2) and (3) which are power series in 1/: and z respectively. So it is to be
expected that results, analogous to those for power series, hold for Laurent series.
79
Chaixer 6. Isobted Singularities
Theorem 2.
Let
and R:=
rn—co urn sup
Assume that 0 < r <R < , and let A denote the annulus
A := {z E C Ir< IzI< R}
TheLaurent series (1) converges absolutely at each point of A, and uniformly on any
compact subset of A. When Izi <r or Izi > R the Laurent series (I) diverges.
The function f, given by
1(z) for z E A
is holomorphic in A, and its derivative can be found by term by term i.e.
f'(z) for z E A
=
We know that a function which is holomorphic in an open disc may be expanded in

a power series there. We will now show the corresponding result for a function which
is holomorphic in an annulus.
Theorem 3.
LetfbeholomorphicinanannzdusA := {zeCIr<Izf<R} whereo (r<
Roo.
Then there exists exactly one Laurent series (1) such that it converges at each point
of A and such that
1(z) for z E A
=
The coefficients of this Lawvzt series can be found from f as follows
J
1w1p
where p is arbitrary in the open interval )r, R[.
Proof: Assume that f is the sum of a Laurent series (I) in A. By the previous
theorem the series converges uniformly on the circle IwI = p , so
1 1 1(w) 1 1 dw
j
IwI=p
=
J
IwI=p
= =
80
Section 1. Laurent series
This proves the uniqueness of a possible Laurent expansion and that the coefficients
will be the ones indicated in the statement of the theorem. It is left to show that f is
the sum of a Laurent series in A.
Choose r' and R' such that r <r' <R' < R. If r' < Izi <11 we have from the
global Cauchy formula (Theorem V.3) that
f f(w)d
I
jf w—z j
Iwl=r
w—z
The first integral, i.e. the function
G(z)=—1-
J
f w—z
IwI=R'
is holomorphic in {z E C I Izi R'} , hence in particular in the disc B(O, R'), and so
it has a power series expansion
for IzI<R'
The second integral, i.e. the function
g(z) =
1 [ f(w) (itt'
—-———
2irz j
lwI=r'
w—z
may for IzI > r' be treated as follows:

1(w)
g(z) =
2irs jf
1(w) dw =
w—z
!
27rzz J
f dw
fwlr' Iu'l=r'
I I F fl
I
J n=o
lwl=r
11 00
1 ,
j
lwIr
f(w)wdw
which exhibits a Laurent expansion of g. We conclude that f = G + g has a Laurenc

expansion in the annulus {z E C r' < Izi <R'}. But by uniqueness the Laurent series
will be the same of the values of r' and R', so it converges in all points of
Aandhasthesumfthere. 0
Laurent series constitute an important tool in digital signal processing in form of
the Z-uansform: A signal is a two-sided sequence {an},,€z of complex numbers; its
81
Chapter 6. Isolated Singularities
Z-transform is by definition the sum of the Laurent series (1). This is a generalization
of the corresponding Fourier series
but the Laurent series may converge even if the Fourier series does not. The Z-transform
has many pleasant properties: E.g. the Z-transform of a convolution is the product of the
Z-transforms. For more information on the Z-transform and its applications the reader
may look in any book on digital signal processing, say the classic monograph [OS].
Section 2 The classification of isolated singularities

Definition 4.
If a function f is holomorphic on an open set of the form B(a, r)\{O} , we say thai
a is an isolated singularity of f.
As examples of isolated singularities the reader can have the following three
functions in mind
sinz cosz
—, — and 11
Each of them has an isolated singularity at the point z = 0.

The classification of an isolated singularity of f is based on the behavior of f at
the singularity a. There are three mutually excluding cases:
In the first case f remains bounded near a. This case is taken care of by the
Removable Singularity Theorem (Theorem IV.3): f extends across a to an analytic
function on all of B(a, r). We say that a is a removable singularity of 1. An example:
z = 0 is a removable singularity of the function We will always let f denote
also the extended function, even if we don't say so explicitly. So for example we give
the function the value 1 at z = 0.
In the second case f has a pole at z = a meaning by definition that If(z)I —.oo as
z —. a. Here the function g(z) := 1/1(z) has a removable singularity at z = a where
it takes the value 0, so we can write it in the form
remains bounded near z = a. The smallest integer n > 0 such that (z —

a is called the order of the pole. It equals the order of the zero of
1/f. If a pole has order I we call it a simple pole. An example of a simple pole is
A more general example of a simple pole is a quotient of the form 1(z) = g(z)/h(z)
where g and h are holomorphic near z = a, h(a) = 0, h'(a) 0 and g(a) 0.
82
Section 2. The classificauon of isolated singularities
The third and final case is the one in which urn If(z)I as z a does not exist
in R U {oo}. We say that f has an esseiuial singularity at a. An example is
f(z) = exp(z_').
The beautiful relation between the coefficients of the Laurent expansion of f and
the behavior of f at the isolated singularity is taken up in Exercise 1 below.
Definition S.
Let a be an isolated singularity of the holoniorphic function f : B(a, r)\{a} C.
By the residue of f at a we mean the complex number
J f(z)dz
I
where e is any number in the interval 10, r(. By Corollary VS the residue off at a is
independent of the choice of e.
The next sections will show that residues are important for the evaluation of definite
integrals. So we must be able to compute residues. The simplest instance occurs when
I has a removable singularity at a. Here Re.s(f; a) = 0 by the Cauchy integral theorem
(Theorem IV.5). Another particularly simple case - which even occurs quite often - is
the case of a simple pole. This is singled out as a special instance in the following
recipe for computing the residue at a pole.
Proposition 6.
(a) 1ff has a pole of order n < oo at z = a then the function (z — a

removable singularity w z = a. and
1
Res(f;a)= {(z—a)
(b) In particular, 4ff hasasimple pole atz = a then
Res(f; a) = {(z —
(c) 1ff and g are holomorphic near z = a, g(a) = 0 and g'(a) 0 • then
Res(L;a) =
g g(o)
Proof:
We prove only (b) and (c) and leave the easy generalization (a) to the reader.
(b) The definition of a simple pole implies that g(z) := (z — a)f(z) remains
bounded near z = a, so that g has a removable singularity at z = a. Now, let's write
83
ChapW 6. Isolaled Singularities
and observe that the first term on the right hand side is holomorphic across the singularity
z = a by the Removable Singularity Theorem. So
f(z)dz= -±_=O+g(a)2,ri
J J
Iz—aI=
J
I Iz—aI=
proving (b).
(c) Since f/g has a simple pole (if 1(a) 5& 0) or a removable singularity (if
f(a) = 0) at z =a we get from (b) that
=
\g / z—a g(z)
f(z) f(a)
=lim
(g(z) — g(a))/(z —a) g'(a)
As a final example of how to compute residues we consider the function exp

which has an essential singularity at z = 0. Since the series
fl\ 00
1 —n
converges uniformly on compact subsets of C\{O) we can integrate term by term and
find
Res(exp = =1
=
Of course, by the same method we see more generally that any function f which
around z = a has a Laurent expansion
1(z) -
=
has Res(f;a) a_i.
Section 3 The residue theorem
The statement.
The residue theorem generalizes both the Cauchy integral theorem and the Cauchy
integral formula. Our version of it runs as follows:
84
Section 3. The residue theorem
Theorem 7 (The Cauchy residue theorem).

Let be an open subset of the complex plane and let be a closed path in fl such
that Ind.,(z) =0 for all z E Let I be holomorphic in Q except for finitely many
isolated singularities at, E fl\-y. Then
The hypothesis on -y is clearly satisfied if -y is homotopic in to a constant curve,

say if is simply connected. In most examples 'y will be a simple closed path traversed
counterclockwise, and Ind,(z) will be 1 or 0 according to whether z is inside or outside
Proof. Choose closed paths -yr, in such that each circles around
the singularity once and does not contain any of the other singularities of f. More
precisely choose them such that
Ind,,(z) =0 forall and j=1,2,.,N
and
Ind.7,(aj)=6,k for j,k=1,2,.",N
Then
N
for all z E C\(Q\{al,a2,...,aN})
j=1
so by the Global Cauchy Theorem V.3 (or better its Corollary V.4)
fi =
Dividing through by 2,ri we get the Residue Theorem. 0
The Cauchy Residue theorem can be used to evaluate definite integrals. How
successful one is depends largely on correct choice of contour and representative
function. The techniques will be illustrated below by various examples that will provide
us with recipes for evaluation of definite integrals of different types.
Example A.
An integral of the form
JF(cos 0, sin 0)dO
85
is by the substitution z = exp (19) convened into a complex line integral as follows:
0
J
1:1=1
As a non-trivial example we evaluate
sin2O
for
7
0
a+ con 9
dO
where the restriction on a is chosen so that the denominator in the integrand does not
vanish anywhere.
Using the above substitution we find
2
( sinO 1 1 (z2 —1)
J0 a+cos9 2i J z2(z2+2az-i-1)
1:1=1
where the integrand, i.e. the function
— (z2_1)2
1(z)—
z2(z2+2az+1)
has a pole of order 2 at z = 0 and simple poles at
z=—a+ Va2_i and z= —a—

with corresponding residues —2a, 2v'a2 — 1 and — 2v'a2 — 1 , where we to avoid
ambiguity agree to take 'Va2 — 1 as that branch of the square root of a2 — 1 which
is positive for a > 1. (Cf Example 111.22(c)). To apply the Residue Theorem none
of the poles
h(a) := —a — —1 and g(a) := —a + Va2 — 1
may belong to the unit circle Izt 1 h(a) and g(a) are mots of the equation
. Since
+ 2az + 1 = 0 , we have h(a)g(a) = 1 and h(a) + g(a) =
—2a. Now if, say,
Ih(a)I = 1 , then g(a) is the complex conjugate of h(a) , so
= h(a) +h(a) = h(a) +g(a)

= —a
But this means that a is real and — 1 is purely imaginary, and that happens only
in the excluded cases a E [—1, 1) . Since Ih(a)I never takes the value 1 and is > 1
86
for a > 1 we see that Ih(a)I > 1 for all a considered, and so < 1 for all
a E C\[—1, 1] By the Residue Theorem
sin6 9d9 =
Ia +
= i} =27r{a_ Va2_ i}
The method of this example can be applied to any integral of the form
2r
f
P Q and Q(cost,sint) 0 for all t E
[0, 27!J.
Example B.
In this example we want to evaluate integrals of the form f R(x)dx where 1? is
a rational function. We state our result as a proposition:
Proposition &
Let P and Q be polynomials in one variable with P <deg Q and assume that
Q has no zeros on the real line.
(I) If4tz > 0 then
R
urn
IP(x)
I —e" dx
R-.ooJ Q(x)
—R
exists, and
iirnf =
wherethe ranges over Q(w)=O}.

(u) If deg(P) < deg(Q) — 1 . then
00
[
J Q(x)
-00
converges absoiwely, and
.!.dx =
J
87
where the sum ranges over {w E C > 0, Q(w) = 0}.
Proof
(1) Note that there exist two positive constants A and B such that
when Izi B
Q(z) Izi
Choose R> so large that the triangle in the picture below contains all the zeros
of Q in the upper half plane.
The distance from the origin to each of the two skew sides of the triangle is
for z E [R iRJe u hR1 —R)
With the usual parametrization of the segment y := [R. ii?] , i.e.
= [R,iR](t) = R(it + 1 —1) for 0 t < 1

we find
J
R,iRJ
= j
0
—
= (i - -+0 as R
/
In exactly the same way we see that the integral along the other skew side [iR, —RJ of
the triangle tends to zero as R 00. The result (i) is then an immediate consequence
of the Residue Theorem.
88
(ii) Proceed in the same way except for noting the stronger estimate
P(z) A
large.
Example C.
As an example of an integral involving a multivalued function we consider
f P(x)
dx
J0 x°Q(x)
We assume that 0 < a < 1 and that P and Q are polynomials in one variable such that
deg P < deg Q and such that Q has no zeros on [0, oo[. Of course, = exp(a Log x)
in the integral.
It turns up to be a good idea to introduce that branch of the logarithm which is
defined in := C\[0, oo[ and has its imaginary pan in the open interval 1O,2ir[. So
for the remainder of this example, if z E fl we let
logz = + iO(z) , where 0 < 9(z) <2ir, and

= exp(—alogz) = exp(—aLoglzf — ia9(z))
We let f denote the function
f(z):_—z for zEQ
It is holomorphic in except at the zeros of Q.

Consider the following contour in which R> 0 is chosen so large, and r and €,
where r > e > 0, are chosen so small that the area inside contains all the zeros of Q.
denote the two horizontal paths
for r—<t<R—e
in the picture:
89
Then
R-e R-t
P(i +
fdz J (i + i€)° P(i + IE)di di
J
1.
=
r—e
Q(t + ie) =
F—c
J Q(t + ie)
and similarly
P(t —
fdz = e2h10 e_oLog(t_u) dt
J
'—1
J
T—c
Q(i—i€)
so that
{Jfdz
(*) urn
_J fdz} = (1_
Let , denote the paths indicated in the figure. Using the abbreviation
E :=
we get from the Residue Theorem that

I si I
(**) Jfdz_ Jfdz -El

3=1
7—.
90
so we shall estimate the eight integrals
Let us first consider the paths c2, C3, C4 on the boundary of the large square. Here
we infer from the assumption deg P < deg Q that there exist constants A > 0, B > 0
such that
Q(z) Izi
forall IzIB
Noting that the distance from the origin to the boundary of the large square is
we get [choosing B] for any outer path that
We shall next consider the boundary of the small square. Here we estimate P/Q by a
constant C> 0 and find for any inner path that
Substituting these estimates into (**) we get that
fdz _J RA + C
=
C1 and C2. Letting e —' we read from (*) that
(1 — e_2Tba) — C1R—a +
Finally, letting r —, 0 and R oo we see that the right hand side converges to zero, so
(1 — — E = 0
The final result is now

00
p
=
C)
91
Chapcr 6. Isolated Singularities
Section 4 Exercises
I. Let z = 0 be an isolated singularity of a function and
f(z) =
its Laurent expansion. Show that

(or) 0 is a removable singularity of I 1ff = 0 for all n <0.
and a,, =0 forall n<—m.
0 is an essential singularity of f 1ff a,, 0 for infinitely many negative n.
2. Evaluate
JeV')do
3. Find the value of
1
— 1 . fl\
ji szni—jdz
\zJ
1z11
4. Let N be the year you were born. Find the value of
J tan(,rz)dz
IzIN
S. Show that
for n=0,1,...
6. LctPbeapolynomialofdegree2. Showihat
f dz
J
I:I=R
when R is chosen so large that the circle = R surrounds all the zeros of P.
7. LetP bcapolynomialofdegree n 2withdistinctzems Z1,Z2,",Zn. Show
that
0
8. Let f be holomorphic in a neighborhood of z = a, and assume that 1(a) = 0

and f'(a) 0. Compute for e > 0 small the integral
f
J
Ix-alt
92
9. Let m and n be integers 0. Find

m
1 1
— z—a )
z—a) dz when
2iriJ( IzI=1
z—a+————
Deduce Walks' formula

2w
11 (2rn)!
2ir (rn!)2
1)
10. Show that

2w
t 2ir
when r E R\{1,—1}
1 1— 2rcose+ r2 = Ii —
1)
11. Show that

2w
dO 27r
0<a<1
J 1 + acosO =
0
— a2
for
12. Show that

2w
dO 27r
for p ER
J
1)
1 = + /4 2
and derive the formula
2w
dO 2,r
for a >0, b >0
J a2cos2O + b2sin2O =
0
13. Show that

w
dO
when a>0
J
o
14. Show that

00
-00
I for
15. Show that

w
for bER\{0)
0
93
16. Pinpoint the error in the following reasoning : Let be the half circle in
the upper half plane with center 0 and radius R> 0. Since the function (called Sinus
Cardinalis)
Ssnc(z) := S1flZ
—
is entire (i.e. in all of C), it follows from the Cauchy integral theorem
with 1(z) = (Sincz) that
J f(x)dx = iimf f(x)dx = iimJ —
Estimating sinus by 1 we get
= R-.oo
so that
jI.
00
(Stncz)dx=0 2
-00
Show that the correct value of the integral isn't 0, but
17. Show for n = that
J = — 1)!
—
18. Show that

00
f z3sinx
00
19. Show that
I
00
fxsinx dx=—e
Jx4+1 2
. fl
0
20. Show that
7
Jcoshx cosh(E
Hint: Consider the contour of height
94
-R 0 R
21. Show for n = 2,3,••• that
[dx
J
by help of the following contour in which P = Rexp(2iri/n)
Compute the more general expression
I 1+
dx where —1<ck <n—i
Answer:
yr/n
sin((i
22. Show that
Logx
f (x2+i)2 4
Hint : Consider the contour
95
Chaper 6. Isothted Singularities
-R •r r R
An elementary deduction of the result can be found in [AGRI.

23. Show that
tLogz
Hint: Consider the contour
24. In this problem we will deduce the following

Theorem.
If f is a rational function such that 11(z) = 1 whenever z = 1, then f has off
I I
its poles the form
1(z) =
where c is a consta?u of modulus 1, m is an integer, n (0,1,2,...), and where

are complex constants such that IakI ]forallk.
Proceed as follows for the proof:
a. Show that we in the proof without loss of generality may assume that 0 is neither
a zero nor a pole of I [divide by an appropriate power of z].
96
Seclion 4. Exercises
b. Let a E C . Show that
forall zES1\{a}
c. Let Z1,Z2, denote the zeros off inside the unit disc, and ,Ps
its poles there, zeros as well as poles repeated according to their multiplicity. Show
that the function
F(z) := f(z)fl 1ZkZ H
is holomorphic and zero-free in a neighborhood of B[O, 1] and that IF(z)I = 1 whenever

IzI=l.
d. Show that F is a constant in B(O, 1) and hence everywhere.
e. Finish the proof. 0
97
Chapter 7 The Picard Theorems
In this chapter we shall prove Picard's "big" theorem on the strange behavior of
holomorphic functions near essernial singularities, and as a consequence derive his
"little" theorem on entire functions. These two theorems have been the spur for much
development in complex analysis, in particular for the so-called Nevanlinna theory
which is concerned with the distribution of the values of meromorphic functions. Let
us cite the two theorems:
Theorem I (Picard's little theorem).

The range of a nonconstant entire function omits as most one complex number.
Theorem 2 (Picard's big theorem).

Leif be holomorphic in { zo }, where is an open subset of the complex plane
and Zn E ft
1ff has an essential singularity as zo then f( Q\ Zn)) is either C or C with one point
removed.
SectIon 1 Uouvilie's and Casoratl-Weierstrass' theorems

Liouville's theorem (Theorem 1.11) gives a first weak hint to the truth of Picard's
little theorem1 so we repeat it here:
Theorem 3 (Llouville's theorem).

Let f be entire.
(i) 1ff is bounded then I is constant.
(II) More generally, if f for some real constants a, b and m satisfies the estimate
If(z)I broil IZI > b
then f is a polynomial of degree < m.
As an important application of Liouville's theorem we derive the fundamental

theorem of algebra which asserts that every algebraic equation over the field of complex
numbers has a root. More generally that it takes any complex value and thus shows
the validity of Picard's little theorem for polynomials. The fundamental theorem of
algebra is important because it implies that any polynomial can be written as a product
of linear factors.
Corollary 4 (The fundamental theorem of algebra).

Let an, ai,••• , a,, C where n 1 and a,, 0 , and let p denote the polynomial
p(z) := an + aiz f... + a,,z" for z E C
99
Chapter 7. The Picaid Thcorcms
Then there exists a C such thai p(zo) = 0.
Although the fundamental theorem of algebra looks like an algebraic result, being
concerned with polynomials, it also involves the completeness of the reals: It is
obviously false if C = R + iR is replaced by Q + iQ, where Q denotes the rational
numbers. For a discussion and many references see p.117-118 of the monography [Bu].
Proof: The proof goes by contradiction, so we assume that p never vanishes. Then
the function f(z) := 1/p(z) is entire and converges to 0 as Izi —' 00. In particular f is
bounded and so a constant by Liouville's theorem. But then p is constant, contradicting
thatthedegreeofpis1. 0
The Casorati-Weierstrass' theorem is an immediate consequence of Picard's big
theorem. We give a direct proof though, since it is quite simple. In the Russian literature
the theorem is attributed to Y.V. Sokhotskii. For a detailed history of it see [NeuJ.
Theorem 5 (Casorati-Weierst,uss' theorem).

Let f have an essential singularity at E C. Then for any w C there exists a
sequence such that z,, —. and —. w as n cc.
Proof: The proof goes by contradiction: If the assertion were false then there
would exist a E C and an > 0 and a neighborhood Q of zo such that
If(z)—wnle forall
The function
1
g(z) := ,z E
1(Z) —
is then analytic in cZ\{ Zn) and bounded (by lIE), so zo is a removable singularity for
g. Thus
is either analytic at z = zo (if g(zo) 0), or has a pole at z = zo (if g(zo) = 0). In
any case it contradicts our assumption about being an essential singularity. 0
SectIon 2 Picard's two theorems
Our key to the proof of Picard's big theorem is the following remarkable result on
the range of functions which are analytic in the unit disc.
100
Section 2. two theorems
Theorem 6 (Bloch.Lassdau's theorem).

There exists a positive number A with following property: Let f be any function.
holomorphic in the unit disc and such thai If(0)I 1. Then the range off contains
a disc of radius A.
The surprising feature of the theorem is of course the existence of the universal
constant A in spite of the vast class of functions involved. For our purposes any
positive constant wiil suffice.
Remark.
Let us for
I E 4' := {gE Hol(B(O,1))IIg'(o)I 1)
put
L(f) := sup {r > f(B(0, 1)) contains a disc of radius r}
The theorem above then tells us that Landau's constant
L := inf{L(f))
ispositive. Our proof of Theorem 6 reveals that L The exact value of Landau's
constant is not known, but it has been ascertained that 0.5 L 0.56.
Theorem6 is an immediate corollary of an even more surprising quantitative

discovery on the range of an analytic function:
Theorem 7 (Block's theorem).

Let f be any function which is holomorphic in B(O, 1) and has lf'(o)I 1.
Then there exists a subdisc D1 of B(0, 1) such that 1(D1) contains a disc of radius
0.43 and f is univalent on D,.
Remark.
Let D(f) be the supremum of all r > 0 for which there exists a region D on which
f is univalent and such that f(D) contains a disc of radius r. Then Bloch's theorem
tells us that Bloch's constant
B := inf{B(f)I 1€ Hol(B(0,1)) and If'(O)I 1)
is bigger than 0.43. The exact value of Bloch's constant is not known, although it is
known that 0.43 B 0.47.
For interesting gossip on Andre Bloch's life see the essay [Cal and the follow up
[CFJ.
101
Chapter 7. The Picard Theorems
Proof of Theorem 6:
We may assume that If'(O)I = 1 . We will first treat the special case where I is
holomorphic on a neighborhood of the closed disc B(O, 1).
The (unction a : (0, 1) [0, oo[ given by
a(r) := (1 — r) sup for 0 r :S 1
iscontinuous. Since a(0) = 1 and a(1) = 0, there exists a largest number s E (0, 11
such that a(3) = 1. Choose E B(0, 1) such that 1(1 = 3 and If'(OI = sup {If'(z)I}
IzIs
Consider for R := (1 — s)/2 the function
F(z) 2(f(Rz + () — for 1
F is holomorphic on B(0, 1), F(0) = 0, and
= 2Ra(:)
IF'(O)I = 2RIf'()l = 1
Furthermore, since a(r) < 1 when 3 < r, we get
Rsup { I
R R
= l_s_R0(3+R)<
so IF"(z)I 2.
In the following lemma we shall show that the range of F contains a disc of radius
1/6. Prom the definition of F we see that the range of f then contains a disc of radius
1/12. This takes care of the special case.
In the general case we consider for any 0 < p < 1 the function —' f(pz)/p. It
satisfies the conditions of the special case, so its range contains a disc of radius 1/12.
But that means that the range of f contains a disc of radius p/i2. Taking p = 12/13 we
see that the range of f contains a disc of radius 1/13. 0
Lemma &
Let F E HoI(B(O, 1)) satisfy that F(0) = 0 , F'(O) = 1 and IF'I /t'!, where
M is a constant. Then
F(B(0, 1)) 2
2(M+ )
Proot The function
Z —4
M+1
102
Section 2. Plcard's two theorems
satisfies the conditions of Schwarz' lemma, so
IF'(z)—lI (M+1)IzI all IzI <1
Integrating FV(z) -1 along the segment (0, zJ we get the inequality

M+ 1 1z12
IF(z) — zI
It says in particular that we for on the circle = 1/(M + 1) have IF(C) —

If w B(0, 2(M+1)) then
I(F(() - w) - (( - w)I = IF(C) - CI 2(M+1) <K - wI
soRouché'stheozem(TheoremlV.13)tellsusthatthefunctionz-iF(z)—whasa
zero in the ball B(0, 1/(M + 1)). Since w was arbitrary we have shown that
2B(O,2(M1+l))
which is more than required. 0

We need one result more prior to Picard's big theorem, viz. Schottky's theorem.
Theorem 9 (Schotthy's theorem).

Le:M > Oandr €J0,1[begiven. ThenthereexistsaconstantC > Osuchthat
the following implicadon holds:
1fF is holomorphic in B(0, 1) , omits 0 and I from Us range, and (fIF(0)I M,
then IF(z)I Cfor all z B(0,r).
Proot Since F does not assume the value 0 in the starshaped set B(0, 1), F
has a holomorphic logarithm log F [Proposition 111.101 , which we choose such that
19(logF(0))I < x. The function A := not assume integer values,
because F never takes the value 1. Lct and be holomorphic square roots
ofAandA—1 (They exist by Proposition 111.21). Then B := /A—y'A—l is
holomorphic in B(o, 1), vanishes nowhere and cannot assume the values
farn = 1,2,... [Indeed, if
forsomezandn
then taking reciprocals we get
A(z) = n, which is excluded.].
103
Since B never vanishes there is a holomorphic branch H of log B, and H cannot

assume the values
an,m Log 1) for n = 1,2,... and mE Z

We leave it to the reader to verify that eveiy disc of radius 10 contains at least one of
the points an,m , so that the range of H cannot cover any disc of radius 10.
If z B(0, 1) and H'(z) 0 , then the values of the function
H(C)—H(z)
for (EB(z 1—1:1)
H'
must fill a disc of radius (1 — IzD/13 (by our proof of the Bloch-Landau theorem), so
the values of H fill a disc of radius f H'(z)I(l — IzD/13. This quantity cannot exceed
10, so
(1) IH'(z)I(l — IzI) 130
Although (1) was derived under the assumption H'(z) 0 , it is clearly also valid
when H'(z) = 0 . Since H(z) — H(0) is the integral of H' along the segment (0, z),
the estimate (1) leads to
(2) IH(z)I IH(0)I + l30Log(1 — IzIY' IH(0)I — l3Olog(1 — r)

for <r
Now recall the definition of H:
exp H = -
Taking reciprocals and adding the result we get
/IogF(z) — +
3)
V 2iri — 2
so that
F= + and IFI
In view of (2) the theorem follows once we establish that IH(0)I <C1 where
is a constant depending only on the bound M on F(0).
We will first treat those functions that satisfy the extra requirement
F we get from (3) that there is a constant C2, depending only on
M such that
+ —
C2 2 2
104
Sectico 2. Picard's two theorems
which gives us an upper bound of the desired type on Similarly for a lower
bound on The imaginazy part poses no problems since we always may choose
H = logB such that 19(H(O))I ir . We have now proved the theorem under the
extra requirement that IF(O)l
If IF(O)I then we apply the just derived result to the function 1 — F instead of
F. 0
We finally arrive at Picard's big theorem, which is a remarkable generalization of
the Casorati-Weicistrass theorem.
Theorem 10 (Picard's big theorem).

If F has an essential singularity then the range of F omits at most one comp!e.x
number.
The example F(z) = exp(1/z) shows that it is too much to hope that the range
of F is all of C.
Proof: By translation in C we may assume that the singularity is situated at z = 0,

and by dilation that F is holomorphic in B(O, e2z)\{O). We will show that if F omits
two complex numbers, say a and b, then 0 is either a pole or a removable singularity;
that will prove the theorem. We may even assume that F omits the special values 0
and 1 - if not we replace F by
Z —4
F(z)-a
b—a
Casel: IF(z)l—'oo as z—.0.
In this case 0 is a pole of F.
Case 2: There exists a sequence 0 such that {IF(:n)I} remains bounded,
say IF(zn)I M < oo for all n.
Passing to a subsequence we may assume that
1>IZ'I>.">IZnI>IZn+'f>"PO
Consider for fixed n the function ( which is holomorphic in B(O, 1),
omits the values 0 and 1 and has M . By Schouky's theorem there
exists a constant C, depending only on the bound Iv!, such that
C for all ( 13[0.

I
In particular
2r't <C for all I E

1 1
105
Chapter 7. The Picard Thcoccms
so that IFI is bounded by Con the circle {z E

C is independent of n we get by the weak maximum principle
that IFI C on all of B(O, IziI)\{O} . But then 0 is a removable singularity of F. 0
The next result, Picard's little theorem, is an extension of the fundamental theorem
of algebra and of Liouville's theorem.
Theorem 11 (Pkard's Wile theorem).

1fF is a non-constant entire function then the range of F omits at most one complex
number.
The function F(z) = exp z demonstrates that it does happen that a complex number
is absent from the range of F.
Proof: Consider the function
G(z) := F(!) for z C \ {0}
If 0 is an essential singularity for G then we are done by Picard's big theorem. If 0 is

a pole of order m or a removable singularity of C (a pole of order in 0) then C can
be written in the form G(z) = zmH(z) where H is holomorphic in all of C, also at
z = 0. Now F(z) = zmHc3) so that
IF(z)I (IH(O)I + for large
By Liouville's theorem F is a polynomial, and so its range includes all of C by the

fundamental theorem of algebra. 0
Section 3 Exercises
1. Let F be an entire function with the property that
F(z)
0 as
z
Show that F is a constant.

2. Let F be an entire function with the properly that
IF(z)I 1 for all z C
Show that F is a constant.

3. Let F be an entire function with the property that is bounded from above.
Show that F is a constant (Hint: Consider exp F).
4. (Injectiveness of the Fourier transform. Cf. (New)).
106
Let f be continuous and absolutely integrable over R and assume that
for all
(a) Show for each fixed a R that
=—
Je
and let denote this common value.
(b) Show that the left hand side for fixed a E R can be extended to a function
which is continuous and bounded in the upper half plane 0 and is holomorphic
in the open half plane >0
Show similar statements for the right hand side.
(c) Show successively that F0 for fixed a R is holomorphic in all of C, constant,
even 0.
(d) Show that f = 0.
(e) Show by induction on n that the same result holds for functions f which are
integrable over
5. Let F be an entire function that never takes values in JO, oo(. Show that F is
a constant.
6. Let F be a rational function, i.e. a quotient between two polynomials. Assume
that its poles occur at ai, (22, , with orders ... ,
Show that there exist a polynomial p and constants C such that
C,&
for
(z — a,) k
7. Let F be holomorphic in C with the exception of finitely many poles. Assume
that F(1/z) has an inessential singularity at z = 0. Show that F is a rational function,
i.e. a quotient between two polynomials.
8. Show the following version of Picard's little theorem:
Let F be a non-polynomial, entire function. Then there exists a C such that
F takes every value in C\{zo) infinitely often.
Hint: Assume the conclusion fails. Show by Picard's big theorem that the function
z —' F(1) only has an inesscntial singularity at z = 0. Apply Liouville's theorem.
9. Let F be a non-constant, entire function. Assume that F does not take the value
a E C. Let b C\{a). Show that F takes the value b infinitely often.
10. Let F be entire and injective. Show that F is a polynomial of degree I.
11. Define for fixed e >0 the function I B(0,l) —. C by
:
1(z) := for
107
chapter 7. The Picard Thecrems
(a) Show that f has f(O) = 1 and hence satisfies the conditions in Bloch-Landau's
theorem.
(fl)Showthaz -e/2doesnobelongtotherangeoff.
(y) Thking e = 1/13 we see that f(B(0, 1)) does not contain a ball around 0 with
radius 1/13. Doesn't that contradict theorem?
I2L6sdenotethesetoffunctionsfEHal(B(O,1))whichsatisfyf(O)=O,
f'(O) = 1, and f(z) = 0 only if z = 0.
We want to show that there exists a universal constant a > 0 such that / E So
implies that B(0,a) ç f(B(O,1)).
We prove it by contradiction. So assume that the implication Is false.
(a) Show that there exist sequences {a,.} ç C\{O} such that a. —, 0 and
{f.} c So such that f,(B(O,1))).
(b) Show that
1_i!.:
a. B(0,1)—.C\{O)
has a holounorphic logarithm such that L.(0) =0.
(c) Show that the sequence {L,.} is uniformly bounded on B(O1f2).
(d) Show that is a bounded sequence.
(e) Derive a contradiction
SectIon 4 AlternatIve treatment

The following alternative treatment ci Schouky's and Picaid's theorems is borrowed
from the paper [MSJ.
0282
denotes the Laplace operator = the Lq,lacian on R2. In polar coordinates (r, 0) it
takes the form
82ioi82
We shall a couple of times use that = 0 when F is a holomorphic function.
That is a consequence of the Cauchy-Riemann equations (See Theorem Xlii for more
information on this point).
Definition 12.
Let Q be an open subset of the complex plane. A continuous function p: —, [0, oo[
Ameuiclsa
function in )0, oo[), so a metric Is also a pseudo-metric.
Section 4. Alternative treauncnt
The (Gaussian) curvature of a pseudo-metric p is the function defined by
,c(z,p) •— — 2
p( z)
inthe subset of where p(z) >0.
Examples 13.
(1)
2R
)tR(z) :=
R2 — 1z12
is a metric on B(0, R) with constant curvature —1.

(ii)
9
o(z)
1+IzI 2
is a metric on C with constant curvature +1.
The formula in the following lemma expresses that the curvature is a conformal
invariant, i.e. is preserved under holomorphic mappings, and so it is a natural object
that ought to be studied.
Lemma 14.
Let f : be a holomorphic map between two open subsets ci and ci' of the
complex plane, and let p be a metric on ci'. Then fS(p) := pof is a pseudo-metric
onfland
K(z,f(p))=n(f(z),p)forali zEIlforwhich f'(z) 0
Proot It is obvious that f'(p) is a pseudo-metric, so left is the formula for the
curvature, i.e. that
—
poflf'12 — p(f(z))2
or in other words that
of) + Log If'I }(z) = Log p)(f(z)) 1f1(z)12
Here the term If'I) on the left hand side vanishes, because Log 11,1 (locally)
is the real part of a holomorphic function (branches of log f'), so it is left to show
the formula
f)}(z) = (t,.F)(f(z)) If'(z)12

a formula that may be left to the reader.
109
Chaptcr 7. The Picaid Theorems
Theorem 15 (Ahlfors' lemma).

A1 is the biggest pseudometric on B(0, 1) among the ones with curvature at most —1.
Proof: Let us for arbitrary but fixed r EjO, 11 consider the function v := p/A, Ofl
B[0,r]. It suffices to show that v 1 , i.e. that p A, because we then obtain the
desired conclusion by letting r —. 1

Since v is non-negative and v(z) —. 0 as Izi —' r , we see that the continuous
function v attains its supremum in at some point zo in the open ball B(0, r). We shall
show that in < 1. If m = 0 we are done, so we may as well assume that p(zo) > 0.
Since is a maximum for v and hence for Logy, we get that 0 2 (A Log
Now,
0? (ALogv)(zo) = (A Log p)(:a) — (ALo9A,)(:o)
—ic(zo,p)p(zo)2 + K(zfl,A,)A,( Zn)2
= — A,(zo)2
By the assumption on the curvature of p. we find 0 2 p(Zo)2 — A,(z0)2 , 50 in =

p(zo)/Ar(zo) S 1 . 0
PropositIon 16.
There exists a metric p on C \ { 0, 1) with the following two properties:
(i) p has curvature at most —1.
(ii) P 2 cc for some constant c > 0.
Proof: Using the Laplacian in polar coordinates we find by brute force computations
for any a E Rand z C\{0} that
A(Log(l + Izl°)) = a2 2
(1 + )
Furthermore A(Log IzI) = 0 because Log Izi locally is the real part of a holomorphic
function (branches of log z). Combining these two facts we get for any a, E R and
Z C\{0) that
1 1
t J (1 + 1z10)
Since the Laplacian A = 82/0x2+82/8y2 has constant coefficients it satisfies chat

(AF)(z — = A(w — F(w —
so in particular forz E C\{1}

1
A<Log
1 + Iz—111
>=a 2 IzhI
Iz— J (1 + I:— 110) 2
110
Seclion 4. Alternative ircaimcnt
We claim that for suitable o > 0 , > 0 a positive multiple of the metric
1+IzIl+Iz—it for C\{0,1}

Izi lz—1I
can be used as the desired metric p.
By a straightforward calculation
2$
Z
ic(z, r) = — 0 2
(1 + Iz
Iz — lIa+2$_2 Iz12'9
(1+ Iz - (1+ Izr)2

so the curvature is everywhere negative.
Thking a = 1/6 and fi = 3/4 we find that
r(z)
(1) Inn and (2) limlt(z,r)=—oo when z—.O,loroo
IzI—oo
Combining (2) with the fact that the curvature is negative we find that there exists a
constant k > 0 such that ic(z, r) —k on C\{0, 1}. Then p := has curvature
at most —1, which is the first property.
From (1) we see that
urn
xI—.oo c(z)
which implies the second property. 0

Theorem 17 (Scholiky's theorem).
To each M > 0 and r E JO, 1[ there exLus a constant C > 0 such that the following
implication holds:
If I E Hol(B(0, 1)) , 11(0)1 M and the range of f omits 0 and 1 , then
sup {If(z)I) C.
IsIr
Proof. Let p and c be as in Proposition 16. Then f(p) is a pseudo-metric on

B(O,1) with curvature at most —1 (Lemma 14), by Ahlfors' lemma f(p) and so
f'(u) c'f(p) < , i.e.
If'(z)I < C
for all ZEB(O,1)
1 + If(z)12 — 1 —
and so
lf(z)I for all E B(0,r)

1+lf(z)I 2
111
where denotes the constant c1 = [c(1 —
Since f never takes the value 0 , the function t —.. If(tz)l is continuously
differentiable for any fixed z E B(O, r) and
cj
< cj
larctan If(z)l — arctan 11(0)11
J
from which we get
arctan If(z)I <Cl + arctan 11(0)1 S + arctan M

which is the theorem with C = tan(ci +arctanM). 0
From here we proceed exactly as before to prove Picard's big theorem etc.
SectIon 5 ExercIses
1. Show that the metric p on B(a, r), given by
2r
p(z) 2
for E B(a,r)
— lz — al
has curvature —1.

2. Derive Schwarz' lemma from Ahifors' lemma.
Hint: Consider the metric f(A1) and note that
d
= 1 —
3. In this exercise we shall give a proof of Liouville's theorem based on Ahifors'

lemma.
Let f E Hol(C) be bounded, say 1(C) ç B(0, r) for some r E JO,
(a) Show that f'(A?) for any R> 0.
(fl) Show that f(A,) = 0.
(y) Derive Liouville's theorem.
4. In this exercise we give a proof of Picard's little theorem, based on Ahifors'
lemma and the metric p from Proposition 16(i). So let f : C C\{0, 1) be
holomorphic.
(a) Show that f'(p) on any ball B(0,R).
(fi) Show that f(p) = 0.
('y) Derive Picard's little theorem.
112
Chapter 8 Geometric Aspects and the
Riemann Mapping Theorem
We start this chapter by studying geometric aspects of analytic maps, in particular
of the so-called MObius transformations. We finish by proving the Riemann mapping
theorem which states that simply connected regions contained in C but different from
C, are conformally equivalent.
SectIon 1 The Rlemann sphere

We have earlier studied analytic functions near isolated singularities. To handle
such singularities it is aesthetically pleasing and often even convenient to introduce
the Riemann sphere = the extended complex plane. As an example consider the map
z which has an isolated singularity ax z = 0 and whose image does not contain
0.
map into a homeomorphism of the extended complex plane.
Definition I.
The extended complex plane consists of the complex plane plus an point
00 (called infinity). We give the topology which is defined by keeping the topology
on C and by letting the sets (C\K) U (oo} , where K runs thmugh the compact subsets
of C, be the neighborhoods of Co. The sets
,O<r<oo
then constitute a neighborhood basis for the point oo.
It may be remarked that C as found

in any book on point set topology.
We adopt the following natural rules for computing with the symbol oo and a
complex number z:
—=0, 00+z=z+00=00 ftranyzEC

, zoo=ooz=oo
We interpret geometrically by exhibiting an explicit homeomorphism between

the unit sphere
= {(x,y,z) E R31x2 + V2 + Z = i}
in ft3 and the extended complex plane As usual we identify the complex plane
with the xy-plane in ft3 such that the real axis is identified with the x-axis and the
113
Chapter 8. Geometric Aspects and the Riemann Mapping Thcorcm
imaginary axis with the y.axis in R3. Stereographic projection from the north pole
N = (0,0,1) establishes a bijection of S2\{N) onto C. Putting ir(N) := cc we see
that is a bijection 52 onto which in coordinates is given by
ir(x y z) = I for (x,y,z)

for (z,y,z)=N
E S2\{N)
L.oo
Its inverse ,r' : —, S2 has in coordinates the expression
( (2Rez,2Imz,1z12—1)
ir1(z) = forz E C
1(0,0,1) forz=oc
C
It is geometrically obvious (and also easily verified from the explicit expressions
above) that both and are continuous so that indeed is a homeomorphism of
onto
We call for the Riemann sphere when we have in mind the Connection between
and which is established above by stereographic projection from the north pole.
Definition 2.
A circle in C a straight line in C with the
point cc added.
A pretty, geometric relation between S2 and is expressed by
Proposition 3.
Under the stereographic projection ir the circles of the sphere are mapped onto
the circles of
114
SectIon 2. The Motxus transfonnadom
Proof: The verification consists really just of elementaxy computations that are
better left to the reader. We shall here only note that a circle on is the intersection
betweenS2andaplaneinR3. 0
Let us return to the map z -. which is a bijection of onto itselL The
corresponding bijection of the Riemann sphere onto itself is rotation by the angle
around the x-axis [seen by elementary computations from the formulas for and
inparticularitmapsneighborhoodsofOontoneighborhoodsofooandviceversa. In
the light of these remarks we introduce the following extensions of previous definitions:
Definition 4.
(i) Afwzcnon f; B(oo; r) C is said to be holomorphic around oo if the function
w -. f(w') is holomorphic around 0.
(ii)A function 1: B(oo;r)\{oo} -. is said to have an isolated singularity at oo
if f is holomoiphic in B(oo;r)\{oo).
Such a singularity at oo is said to be removable I a pole of order k I an essential
singularity if w — has a removable singularity I a pole 0/order klan essential
singularity at 0.
(iii) Let be an open subset of . A/unction f which is holomorphic on except
for isolated singularities, all of which are poles, is said to be memmorphic in More
precisely, to each z E there must exist an open disc B(z, r) ç such that either I
is holomorphic on B(z,r) or f is holomorphic on the punctured disc B(z, r)\{z} and
z is a pole.
A bolomorphic function is in particular meromorphic. In short, a meromorphic

function is holomorphic except for poles. Essential singularities are not allowed.
Meromorphic functions occur naturally as quotients between holomorphic functions:
If f and g are holomorphic in an open subset of and if furthermore g does not
vanish identically on any of the connected components of (1, then f/g is meromorphic
in We shall later see that the converse is true as well, i.e. any meromorphic function
can be written as such a quotient (Exercise X.9). A rational function, i.e. a function of
the form P/Q where P and Q are polynomials in z, is meromorphic in all of
If f is meromorphic in an open subset of C, then we shall from now on ascribe
thevalueootofatanypointofQatwhichfhasapole. Thenfisdefinedonall
of and is a continuous mapping of Q into In particular, any rational function
is a continuous mapping of C, into
SectIon 2 The Möbius transformations

In this paragraph we introduce and study the Möbius transformations of the extended
complex plane. They are important examples of rational maps with surprising and
beautiful properties.
115
Chapter 8. Geometric Aspecis and the Riemann Mapping Thcorcm
Definition 5.
A mapping f : C(, of the form
forzEC
forz=oo
where the four complex numbers a, b, c, d E C satisfy
detsia
d)
is called a MObius transformation (other authors use terms like fractional linear trans
formation, bilinear transformation, homographic transformation or homography).
Theorem 6.
The Möbius transformation (1) is a homeomorphism and a biholomorphic map of
Coo OntO C00.
If c = 0 then f is a biholomorphic map of C onto C. If c 0 then f is a
biholomorphic map of C\ { — } onto C\ { —
As is easy to check, the MObius transformation
9(z) := IC
gz+h hj (c dj
is the inverse of f. Being rational both f and g are continuous from into C00 .0
The next two theorems are included simply because they are pretty. We won't need
them later on.
Theorem 7.
a
If A we let IA denote the Möbius transfonnation
= {
az + b
fA(Z) := for z E C,,
cz + a
The map A -, IA is a group-homomorphism of GL(2,C) into the group of homeo-
morphisms of So the Möbius transformations form a subgroup of the group of
homeomorphisms of C,
Proof Left to the reader. 0

Theorem 8.
The set of Möbius transftrmations equals the set of bijective meromorphic mappings
of C00 onto C00.
116
Section 2. The MObus transfaimations
Proof: The only statement which is not yet verified, is that any bijective meromor-
phic mapping f: —. is a MObius transformation. We verify it:
Since oo is either a pole or a removable singularity, I can near oo be written as
f(z)=z N forsomeNE{O,1,2,...}
where h is holomorphic near 0. In particular there exist constants C and R such that
If(z)I CIzl'1
f has only finitely many singularities in B[O, R] and since these are poles, there
exists a polynomial q 3& 0 such that qf is entire. Combining this with the estimate
above we get by Liouville's theorem that qf is a polynomial, say p. So f = p/q is
rational. We may of course assume that p and q have no 1" order factor in common.
If the degree of the polynomial p is bigger than 1, then p takes the value 0 at two
different points or has a double root in any case f is not injective (Cf. Theorem IV.21).
Thus p is a polynomial of degree 1 or 0. Similar arguments reveal that q is of degree
I or 0. So f = p/q has the form
where a,b,c,dEC
If dei{ a } = 0 then (a, b) is proportional to (c, d), so f reduces to a constant. But

f was a bijection, so the determinant is not 0. 0
Theorem 9.
Any Mobius transfonnation maps circles in onto circles in
Proof: Let us note that any MObius transformation (1) is composed of rotations
z —' e'z where e E R

dilations
z —, az where a> 0
translations
z z + zo where
z . This is trivial if c = 0, and for c 0 ii is apparent from
the easily verified formula
a ad—bc 1
f(z)=——
c
Obviously rotations, dilations and translations map circles in C onto circles in
so it is just left to show that the inversion does too. But that is a consequence of
Proposition 3 and the remark following it.
117
Chapler 8. Geomeuic Aspects and the Ricmann Mapping Thcorcm
Here is an analytic proof for the reader who dislikes geometry: Lines and circles
in C are sets of the form
{z E cla(z12+$z = o}
where a and 7 range over R and 5 over C subject to the condition >
Replacement of z by l/z transforms the equation
aIzI2 +f3z + -y = 0
into
a+ fiz + 71z12 0
which is an equation of the same type. 0
Another important and useful property of MObius transformations is that they

preserve angles. To formulate that properly and to clarify the concepts we introduce
a definition:
Definition 10.
Leta : I —. C and 5: J —i C be wo paths and let (to,so) I x J. Assume that
a(to) = 5(m)) and that 0 and 5'(.so) 0
The angle from a to 5 at (to, SO) is the discrete set
(so
argf3(so)—arga(to)=arg
a(to)
of real nwnbers.
Theorem 11.
Let fl be an open subset of C and let 1: —' C be complex differentiable at Z() E
with f'(zo) 0. Then is angle preserving at in the following sense:
Let a : I C and 5 : J C be two paths with = = 5(so) and
a'(t0) Oandfl'(sn) 0.
Then the angle from foa to fofi a(to, so) equals the angle from o to 5 at (ta, so).
Pivof. The computation

(1 ofl)'(so) — f'(5(so))8'(so) — f'(zn)5'(so) —
(Jo a)'(to) — f'(a(to)) a'(to) — f'(zn)o'(tn) — a'(t0)
reveals that the proof is simpler than the statement 0
Coroilaiy 12.
The Möbius transformation (1) is angle preserving everywhere in C\ {— }
I
Section 2. The Møbãus transformations
Proof. Differentiation of (1) yields
f'(z)=
(cz+d)
A mote sophisticated argument runs as follows : f is injective (Theorem 6), hence
f'(z) 0 (Theorem IV.21). 0
The above results enable us to examine any given Möbius transformation by
a minimal amount of computations, using in particular that Möbius transformations
preserve circles in CQ and angles.
Example 13.
The Möbius transformation
for zEC,,
occurs as the so-called Cayley in the theory of operators on a Hilben space.
Since f maps circles in onto circles in we get from 1(0) = —1, f(1) = —i
and f(oo) = that f(Ru {oo)) is the unit circle.
1
Combining the injectivity of f with f(i) = 0 and f(—i) = 00 we conclude that f

maps the upper half plane {z E C I cz > O} onto B(0, 1) and the lower half plane onto
B(oo, 1). The mapping of the upper half plane onto the disc is also interesting from
another point of view: It establishes a connection between two models of non-Euclidean
geometry. In fact f is an isometry with respect to the non-Euclidean distances.
We proceed with another interesting example of a MObius transformation that we

shall need below in our proof of the Riemann mapping theorem.
Example 14.
Let A(a;.) for a E B(O, 1) denote the MObius transformation
z—o
— for
1—az
We claim that A(o;.) is a univalent map of B(0,l) onto itself with A(a;a) = 0. And
that any other such map is a constant (of modulus 1) multiple of A(a;.).
Note for later reference ti at A(0;.) is the identity map, that A(—a;.) = A(a;
that A'(a; a) = (i — lol2) and A'(a; 0) = 1 —
Proof of the claim : When z E = .9B(0, 1) then
z—a 1—a1
IA(a; =
1—az
—= —
1—az
=
1—az
— =1
119
Chapter 8. Geomeu*c Aspeota and the Riemann Mapping Theorem
so by the weak maximum principle A(a; B(O, 1)) c B[O, 11 , and further by the open
mapping theorem A(a; B(O, 1)) c B(O, 1)
Since the inverse mapping A(a; .)' = A(—a;.) of A(a;.) is of the same form as
A(a;) we see that A(a;•) maps B(O, 1) univalently onto B(O, 1).
Let g be a univalent map of B(O, 1) onto itself with g(a) = 0. Then both
:= go {A(o;.y'} and its inverse satisfy the conditions of Schwarz' lemma, so
If(z)I IzI and 1f'(z)I Izi . But then
lf(z)I IzI = 1f'(f(z))I If(z)I

so by the equality part of Schwarz' lemma there exists a constant cEC with IcI=1,
suchthatf(z)=czforallz E B(O,1). Andtheng(z)=cA(a;z)forallz E B(0,1).D
SectIon 3 Montel's theorem

An important ingredient in our proof of the Riemann mapping theorem is the
following compactness result which in the literature is often called the condensation
principle. In functional analytic terms it slates that the holomorphic functions on an
open set constitute a Montel space.
Theorem 15 (Montel's theorem (1907)).

Let F be a sequence of holomorphic functions on an open subset Q of C. and assume
that F Lc locally wuformly bounded in
Then F has a subsequence which converges locally uiuformly in to a holomorphic
function.
The corresponding theorem is not uue on R as the example {sianx = 1,2,...)

shows.
Proot Let A be a countable dense subset of fl. By the standard diagonal sequence
argument we extract a subsequence { from F which converges at each point a E A.
The program is to show that converges uniformly on each compact subset K of
This will prove Montel's theorem because the limit function automatically will be
analytic [by Weierstrass' theorem IV.lOI. Since C(K) is complete it suffices to show
that is a Cauchy sequence in C(K). So let e > 0 and a compact subset K of
be given.
Since K is compact, dist(K, > 0, so we can fix R E JO, dist(K, C\(Z)[, and
let M be a bound for F on the compact subset {z E C I dist(z,K) R).
For a E C, z E K, Iz — aI < R and f E F we get by applying Schwarz' lemma
to the function w —' [f(z + wR) — f(z)J/2M that
<2MIZ —aI
11(z) — f(a)I
120
Section 3. Monteli theorem
e/4
By the compactness of K we can cover it by finitely many discs
B(zi,r),B(z21r),... ,B(z,,r) with centers z1,z2,• •. ,z, in K and with (the same)
any z K there is an a2 such that
Iz—o,I
.1 Re
so by the estimate above

— fm(z)I
Ifn(z) — + — fm(a,)I + Ifm(a,) — fm(z)l
S
Ifn(aj) — f,n(a,)I
+
which shows that
+
IIfn — fmlloo,K < — fm(aj)I
Thesequence {f,(a,)} converges for each fixed j by the vezy choice of {f,j, so
— fmfloo,K when n and m both are sufficiently large. We have thus proved
that is a Cauchy sequence in C(K) as desired. 0
The following useful result is a corollary of Mantel's theorem. It says that
analyticity is preserved when the parameter in a family of holomorphic functions is
integrated away.
Proposilion 16.
wherelis an interval on the real line and Il is an open subset
of the complex plane. If
f(t,•)EHol(1Z) for eachfzxed tel, and
sup / If(t, dt <00 for each compact subset K of 11
zEK
then
is holomorphic on
121
Chapter 8. Geometric Aspecta and the Riemann Mapping Theorem
Proof. If I is compact then Fubini and Morera secure the conclusion, so left is the
non-compact case. Here we take an increasing sequence {Ia) of compact subintervals
I, such that their union is I. Then as just stated
is holomorphic on Q. By the assumptions {FR } is a locally uniformly bounded sequence.

It converges pointwise to
F(z) :=
by the dominated convergence theorem. Montel's theorem implies that F is holomorphic

onQ. 0
Section 4 The Riemann mapping theorem

Definition 17.
Two open subsets V and W of the complex plane are said to be conformally
equivalent 4f there exists a conformal equivalence V W, i.e. a univalent map
of V onto W.
Conformal equivalence is an equivalence relation [by Theorem W.20].
Examples 18:
1. The Cayley transformation
z—i
Z —4
z+t
is a conformal equivalence of the open upper half plane onto the unit disc.
2. z -. e5 is a conformal equivalence of the strip 0 < < onto the upper half
plane and takes iir/2 into i. Combining with the Cayley transformation we see that
1 + ic5
z —.
CS +
is a conformal equivalence of the strip onto the unit disc.
3. z maps the strip 0 < <2tr conformally onto the plane cut along
the negative real axis.
Definition 19.
A region is an open, connected and non-empty subset of C.
In
Section 4. The Rieniann mapping theoern
V and W are of course homeomorphic if they are conformally equivalent. So

topological properties may prohibit domains to be conformally equivalent. For example,
an annulus and a disc are not homeomorphic, and so a fortiori not conformally
equivalent. But topology alone is not the complete story C and the unit disc
B(O, 1) are homeomorphic, but C is not conformally equivalent to any bounded domain
[Liouville's theorem], in particular not to the unit disc. So much the more chocking is
the fantastic statement that B. Riemann enunciated in his Gottingen dissertation of 1851:
Theorem 20 (The Riemann mapping theorem).

Evesy simply connected region other than C is conformally equivalent to the open
unit disc.
The Riemann mapping theorem does not provide us with a formula for the conformal
equivalence between the given simply connected domain V and the unit disc. For an
explicit solution of a problem it will be necessary to have more information about ô
than its mere existence. Explicit formulas for when V is bounded by polygons can
be found in Section 17.6 of [Hill. For a discussion of an possible extension of to a
homeomorphism of V Onto B[O,l] see [No).
An easy, but surprising consequence of the Riemann mapping theorem is that any
two simply connected regions of C are homeomorphic.
If : V B(O,1) is a conformal equivalence then f —' fo is an algebra
isomorphism between Hol(B(O, 1)) and Hol(V). So any problem about the algebra
Hol(V) can be carried over to a problem on the unit disc, and the (possible) solution
then carried back from there to Hol(V).
We will prove the following version of the Riemann mapping theorem. The earlier
one is of course a corollary.
Theorem 21 (The Riemann mapping theorem).

Any connected non-empty open set ç C which Is not the entire complex plane, and
on which never vanishing holomorphic function has a holomorphic square root, is
confonnally equivalent to the open tutU disc. In fact, given a E there exists exactly
one conformal equivalence H : —' B(O, 1) such thai H(a) = 0 and H'(a) > 0.
Proof: For the sake of clarity we divide the proof into 5 steps. We let .7 be the
set of all univalent maps of into B(0, 1).
Step 1. We show that.7 is not empty.
Choose any zo (recall that is not all of C). The function z z — zo does
not vanish anywhere in fl, so it has a holomorphic square root g:
(g(z)12=z—zo forall
aearly g must be univalent. It is also immediately verified that —g(Q) and have
empty intersection. is open by the Open Mapping Theorem. Let E
123
Chapter 8. Geometric Aspects and the Riemann Mapping Thcorcm
and B(zi,r) ç —g(Q) . The map i,b(z) := r/(z — is univalent and maps the
complement of B(zi, r) (in particular g(Q)) into the unit disc B(0, 1). The composite
map o g then belongs to ,7. Thus ,7 is not empty.
Step 2. We find H.
Every g E .7 is univalent on Il and therefore g' does not vanish on Q. Thus
:= sup Ig'(a)I > 0
9EJ
Choose EJ for n = 0,1,2,... such that lim = q. The f,, are uniformly
bounded on so Montel's theorem applies. By choosing a subsequence if necessary
we may assume that {f,, } converges locally uniformly on to a holomorphic function
H. By Weierstrass' theorem (Theorem IV.lO) converges locally uniformly to H',
so that IH'(a)i = . In particular H is not constant.
Step3. HE,7.
Suppose not, so that there exist x,y E Q, x y such that H(.r) = H(y). Choose
a disc B(x,r) whose closure is in Il, that does not contain y and satisfies that
inf{IH(z)—H(x)IIlz—xl=r} >0
This is possible because zeros of nonconstant holomorphic functions are isolated. If the
sequence is as in step 2 we get for large enough n that
— <in! — liz — xl = r)
If := — does not vanish in B(x, r) then 1/h,, is a counterexample
to the weak maximum principle. So
h,,(w) = f,,(w) — f,,(y) = 0 for some w E B(.r, r)
But that contradicts that f,, is univalent.
Since f,,(1) B(0, 1) and {f,,} converges to H, we see that
H is not a constant function is open. Thus H(1l) B(0, 1) and H EJ.
Step 4. H(a) = 0 and H has range B(0, 1).
Put now a = H(a) and letg be the composite map g := A(a,H). Then g EJ.
By a small computation
IH'(a)I
(a)I = 2= 2
> unless a = 0
1—lal 1—lol
Thus H(a) = 0
Suppose H is not onto B(0, 1) and let b E B(0, 1)\H(fl) . The function A(b, H)
does not vanish in Q, so it has a holomorphic square root 4, in Q: (4,(z)J2 = .4(b.
Clearly 4' E,7. Recalling that H(a) = 0 and IH'(a)I = , we compute that
k/(a)I =
124
Now, := also belongs to J, and we find that
l+IbI
>'l
which is a contradiction. Hence H is onto.
Step 5. The uniqueness.
The uniqueness of H is an easy consequence of the uniqueness statement in Example
14 above. 0
SectIon 5 PrImitives
We have seen in Theorem V.8 that every holomorphic function on a simply
connected domain has a primitive there. There are open sets for which this fails.
For example the plane punctured at the origin has not got this property : The function
l/z defined on C\{O} does not possess a primitive [Because if it did, the line integral
of l/z along the unit circle would be zero, but it is 2,rij. It is a most remarkable fact
that a connected open set has this property if and only if it is homeomorphic to the
open unit disc.
Theorem 22.
For any non-empty connected open set ci the following are equivalent:
a) Every holomorphic function on ci has a primitive.
b) ci is homeomorphic to the unit disc.
Proof:
a) => b)
If ci = C, the map
z (i — L.
is a homeomorphism of C onto the open unit disc. If ci C then the hypotheses of

Theorem 21 are satisfied: Let f be a non-vanishing holomorphic function on ci. By
assumption 1,/f has a primitive, say qS. It follows that f = const Adjusting 0 by
adding a suitable constant we see that f has a holomorphic logarithm, and in particular
a holomorphic square root. By Theorem 21 ci is conformally equivalent to the unit disc.
b) => a)
If ci is homeomorphic to the unit disc then it is simply connected, and so we may
appeal to Theorem V.8. 0
SectIon 6 Exercises
1. When is a Möbius transformation T a projection, i.e. when is T2 = T?
125
Chapcr 8. Gcomcuic Aspects and the Ricmann Mapping Theorem
2. Show that the MObius transformation which takes —ito 0, 0 to I and I to 00,
takes the unit circle (except I) to the imaginary axis.
3. Find a MObius transfonnation that maps the semi-disc {z E 11(0,1)1 > 0)
onto the positive quadrant.
4. Find a MObius transformation that maps the open right half plane onto 11(0, 1)
in such a way that = 0 and > 0.
f
5. Let and g be holomorphic mappings of 11(0,1) onto a subset of the complex
plane. Assume that f is a bijection of 11(0, 1) onto Q and that 1(0) = g(0). Show that
g(D(0,r)) ç 1(11(0,1)) for any r E10,1[
6. Let f: 11(0,1) B(0, 1) be holomorphic and fix more than one point. Show
that 1(z) = z forall z E 11(0,1).
7. (a) Why can't you display an analytic function f: 11(0, 1) 11(0,1) such that
f(i/2) = 3/4 and f'(i/2) = 2/3?
(b) Can you find an analytic function f : 11(0, 1) —. 11(0, 1) such that f(0) = 1/2
and f'(O) = 3/4 ? How many are there?
8. Let be the open right half plane, and let 1: —' be analytic. Assume
that f(a) = a for some a E . Show that If'(a)I < 1
9. Let f,g : 11(0,1) —' C be holomorphic functions, g univalent. Assume

1(0) = g(0) and 1(11(0,1)) g(B(0, 1)) Show that If'(O)I
. Ig'(O)I and that
equality sign implies 1(11(0, 1)) = g(B(0, 1)).
10. Prove Vitali-Porter's Theorem:
Theorem (Vitali 1903, Porter 1904).

Let fi be a connected open subset of C and let {f,, } be a sequence of holomorphic
functions on Assume that the sequence } is locally uniformly bounded in Il. and
that has a limit as n —. oofora set of z E f with an accumulation point in fl.
Then lim exists locally uniformly in
Hint : Montel's theorem.
11. Let {f,,) be a locally uniformly bounded sequence of holomorphic functions
in a connected open subset of C, and assume that I,, is zero-free in Q for each n.
Show that urn I,, = 0 locally uniformly in Q if there exists a zo Q such that
= 0
Hint: Apply the maximum principle to 1/f,, and refer to the Vitali-Porter theorem.
12. In this problem we generalize a pan of Schwarz' lemma.
Let bea bounded, connected, open subset of C, leta E and letf : —'
be a holomorphic function with f(a) = a.
We put
for
(a) Show that there exists a constant K, depending on and a but not on 1' such
that If'(a)I K.
126
(48) Show that If'(a)I 1 Him: Compute

.
Assuming that f'(a) = 1 , prove that f(z) = z for all z E Hint: Write
f(z)—z=crn(z—a) m +(z—a) rn-fl h(z)
and compute the coefficient cm.
(8) Assuming that lf'(a)I = 1 , prove that f is a bijection of Q onto Q. Hint: Find
a sequence of integers / j(a)
oo as k oo and a function g such that
—41 and
13. Show that z is a conformal equivalence of the strip < < onto
the plane cut along the negative real axis.
14. Find a conformal equivalence of
{zECIIzI < landlz—(1+i)l <1)
onto the unit disc.
15. Find a conformal equivalence between the semi-disc
>O}
and the unit disc.
16. Find an explicit formula for that conformal equivalence H between
{z E C ( —1 < < 1}
and B(O, 1) which satisfies H(O) = 0 and II'(O) > 0.

17. Show that {z E 0 < Izi < i} is not conformally equivalent to any annulus
{z E r <Izi <R} where 0 < r < R < oo. For more information on general annuli
we refer the reader to Theorem 3 in Chapter 7, §1 of [Na].
18. Let be an open connected subset of C. Let {f,} be a sequence of univalent
analytic functions on and assume that { } converges locally uniformly to a function
1.
Show that f is either 1-1 or a constant (Hurwitz 1889), and show that both
possibilities can occur.
19. Let f be holomorphic and bounded in {z E —1 < 1} and assume
that f(x) —i 0 as x oo.
Prove that
limf(x+iy)=O foreach yEJ—1,1[
and that the passage to the limit is uniform when y is confined to any interval of the
form [—a,a] where 0 < a < 1. Hint: Consider f(z + n) for = .r + iy in
the square {z+iyIIxI <1, IvI< 1).
20. Show the following generalization of Schwaz-z' lemma:
A! for IzI =
1 and let 1(0) = a. Then
for IzI<1
127
Chapter 9 Meromorphic Functions and
Runge's Theorems
SectIon 1 The argument principle
In this section we derive an important and beautiful result called the argument
principle, which expresses the number of zeros of an analytic function inside a closed
curve in tenns of a winding number. More generally, it is a formula for the difference
between the number of zeros and poles of a meromorphic function.
To reassure ourselves that we will not encounter meaningless expressions like 00—0°
we make the following observation.
Observation 1.
Let f be meromorphic in an open set Cl ç C , and asswne that there is a compact
subset of Cl that contains all the zeros (resp. poles) off in 11.
Then the nwnber of zeros (resp. poles) off in Cl is finite.
Proof: Left to the reader. 0

We remind the reader that index = argument increment divided by 2,r (Remark (3)
following Definition m.12).
Theorem 2 (The argument principle).

Let Cl be a simply connected open subset of C, a closed curve in Cl and f
meromorphic in Cl. Let Z2," , z, and pi be oil zeros and poles of f
with rnultiplici:ies n , and mz, m, respectively. Suppose thai none
of the zeros and poles lie on
Then
1nd101(O) nj — mfr
=
If7 is even a closed path then
= >njlnd,(z,)—>2m&Ind,(p&)
See also Exercise 1.
Proof: Write
f() = (z — (z —
129
Chapier 9. Functions and Runge's Theorems
where g is holomorphic and vanishes nowhere in Q. Choose any continuous logarithms

for — , y — PL and g (recall that g does not vanish in ()). Then
— z,)—
is a continuous logarithm for f o The proof follows from the definition of md

(Definition ilL 12) and the formula for the index of a path (Theorem 111.17(d)). L]
To understand what the above means, let be a circle. For w inside the winding
number = 1 and for w outside it is zero. The argument principle thus says
that the change in argf(z) as z traces equals Z — P where Z is the number of zeros
and P the number of poles of f inside multiplicities counted.
Example 3.
The argument principle can give information about the location of the zeros of a
polynomial. We present here a typical example of the kind of problems that can be
solved:
The polynomial f(z) + a? + bz + c, where a 0, b 0 and > 0 has
exactly 2 zeros in the first quadrant.
If t 0 then 1(t) > 0 and > 0, so f has no zeros on the positive
semi-axes.
Let R> 0 and consider the quarter circle
z = Re', 0 9
On this quarter circle f is
f(Re*9) =
R sufficiently large the parenthesis has positive real pan, so a continuous argument
function for f along the quarter circle is
9 —, 89 + Arg
}
where Arg denotes the principal determination of the argument.

Consider now the curve indicated on the following figure
130
Seclion 2. Rouche's theorem
iR
We have observed that > 0 when t 0 . So as z varies from iR to

o along the imaginary axis the argument of f increases by Arg 1(0) — Arg.f(iR) =
—Arg f(iR) , and so the argument increment is in absolute value less than ir.
The argument of f is constant (viz, equal to 0) from 0 to R. Finally from R to iR
along the circle it increases by + = + where < ir. So along the curve
on the figure the argument off increases by 4,r + something , where
But the argument increment is an integer multiple of 2,r, so here it is exactly 4,r.
By the argument principle there are exactly 2 zeros of f (counted with multiplicity)
inside the contour, and hence (since R> 0 can be arbitrarily large) in the first quadrant.
SectIon 2 Rouché's theorem

The following clever lemma will be useful in the proofs of Rouch6's and Runge's
theorems. It is an integral representation theorem like the Cauchy integral formula. In
contrast to the earlier results it asserts the existence of a curve with certain properties,
not that every curve has those properties. The power of integral representations has
already been demonstrated in connection with the Cauchy integral formula; it led to
local power series expansions.
Lemma 4.
Let Il be an open subset of C and let F Cl be compact. Then there exists a finite
set of piecewise linear closed paths 7i, 'Y2,' , y, in Cl\F such that for any function
131
Chapter 9. Meromophic Functions and Runge's Theorems
IE
0 = and
1=17
aEF
j—1
Proof:
Consider the following grid (i.e. set of squares) on R2
where i and j range over the integers, and where the positive integer N is chosen so
large that any square of the grid having a point in common with F is contained in
We orient each of the squares the counter clockwise direction.
Denote by Qi, Q2, Qm the set of those squares in the grid that have a point in
,
common with F. The union of these Q1 contains F that much is clear. Note also
-
that if for example a vertex of a square belongs to F, then all the four squares having
this point as a vertex are included in the system ,Qm. A similar remark
applies to a point on an edge. Let L1, L2,. .. , L, denote the boundary segments of this
system of squares, i.e. L1, L2,. .. , L, are those edges of the system which are edges
of exactly one square. Then L, must for each j be contained in Q\F . Since each
square is oriented, each segment is oriented, too.
Now let f be holomorphic in ci. Since ci we get by Cauchy's theorem that
(1) ff(z)dz=0 for 1<k<rn

aQk
And if a belongs to the interior of the square Qk (it can belong to only one)
(2) f(Z)df()
J
aQk
,
and for the other squares
(3) f(Z)df( ,
k
ÔQ
132
Section 2. theorem
If an edge is common to two squares, then the orientations induced on it are opposite
and so the net contribution is zero. We get
>Jf(z)dz = 0
Using the same reasoning we get from (2) and (3) that if a belongs to the interior of
one of the squares then
(4)
to the interior of one of the squares. (4) is therefore by continuity valid

forall aEF.
We shall finally show that the oriented line segments
= [a,, b,) where j = 1,2,••• , r

can be grouped together to a collection of closed paths 71,72,•
For any polynomial p we get from what we have already shown that
0= =
so
=
(5) for any polynomial p
For E C let
:= the number of j for which a =
:= the number of j for which =
Choose a polynomial p such that p(zo) = 1 and such that p = 0 at the other points,
i.e. at
{al,a2,. ..,b,}\{zo}
We conclude that the a's nit the same as the b's; more precisely that there exists
a permutation of (1,2,.. .,r) such that b1 = for j = 1,2,••• ,r , and so
= [a,, for j = 1, 2, ... , r
Any permutation is a product of disjoint cycles, and each of the cycles of gives
rise to a closed path of L's. 0
133
Chapter 9. Meromoiphic Functions and Runge's Theorems
Lemma 5.
Let be open, let F ç Il be compact and let f be meromorphic in Suppose a/-
the zeros and poles off are in F. Then ef the are as in Lemma 4 we have
1,
where Z and P are the number of zeros and poles off, counted with multiplicities.
Proof: The proof is similar to that of Theorem 2. Represent f as there with the
z, and as the zeros and poles of f with the corresponding multiplicities ii, and
Differentiating we find
I
Lemma 4 applied to the holomorphic function f = 1 gives
7
3
I
7,
= 1 for all a E F
Since g'/g is holomorphic in Q we get the desired result from Lemma 4. 0

The following result theorem) has many applications as is apparent from
the exercises to this chapter. Another version of it was proved in Chapter IV (Theorem
IV.l3).
Theorem 6 theorem).
Let K be a compact subset of C with interior Int(K). Let the two mappings f , g
K —. be meromorphic in Inz(K), continuous on K, finite-valued on OK and there
stuisfying
(*) 11(z) — g(z)I < If(z)I + Ig(z)I forall z OK
Let Z(f) and P(f) (resp. Z(g) and P(g)) denote the number of zeros and poles of
f (resp. g) in Int(K), counted with multiplicity.
Then Z(f), P(f), Z(g) and P(g) are finite, and Z(f) — P(f) = Z(g) — P(g).
The crucial condition expresses the natural condition that f and g should be
"close" to one another, if only on OK.
Proof: By (*) neither f nor g has zeros on OK. Since they are finite-valued there,
we see that there is a neighborhood U ç C of OK such that f and g are finite-valued
on U fl K and the inequality () is still true for all z E U ri K. In particular all the
134
Section 3. Runge's theorems
poles and zeros of f and g belong to the compact subset F := K\U of Int(K). Hence
their numbers are finite (Observation I above).
Let us for )h E 10, 1] consider the meromorphic function hA := Al +(1 — A)g, which
has all its poles and zeros off U, i.e. in F. By Lemma 5 we see that the quantity
is integer for each A E [0, 1]. Being continuous as a function of A it takes the same
valueatA=OandatA=1. 0
A special case of Rouch6's theorem is the following:
Theorem 7 (Rouché's theorem).

Let f and g be holomorphic in an open set containing a compact set K. If
11(z) < If(z)I + forall z E 8K
then f and g have the same (finite) nwnber of zeros in K.
SectIon 3 Runge's theorems

We know that a function which is holomorphic in a disc, can be expanded in a power
series, and so be approximated uniformly by polynomials on any compact subdisc. If a
function is holomorphic in an annulus, say in B(0, 1)\{0) , then it cannot necessarily be
approximated by polynomials. The obvious counter example is z —. But we can in
an annulus resort to a Laurent expansion and hence approximate it by rational functions.
Runge's theorems deal with approximation of holomorphic functions by polynomials or
rational functions on more general sets than discs and annuli.
We remind the reader that we have introduced the concept of a pole at 00 (Definition
Vffl.4). To set the stage for Runge's theorem on approximation by rational functions
we note that a polynomial (non-constant to be pedantic) is a rational function with a
pole at oo. And that a rational function whose only pole is at 00, is a polynomial.
Theorem 8 (Runge's theorem on approximation by rational functions).

Let F be a compact subset of C. Let S ç be a set which meets each connected
f
component of COO\F. Let be holomorphic in an open set containing F.
Then to each e > 0 there exLus a rational function P/Q with poles only in S such
P(z)
<eforallzEF
Proof: In the proof it will be convenient to interpret expressions of the form

where P is a polynomial, as polynomials in z.
135
Chapter 9. Functions and Runge's Theorems
Letting denote the open set in question there is according to Lemma 4 a finite
set _V1,_V2,•• of oriented segments in Q\F such that
(5) forall zEF

7
so the theorem will be proved once we show that each summand on the right hand side
of (5) can be approximated uniformly on F by finite sums of the type where
the P's are polynomials and the c's belong to S. Let us just treat the first summand;
the other terms may be handled in exactly the same way.
The line integral
J
can be uniformly approximated by Riemann sums
where b,E-y'.
b_z
Again let us just treat the first term (bi — , the rest being handled similarly.
does not meet F so b F. Let E S
We drop the subscript and write 6 for b1.
be in the same connected component of CQO\F as b, and assume first that c 00.
Join b and c by a curve contained entirely in this component. Since this is disjoint
from F, there is a positive distance between this curve and F. We can find points
b = co, ,c,,, = c on the curve such that
(6) 2Icj < dist(curve,F)
Then writing z—b = z—ci +ci —bwe get
= (z — civ' >(b — ci)k(z —
the series converging uniformly for z E F by (6). So we may choose N so that

N
(7) (z — b)' — >(b— ci)k(z —
k=O
is uniformly small for z E F. We can use the same argument on each term of the sum
in (7) to replace by C2. Namely
(z — = (z — C2+ — cj)_k
which can be expanded in a series that - because of (6) - converges uniformly for E F.
In other words we can find a polynomial in (z — c2)' which approximates (: —
uniformly on F. This procedure can be repeated until we reach c = Cm.
136
Section 3. Runges theorems
The argument is thus complete except when the point c chosen in S is oo. To treat
this case consider (z — where 6 belongs to the unbounded component of C\F.
Choose din the same component such that ffl < for all z E F. From what we
have done above there is a polynomial P such that approximates (z —
uniformly on F. Since f each (z — occurring in the polynomial can be
expanded in powers of z/d, i.e. there is a polynomial which approximates (z —
uniformly on F.
The argument is thus complete. 0
For the next result (Runge's polynomial approximation theorem) and for the dis-
cussion of the inhomogeneous Cauchy-Riemann equation we need a fact from point
set topology:
Proposition 9.
Let be an open subset of the complex plane. Then there exists an increasing
sequence K1, of compact subsets of Q such that
(a)K1UK2U•••
(b) ç mt for all n = 1,2,
(c) Every compact subset of is contained in for some n
(d) Every connected component of COO\K,I contains a connected component of
=
The last statement (d) says that K, has no holes except the ones coming from the
holes of (make a drawing!).
Proof:
The cases fl = 0 and = C arc trivial, so we shall concentrate on the remaining
case in which 0.
We will show that we for n = 1,2,... may take
K, :=
This K, is a closed and bounded subset of C, so it is compact. It is now almost
obvious that (a), (b) and (c) arc satisfied, so left is only point (d).
Here we begin by noting that if a connected component of , say U,
intersects a connected component of say V, then U contains V: Indeed, since
CQO\KII the connected components of COO\KII cover in particular
they cover V. They arc open and disjoint, so by the connectedness of V we get U V.
Hence (d) boils down to proving that each connected component U of
intersects To do so we notice that
= U B(z, !) UB(oo, n)
137
Chapter 9. Meromorphic Functions and Runge's Theorems
Let w E U. Then w lies in one of the balls, say w E B(zo, where

The ball is a connected subset of COO\Kn, so B(z0, ç U , U being a connected
component. Now, zo E U fl , so U intersects 0
Theorem 10 (Runge's polynomial approximation theorem).
Let bean open subset of C. Every holomorphic function on can be approximated
uniformly on compacts by polynomials is connected.
Proof: We will first show that the condition is sufficient. Proposition 9 tells (c)
that it suffices to approximate the given holomorphic function f on any given (d)
that COQ\KTh has only one connected component. That one contains and so it
contains oo. Take now S = {oo} and F = in Runge's theorem on approximation by
rational functions (Theorem 8) to get polynomials to approximate f uniformly on

Now for the necessity: Suppose that is not connected. Then there exist two
closed, disjoint, non-empty sets F and F1 with union We may suppose that
00 E F1 so that F is a compact subset of C. Clearly
is open. Put 0 =11 U F. F is a compact subset of the open set 0. Let

be paths in O\F = as in Lemma4. Let a E F. The function z —, (z
holomorphic on Q.
Assume now that all holomorphic functions on are uniform limits on compacts
of polynomials. Then we can in particular approximate the function z —. (z — 0)_i
by a sequence {Pk) of polynomials on the union of the paths , . These
polynomials are of course holomorphic in 0 and hence by the first pan of the conclusion
of Lemma 4 we have
= 0
,
which in the limit as k oo becomes
'dz = 0
.1
But that contradicts the second pan of Lemma 4. 0

Remark 11. If Q be an open subset of C, then is connected dJf is simply
connected.
Proof: Suppose first that is connected. Any function f which is holomorphic

on may by Runge's polynomial approximation theorem be approximated uniformly
by polynomials on compact subsets of So if is a closed path in Q we conclude
138
Section 3. Runge's theoscins
that ffdz = 0 which implies that f has a primitive (use the proof of Lemma 11.12)
and hence that ci is simply connected (Theorem V11L22).
Assume conversely that is not connected. We then want to show that ci is
not simply connected. We assume it is and arrive at a contradiction as follows: Let
F and F1 be closed, disjoint, non-empty sets with union . Without loss of
generality we may suppose that oo E F1 so that F is a compact subset of C. Clearly
=I1UF
isopen. PutO:=f1UF. Fisacompact subset of the open set 0.
be the closed paths in 0 \ F = Cl from Lemma 4. Let a E F. Since z (z — a)'
is
holomorphic in Cl we get according to The Global Cauchy Theorem (Theorem V.7) that
•1
which contradicts the second part of Lemma 4. 0

Remark 12. Let K be a compact set. Then the unbounded component of C\K is
precisely those a E C for which the function z (z — a)' is a uniform limit on K
of polynomials (This follows from the proof of Theorem 8).
Runge's theorem on polynomial approximation is not the last word in these matters.
Clearly, if a function f on a compact set K is the uniform limit of a sequence of
polynomials then f E C(K) fl Hol(Int(K)) , so this is a necessary condition for
approximation by polynomials. Mergelyan's theorem states that it is also sufficient:
Theorem 13 (Mergelyan's theorem (1952)).

Let K be a compact subset of C with C\K connected. Let I C(K)flHol(Int(K))
Then there exists a sequence of polynomials converging to I wuformly on K.
Note that when K has empty interior then the only condition remaining on f is that
I C(K). So the classical approximation theorem of Weierstrass for an interval is
a particular case of Mergelyan's theorem. For a comprehensible proof of Mergelyan's
theorem the reader can consult Chapter 20 of [Ru].
Another extension of Weierstrass' approximation theorem is provided by
Theorem 14 (Carle,nan's theorem (1927)).

1ff C(R) then there exists to every continuous function e: R JO, oo( an entire
function F with the property that
11(x) — F(x)I <€(x) for all XE R.
139
Chapter 9. Mercmorphic and Runge's Theorems
A proof can be found in IBu;Chap.VIII,*5]. For further generalizations (Arakelian's

theorem, Keldysh-Lavxent'ev's theorem) see the references in the notes to Chapter VIII
of [Bu], the note [Ga], ERR] and the survey article [Vi].
Section 4 The inhomogeneous Cauchy-Rlemann equation

In this section we shall use Runge's theorem to show that the inhomogeneous
Cauchy-Riemann equation has a solution on any open subset ci of C. We recall from
Chapter II that the Cauchy-Riemann operator is the first order differential operator
8 118 .8\ on C=R2

and that a function u c C'(Q) is holomorphic on ci 1ff it satisfies the homogeneous
Cauchy-Riemann equation
Ou
on ci. In the case of ci = C an explicit formula for a solution can be displayed:
Proposition 15.
If I E C8°(R9 and
f(z— w)d() for z
u(z)
if C
where denotes the Lebesgue measure on R2, then u E C°°(R2) and = f.
Although the function w has a pole at w = 0 it is nevertheless integrable

over any ball, so that the integral in the proposition makes sense: Indeed, using polar
coordinates we get
2r
jjr
1
I dp(w)
=
1 11—rd4'dr=27r<oo
J Iwl
B(O,1) 0 0
For any constant coefficient differential operator D 0 on the equation

Du = f E has a solution u E That is known from the thecry of
partial differential equations. We may for example choose u = * E , where E is a f
fundamental solution of D. A fundamental solution of the Cauchy-Riemann operator
is E(z) = ; that produces the formula of the proposition. We will,
however, not appeal to the theory of partial differential equations, but prove directly
that the formula of the proposition works.
140
Section 4. The Inhomogeneous Cauchy-Riemann equation
Proof of Proposidon 15:

Since the function to is locally integrable we sec that u is continuous and
that we may differentiate u by doing so under the integral sign. So for any differential
operator D with constant coefficients we get
(Du)(z)
= if (Df)(z — w)d()
which shows that u E C00(R2).

To prove the other statement we fix z E C. For simplicity in writing we delete the
subscript R2 on the integrals and put F(w) := f(zo — to). Now,
.9u
—(zo)=— I
i (Of d14w)
irj8i to
— i f i
— H /
—
Using that is of first order (so that the usual formula for differentiating a
product holds) and that to is holomorphic, we get
8 f F(w) 1 O(w') i
- OF
—
+ F (to)
—
—
OF
so
Ou i fO(F(w)) 1. fOG
= ——j j
IWI>(
where we, again for the sake of simplicity, use the notation G(w) F(w)/w. Intro-
ducing the definition of the Cauchy-Riemann operator we find by a small computation
that
OG
=dzv(G,zG)
so Green's theorem for the annulus < Iwl <R , where R is chosen so large that G
vanishes out there, implies that
J
141
Chapter 9. Memmorpluc Fwicdons and Runge's Theorems
where denotes the usual arc length measure on the circle Iwl = e. Now,
= I
IwI=c
I
IwI=e
j
= J IF(w) - F(O)]dA(u') + F(0)}
{
=0+F(0)=F(O)=f(zo)
0
Theorem 16.
Let be an open subset of the complex plane. The inhomogeneous Cauchy-Riemann
equation Ou/8i = I has a soluüon u E any I E C°°(Q).
Proof:
Let K0 = 0 ç K1 c K2 ç be an increasing sequence of compact subsets of
Q as in Proposition 9.
Note: Any function which is holomorphic on an open set containing K,,, can be
approximated uniformly on K,, by elements from Hol(Q). (Combine Runge's theorem
(Theorem 8) with the property (d) of Proposition 9).
Choose E C$°(1) such that q5,, = 1 on K,,.
By Proposition 15 there exists uj E (even in C00(R2)) such that =
and U2 E C°°(Q) such that 0U2/01 = Since = (= 1) on K1 we get
O(u2—uj)
=0 on K1
so u2 — u 1 is holomorphic on Int(K1). Trivially
1
on K0
because K0 = 0.
142
Section 4. The Inhomogeneous Cauchy-Ricmann equation
Assume now that we have produced uI,u2, • E such that
u,+i Hol(IniK,) and
We will extend the system {uI,u2,... by adding one function more: Choose
vE such that
Ov
uz =
Since qS,, = 4 on we get
= 0 and so v — E Hol(Int
By the note we may find a w E such that Iv — u,, — wI <'2" on Ks_i. We

add := v — w to the system.
In this way we produce a sequence from such that
N
WnJ
z
E and
1
— < Ofl Ks_i
Any compact subset of is contained in some KN (by property (c) of Proposition

9), so the sum
converges uniformly on any compact subset of Q. Thus
u := — +
is a well defined function on (1. For any fixed N we have — E Hol(Ini KN)
whenever n N , so the right hand side of
(*)
is on mt KN the limit of a uniformly convergent sequence of holomorphic functions,

so it is itself holomorphic on ml KN (Weicrstrass' theorem). In particular u E
, and since N is arbitrazy, u E
143
Chapter 9. Meromotphic Functions Runge's Thootems
When we apply to (*) on mt KN the right hand side vanishes (it is holo-
morphic), so
8(u —UN)
= 0 on mt KN
so
c3u OUN
liZ liZ
on IfliltN
Since N is we read that = I throughout Il. 0
SectIon 5 Exercises
1. Generalize The Argument Principle as follows: Replace the condition about
simple connectivity by the condition that 'y is a closed path in Q with the properly that
Ind7(z)=0 forall zEC\Q

2. Show that the polynomial z —+ z4 + z3 + 5z2 + 2z + 4 has no zeros in the
first quadrant.
3. Let f be meromorphic in a neighborhood of B[o, 1], and assume that there are
no poles on the unit circle Izi = 1 . Let a E C satisfy
al> sup lf(z)l

lzI=1
Show that f has the same number of poles and a-values (both counted with
multiplicity) in B(0, 1).
4. Consider the holomorphic function 1(z) := sinh(irz) in the half strip
{x + iy >0, <y < . Show that f takes each value in the upper half plane
{w E C I > 0) exactly once.
S. Find the number of zeros of the polynomial z —. zT — 5z4 + in the annulus
{z E C 1 < IzI <2).
6. Show that the polynomial
z —. 3z15+4z8+6z5 + 19z4 +3: + 1
has 4 zeros in lzl < 1 and 11 zeros in 1 < Izi < 2.
7. Find a ball B(0, R) such that the polynomial z3 — 4z2 + z — 4 has exactly two
roots in it.
8. Let a E C , lal > e and let n E {1,2,3,• .} Show that the function
.
1(z) := — az's has exactly n zeros in B(0, 1), and that they are different from
one another.
9. Let A> 1 . Show that the equation = 1 has exactly one root: in 1],
and that the root belongs to the open interval 10,11
10. Let.\ > 1 . Show that the equation A — z — = 0 has exactly one root :o in
the half plane {z E C I 0) , and that > 0. What happens as A —+ 1 ?
144
11. Show that all four roots of the polynomial z4 — z + 5 lie in the annulus
{z E 1.35 < fri < 1.65} , and that there is exactly one root in each open quadrant.
12. Consider the polynomial P(z) = an + alz + ... + where 0 < ao <al <
Show that P has n zeros in B(0,1). Hint: Consider (1 — z)P(z)
13. Use Rouché's theorem to prove that an nth order polynomial has exactly n roots.
14. Use Rouché's theorem to prove that the positions of the roots of an 0th order
polynomial depend continuously on the coefficients of the polynomial.
15. Prove the following lemma:
Lemma.
Suppose 02,• , are holomorphic functions on the disc B(0, R), and suppose
that wo E C is a simple root of the polynomial
Then there exist an r EJO, R[ ,and a Hol(B(0,r)) such that = u'o and
+ ai(z)(c?(z))"1 + = 0 for all z B(O,r)
16. Let f be analytic on a neighborhood of B[O, 1] and assume that f(B[0, 11) c
B(O, 1). Show that f has exactly one fixed point.
17. Prove the following theorem:
Theorem.
Let be a sequence of functions which are holomorphic on an open set
Assume that —, fo locally uniformly on Q as n —. 00. Assume furthermore that
fo has a rem of order no at zo
Then to r > 0 there exists an N = N(r) such that n > N => the function
has at least zeros in the set ii B(zo,r).
18. Let fl be a connected open subset of C. Assume that Hol(Q) are univalent
for n = 1,2,... and that —'I uniformly on compacts as n —' 00.
Show that f is either univalent or constant.
19. Show that the open set C\S is simply connected, where S is the infinite spiral
(Archimedes' spiral)
S:={z=retnIOr<oo}
20. Let be an open connected non-empty subset of C. Show that the following
8 statements are equivalent.
(a) Cl is simply connected.
(fl) Ind1(z) = 0 for all closed curves in Cl and all z C\Q.
(y) C,\Cl is connected.
(6) ff = 0 for each f E Hol(Q) and each closed path in Cl.
1
(e) Every I HoI(Q) has a primitive.
145
Chaper 9. Meromarphic Functions and Runge's Theorems
f
(C) Every never-vanishing E Hol(Q) has a continuous logarithm.
Every never-vanishing f E has a continuous square mot.
(0) is homeomorphic to B(0, 1).
21. Show the following theorem:
Theorem.
Let K be a compact subset of C with the property that C\K is connected. Let f
be holomorphic in an open neighborhood of K. Then f is on K a uniform limit of
polynomials.
22. Let
and let I E Hol(Q).

(a) Does there exist a sequence of polynomials converging uniformly to f on ?
(fi) Given a compact subset K of Q, does there always exist a sequence of
polynomials which converges uniformly to f on K ?
Does there always exist a sequence of polynomials which converges uniformly
to f on Q, if f is even holomorphic on an open set containing the closure of ?
23. Does there exist a sequence { P, } of polynomials such that for all E C we
have as n —, 00
(1 >0
—' 0
146
Chapter 10 RepresentatIons of Meromorphic
Functions
Infinite products and construction of meromorphic functions with prescribed zeros
and poles are the main themes of this chapter. The Euler product for sine, the partial
fraction expansion of cotangent and the r-funcuon will be the showpieces.
Section 1 InfInite products

It is easy to construct a holomorphic function which has zeros exactly at finitely
many given points z2,• , ZN E C. Simply take the function
N
k= 1
With an infinity of points one is tempted to take

(z — zk). Although this
kFl
product does not converge, a suitable modification (where we insert suitable convergence
factors) does, as we shall see in Weierstrass' factorization theorem. So we are led to
study infinite products.
An infinite sum behaves in most respects like a finite one. Analogously an infinite
product should behave like a finite product; in particular = 0 should mean that
at least one of the factors ck vanishes. However, examples like
11 1
lu ——...—(nfactors) =0
n—.oo22 2
demonstrate that we must be cautious, at least if the limit is zero. That is the background
for the following rather involved definition of an infinite product.
Definition 1.
Let C2,.•• be a sequence of complex numbers. The infinite product
(1)
is said to converge .7 there to each >0 exists an N N such that for all vu N
andp 1:
n+P
(2) H ck—l
If the infinite product (1) converges, then the numbers C, := cg , vu = 1,2,..

form a bounded sequence. Using (2) we find that {C,, } is a sequence and
147
Chapter 10. Reptesentalions of Meromorphic Functions
therefore has a limit in C. We use the notation fl also for this limit and say that
it is the value of the infinite product (1).
If a finite number of factors is inserted in or removed from a convergent infinite
product then the result will still be a convergent infinite product (and the value of the
result will be the obvious one).
Taking p = 1 in (2) we see that 1 as n .—. 00 if the product (1) converges.
That is the reason why it is often convenient to write an infinite product in the form
11(1 +ak).
Also note that if H is a convergent product, then H = 0 if and only if at

least one of the factors is zero.
We leave it to the reader to verify the following two quite elementary properties
of infinite products:
and dk both convergent
k=I
H converges and H ckdk (ñ dk)

=
fi
k=1
convergent and H 0
converges and H! = 1
fl
k= 1
The following result turns out to be very useful, because it connects infinite products
with sums.
PropositIon 2.
The infinite product fl (1 + Ok) converges 41 E IakI <00 , and in that case
(3)
Proof: We first show the inequality
(4)
fl (1 + Ok) —1 is a polynomial in
k=i
with positive coefficients, say
p(a1,a2,...,aii)=fl(1+ak)— 1
148
Section I. Infinite products
p has positive coefficients so
which is the inequality (4).

Noting that 1 + x 9 fx any real x we put x = Iak I
in (4) and deduce the finite
version (3') of (3):
(3') —1
Coming now to the pmof of the proposition we get from the inequality (3') applied
to that
/n+p \
H (1+a&)—1 IakI)_1
k=n-fl
If E 101,1 <00 then the right hand side is small, independent of p 1 if only n is
large.
We next turn to infinite products where the factors aie analytic functions. First a
natural definition.
Definition 3.
Let ai, be complex valuedfunctions defined in an open subset (f 1 of C. We say
that the infinite product fl (1 + a1,) converges locally uniformly in (1 + ( z))

converges a: each z E and if furthermore to each compact subset K of ci and each
> 0 there exists an N such that for all z E K and n N
+ak(z))—[J(1
Lemma 4.
Let be holomorphic on an open subset Ii of C.
(a) If the infinite product fl (1 + 01,) converges locally uniformly in ci, then the
limit function F(z) := [1(1 + a1,(z)) is holomorphic on ci.
F vanishes precisely at those points where a: least one of the factors 1+ vanishes.
In particular F doesn't vanish identically on a connected open set unless at least one
of the factors does so.
149
Chaptcr 10. Represenladolis of Meromorplüc Functions
(fi) If as N 00 the sum E an(z)I converges locally wuformly to 0, then the
infinite product (1 + ak) converges locally wuformly in 11.
Proof. The last statement (8) of the lemma is a consequence of Proposition 2 and
the inequality (3). 0
It has already been observed that a convergent infinite product vanishes at a point
1ff at least one of its factors does so. If F vanishes identically on a connected open
subset 11o of 11 then at least one of the factors vanishes at uncountably many points
of In that case the zeros of that factor has a limit point in flo. By the Unique
Continuation Theorem (Theorem IV.ll) the factor is identically 0 on Qo.
Definition 5.
1fF is holomorphic then P/F is called the logarithmic derivative ofF.
Placing ourselves in the situation of Lemma 4 where = [1(1 + ak(:)) we

k=I
compute formally to get log F(z) = + (lk(Z)) which by formal differentiation
yields
00
''
(5\ F'(z)
g
— ak(z)
for zE
F(z)
Even though it would be tricky to justify this way of deriving the formula (5) for
the logarithmic derivative of an infinite product, the formula is true, and it is possible
to prove it directly. That is done in the next proposition.
Proposition 6.
Let at, be holomorphic in an open subset 11 of C and suppose that the sum
E Ia,s(z)I as N —+0° converges locally uniformly in 11 to 0. Let F denote the value
of the inflniteproduct F(z)=fl(1+ak(z))andpw
1 +ak(Z)
converges absoiwely for any z E 11o, and it converges locally uniformly on towards
the meromorphic function P/F. so
00
F'(z) Ck(Z)
" ' jor z E 11 0
F(z) 1+ ak(z)
= k—I
150
Section 2. The Eu1ex formula for sine
N
Proof: The finite product FN(z) = k=1
fl (1+ ak(z)) converges as N —'oo locally
uniformly on to F (Lemma 4). By Weierstrass' Theorem (Theorem JV.lO) the
sequence of derivatives } converges locally uniformly on fl to F'.
Let K be a compact subset of flo. Then PN/FN converges uniformly on K to
F'/F. Since
N
rM(z) aL(z)
forzEflo
FN(Z) kl + ak(z)
we have only left to show the claim on absolute convergence, i.e. that
00
a&(zo)
Ii +
converges for each zo fin.

Given E fin there exists an N such that Iak(zn)I < for k N, and hence
that the denominator Ii + ak(zn)I for k N. Thus it suffices to verify that
<oo. For diat purpose choose complex numbers ek fork = such
that = 1 and = 14(zo)I . By assumption the series E cLak converges
locally uniformly on fi, hence (Weierstrass' Theorem) so does its derivative

In particular it converges at z = zn, which is the desired statement.
£ 0
Section 2 The Euler formula for sine
The infinite product
F(z) :=
converges (by Lemma 4) locally uniformly in the entire z-plane, so that F is an entire
function. The zero-set of F is Z and each zero has multiplicity one. The function
z sin irz has the same properties. Hence z —. sin (rrz)/F(z) is holomorphic and
zero free in the entire z-plane. We can write
(6) sin irz =

where A is entire. The main difficulty is the determination of A. To find A we take
logarithmic derivatives in (6)
1
00 / 1 1
(7)
151
Chapter 10. Rcpresentatiom of Functions
The series on the right hand of (7) converges locally uniformly on the open set C\Z.
Differentiating (7) we get
(8) = A"(z) —
+ (Zfl)2)
and since
£ converges, we may rewrite (8) in the form
1
(9) A"(z)=
(z + n) 2 sin
The right hand side in (9) is unaltered if we replace z by z+1. In other words, the entire
function A" has period 1. To show that A" is a constant it is thus by Liouville's theorem
l,IyI 1). For
such z we have
00 00 00 -1
+E((1
Since 0 x 1 we estimate as follows
(x+n)2n2 and
and get
If y > N (N positive integer) then
2>2'N2
For the other term of the right hand side of (9) we estimate as follows for y > 0
(The case y <0 can be treated similarly):
2
2 — e" 2
eTtxe_TP —
= 2 = 2
2
— e2T*xe_nI feTy — &TY\2 2
= 2 2 )
152
Section 3. Weiersuass' theorem
so for any y we have
sin2 — sinh2
These inequalities say that A"(z) tends to 0 as z tends to infinity in the pciiod strip
0 1, so we conclude that A" = 0, Ic. that A' is a constant. By (7) A' is odd,
so A' = 0, i.e. A is a constant.
Finally, dividing both sides of (6) by z and letting z tend to 0 we evaluate the
constant to be and arrive at the beautiful Euler formula for sine:
(10) = rzfl (i 4) —
Let us note that we on the way also found (formula (7)) the partial fraction expansion
of cotangent:
(11) ircotarz= 1÷ for zE C\Z
As an application of (10) take z = 1/2 to get

00, 00
4n—i
2
n1 4n2
from which we obtain Walls' product:
—
00
4n 2 —
00
(2n) 2 22 4•4
2 14n2—1 1(2n—a)(2n+1) 1•3 3.5 5.7
As another illustration divide both sides of (10) by 1 — z and let z —. 1 to get
2fl2(n)
For another treatment of the topics of this section sec [Wal].
SectIon 3 Welerstrass' factorizatlon theorem

In contrast to the example of the last section consider the problem of constructing an
enme function with simple zeros exactly at the points 0,—i, —2, —3,... The product
z jj (1 + not do, simply because it does not converge. To ntas such cases
Weierstrass introduced certain explicitly given factors - the so-called primary factors
- into the product so force convergence. Bcforc we sake up the general case let us
illustrate the idea by the following lemma:
153
Chapter 10. Representations of Meromophic Functions
Lemma 7.
Let al, be different complex nwnbers with the property that
001
<00
n=1
Then the infinite product
(12)
converges locally uniformly on C and its value is an enüre function with simple zeros
precisely azak , k = 1,2,3,...
Proof: We start with an estimate, valid for all IaI < 1
(13) I(1_a)ea_1I1a12
To prove (13) note that we for lal < 1 have
J(1_a)eO — 11=
(n—
1)! —
= 1a12
1)! —
Now, 1an12 < 00 SO must tend to infinity as n —' 00. For z in a fixed
compact set K we have < 1 uniformly in z for all large n. Using (13) we
realize that the series
as N oo converges to 0 locally uniformly on C. Lemma 4 now takes over. 0
In the general case we will modify the infinite product fl(i — by replacing
each factor (1 — by a factor of the form
(14) (1 —
We choose the functions in such a way that the new factors are so close to 1 that the
product converges. That (1 — is close to 1 means that )i(z) approximates
log ((1 — z)—') . The technical details arc as follows:
154
Soction 3. Wcicrzuass factorization theorem
Definition 8.
The primary factors of Weierstrass are the entire functions
E(z,O) = 1—z
for
Note that the primary factors vanish only at z = 1.
We will need the estimate
(15) 1E(z,n) — 11< for n = and fri 1
which shows that E(z,n) is close to I for large n, even though it is zero at z = 1.
To prove (15) we find by a simple calculation that
so the power series expansion of —E'(z,n) around z = 0 starts from z" and all its
coefficients are nonnegative. From
1—E(z,n)= J (—E'(w,n))dw
lO,zl
we then see that the power series expansion of 1 — E(Z,n) starts from and has
nonnegative coefficients as well, i.e.
1— E(z,n) => (ZLZk where all 0
So for izi 1 we get
akizlk = — E(1,n))
—
> >
= —0) =
which is (15).
Andthenforanyrn0,n 1:
(16) IE(z,n)m — ii 2mIE(z,n) —
where we have used the identity
and the fact (evident from (16)) that 1E(z,n)i 2 for fri 1
155
Chapter 10. Representations of Mcromorphic Functions
9—k
(17) IE(z,m +k)—
With these preliminaries to a side we can prove Weiers:rass' factorization theorem:
Theorem 9 (Weierstrass' factorizadon theorem).

Let Q be an open subset of C • let be a sequence ofthffereiupoiiusfrom Q
with no cluster point in Q. and let finally m be a sequence of positive integers.
There exists a function g E Hol(fl) such that g has a zero of order at for
k = 1,2,..., and suchthatgvanishes nowhere else in Il.
Proof:
Since the sequence {zk} does not cluster in there exist a E and r > 0 such
that B(a,r) fl and such that B(a,r) does not intersect the set {:k}. Let us for
convenience assume that a = 0 and r = 1. Under the transformation : —. 1 the open
set goes into an open set V. If := then ç'. 1. E V and {ck}
does not cluster in V (Recall that 0 does not belong to V). Choose for each k a point
a& E C\V closest to ck. Since {ck} does not cluster in V we get
(18) tim — CkI = 0

k—oo
[Indeed, if for some 5 > 0 and subsequence {k,) we have that ak. — ci,I 5 , where
tends to c (recall that {ck} is bounded), then c must belong to C\V. But by choice
of we have
lc&, — ci Ica. —
a contradictionj.
Now put
(19) f(z) := for zEV
If F is any compact subset of V. then by (18) for all large k, 2Ich — aal <
z
uniform convergence of the infinite product in (19) now follows from
(17) and Lemma 4.
By assumption B(0, 1) so {zIlzl> 1) V. Since Iakl land lckI 1,
we have
z—ak
—
<!2 whenever Iz 3
Using (17) and (19) we see that
(20) If(z)I is bounded for lzl 3
156
Section 4. The r-function
Now define g(z) f(1/z) for a 0. Then g has a zero of order at 2k and
vanishes nowhere else in Q\{O} . (20) says that g is bounded in B(0, 4)\{O). 0 is
therefore a removable singularity of g and g can hence be defined to be analytic at 0 as
well. If g(0) 0, g is the required function. If 0 is a zero of g of order n, then
fulfills all the requirements. 0
Section 4 The r-function

Taking = —n in (12) we find that
(21) g(z) := etzz[1 (i +

is entire with simple zeros precisely at a = 0, —1, —2,.... Here is a constant chosen
so that g(1) = 1. is called the Euler constant. The reciprocal of g is meromorphic in
C with simple poles at 0, —1, —2,... This is the famous F-function (gamma-function):
(22)
and it is of utmost importance. The F-function was introduced by Euler in 1729 (See
[Ds] for a readable account of its history).
Let us derive some of the most important properties of the F-function. Since q is
entire, F has no zeros. Writing
(23) g(z) = + 1)e'H { (i + exp

}
and replacing a by a + 1 in (21), the following computation is valid for any a
(
g(z) _e z 1 z
zg(z+1) —
+!)}
= n(n1+
1)} fi }
Using that
=1
we find further that
(24)
157
Chapter 10. Representations of Meromoiphic Functions
Thus g(z) = czg(z) for z O,—1,—2,•••, where c is a constant. By continuity

this holds for all z E C. To find the constant c we note from (21) that
lim = 1
z—O z
Since also g(1) = 1 we see that the constant is 1. Translating from g to 1' we find
the functional equation for r:
(25) F(z+1)=zI'(z) for

Since = 1, (25) leads to
(26) r(n-l-1)=n! for

which explains why the r-functjon is also called the factorial function.
We proceed by deriving another fundamental relation for the r-fiinction, called the
formula of complementary arguments. Usc (21) with z and —z and multiply to get
g(z)g(—z) = _z2[J
Appealing to the Euler formula (10) for sine and to (25) the above relation reads in
terms of 1'
(27) r(z)r(1 — z) for z Z

=
(27) is the formula of complementary argwnents.
In particular since r'(x) > 0 for z > 0, we get taking z = 1/2 in (27) that
(28)
The reader might in other connections have encountered the Mellin transform (=
the Euler integral) of a complex valued function g on which is the function F9
defined by
:= Jtz_19(t)dt wherever the integral converges.
The particular case of g(t) = is of special interest for us here because this
equals the r-function. This result is called The Euler integral formula
(29) F(z) = Jt1_1e_tdt for > ()
158
Section 4. The F-function
To derive it we use Prym's decomposition
Jtt_1e_tdt + Je_ftt_Idt = P(z) + Q(z)

(30)
= /
The first integral on the tight, i.e. Q(z) is entire. Expanding e_t and integrating term
by term we find that the second integral equals
(31)
The right hand side of (31) converges uniformly in any compact set not containing the
points z = 0,—i,--2,•.., and we see that
(32) F(z)
is a meromorphic function in the entire complex plane with simple poles at =

0, —1, —2,.... Ii also equals the integral in (29) for > 0. Using this, routine
integration shows that
(33) zF(z) = F(z + 1) when 3tz > 0
But then (33) must hold in the entire z-plane minus the points 0,—i, —2,.•• (The
Unique Continuation Theorem). We know that r satisfies the identity (33) in form of
(25) and that F never vanishes. Thus from (22) we see that
(34) 0 := = Fg
is entire and has period 1, i.e. G(z+1) = G(z). Since F(1) = F(1) = 1, G— 1
vanishes at the (real) integers. Now, sin wz has period 2, has simple poles at the
integers and vanishes nowhere else. Comparing 0 with sin irz we see that
0(z)—i
(35) H(z)
srnirz
is entire and has period 2. We will prove that H is zero by showing that H is bounded
in the period strip 1 3tz <3, and then applying Liouvile's theorem.
F is bounded in this strip, as is evident from its integral representation (30). Let
us estimate g in the strip. If z = a + iy is in the strip under consideration then
X)2
I(i + = (1 + +
Using this estimate in (21) and separating products we get:
Ig(z)I lzIe7'{[J (1 + (i
+
= I
=
a y
159
Chapter 10. Representations of Meromorphic Functions
where the last equality comes from the Euler sine formula (10). Using this estimate
it is elementary to show that (remember that g(x) is bounded for 1 x 3 and that
= isinh(iry))
g(z)
(36) —'0 as z—'oo in
sin irz
From (34) and (35)
g(z) +
IH(z)IIF(z)I
Using (36) we conclude that H is bounded in the period strip and hence everywhere.
By Liouville's theorem H is a constant. Since H(z) tends to 0 as z tends to oo in the
period strip, the constant is 0, so H is identically 0, i.e. F = r. We have thus derived
(29). 0
From (28) we then get by a change of variables the important formula
(37) J = J =
As an application of the Euler integral formula (29) we shall derive Stirling's

asymptotic approximation of the factorial function:
Theorem 10 (Stirling's approximation formula).
—, V2,r as n —' 00
The proof is adapted from the one in [Pa).

Introducing x = — as new variable in (29) we find
= 2J (i +
Since 1 + y expy we get for x> the following estimate of the integrand
(except for the factor exp (—x2))
2,*— 1
(1 < exp — 1)} exp

+
e
so the integrand above is bounded uniformly in n by the integrable function e exp (— z2).
160
Section 5. The Minag-Leffier expanston
We next show that the integrand converges poiniwise, so x is fixed for a moment.
Using the power series expansion of the logarithm we find for n 00 that
/ x\ x x2 /1
and so
log {(i + = (2n — 1)log (i + —
= (2n — + — = +
—
Finally, by the dominated convergence theorem

00
e_Z2e_X2ds = as n —. 00
2J
00
0
As the end of this paragraph we mention the famous dupilcanon formula of Legendre
(see the exercises for a proof):
(38) = 1r(z)r(z +
Section 5 The Mittag-Leffier expansion

The theorem of this paragraph is analogous to the Weierstrass theorem on zero sets
in §4. Instead of zeros we deal with poles. Before we state and prove the theorem we
remind the reader of the following fact from the theoiy of Laurent expansions:
Theorem 11.
Let f be holomorphic on the punctured disc B(O, R)\{O}. Then f may in exactly
one way be written in the form
1(z) = g(z) + h for z B(O, R)\{O}
where g E Hol(B(O, R)) and where h is an entire function such thai h(O) = 0.
Proof This was seen during the proof of Theorem VU. 0

More generally, if a E C is an isolated singularity of a holomorphic function f
then f can be written in the form
(39) f(z)=h(_!_) +g(z)
161
Chapcr 10. Representations of Meromorphic Functions
where h is an entire function with h(O) = 0, and where g is a holomorphic function on

the domain of definition of f and a is a removable singularity for g. The decomposition
(39) is unique. The first term, i.e. the function z —' h((z — aY') is called the
principal part offal a.
Example.
The function (Cf formula (9) above)
2 1
sin2 = — n)2
has for each n E N the principal part (z — n)2 at z = n.
However, if we are given a sequence of principal parts, then their sum will normally
not converge. Mitiag-Leffler's theorem says that a meromorphic function with the
prescribed principal pans nevertheless exists:
Theorem 12 (Miltag-Leffler's theorem (1884)).

Let be an open subset of C. Let pi, be a sequence of different points from
without cluster point in Il. and let P11P2,... be a sequence of polynomials without
constant term.
Then there exists a function which is meromorphic on fl, has } as its set
of poles in and whose principal part at is Pk((z — PLY')for all k = 1,2,...
Remark. If we only specify that the desired function should have poles at P2
of given orders mi, then it can be found by help of Weierstrass' theorem on
zero sets from §4: Indeed, if f is a holomorphic function with zeros at p1,P2,••• of
orders then 1/f satisfies the requirements.
Proof:
LCtB(pk,rk),k=1,2,..
be disjoint balls in and choose for each k a function 4'k E r&)) such that
is identically I on the smaller ball Bk :=
function f £ is smooth on . .} and reduces on B& to fk.
so it satisfies the requirements of the theorem except that it is not holomorphic. To
remedy that we consider the function
f for z E cZ\{pi,p2,. .
F
for z E
g is clearly on And on the punctured disc Bk\ {p,, } the function
f reduces to a holomorphic function (viz 1k). so
Of Ofk
9 — — —
oz uz
162
Secdon 6. The and p-fimctions o( Weiers*rass
on Bk\{pk} . Thus g
The inhomogeneous Cauchy-Ricmann equation = g has a solution u E
C°°((l) (Theorem IX.16).
f
Now, h := — u is holomorphic in by the veiy definition of g.
On Bk\{pk} we have h = 1k — u. As observed u E Hol(Bk) , so h has the desired
principal pan 0
Wcierstrass' factorization theorem (Theorem 9) told us how to construct a holomor-

phic function whose zero set is a prescribed sequence of points. The next result is that
what can be done with zeros can be done with any sequence of values:
Coroilar, 13 (Gerasay'z interpolation theorem).

be an open subset of the complex plane. Let {zl,z2,...) be asubset of Cl
without limit points in Cl, and let w2,••• be a sequence of complex numbers.
Then there exists a function f E Hol(Cl) such that f(zk) = Wk for k = 1,2,...
Proof:
By Weierstrass' Factorization theorem (Theorem 9) there is a holomorphic function
10 with simple poles at the zk, i.e. fo(za) = 0 and 0 fork = 1,2,... By the
Mittag-Lefficr theorem there is a function h E Hol(Cl\{zi,z2,. .}) such that
.
Wk 1
fo(zk) z —
isholomorphic in a ball around zk for each k. Now, f := foh is holomorphic on Cl,

because the zeros cancel the singularities, and for z we find that
f(z) = fo(z)h(z) = fo(z){h(z)

— ft,(zk) z — Zk }+ z — Zk
—' 0 + = Wk
sof(zk)= Wk fork=
For a generalization of Corollary 13 see Exercise 17.
Section 6 The (- and p-functions of WeIerstrass

We have examples of periodic holomorphic functions. E.g. exp, cos and sin.
Liouville's theorem rules out that a nonconstant holomorphic function can have two
independent periods. We shall now give an example of a doubly periodic meromorphic
function, viz Weierstrass' p-function.
Let w and w' be non-zero complex numbers with non-real quotient, i.e. they are
linearly independent over the reals. Let G be the group generated by w and w', i.e.
G consists of the complex numbers of the form g = mw + nw' where m and n are
integers. If w and w' are periods of a given function then so is every g E G.
163
Chapter 10. Representatiom of Metamorphic Functions
By Minag-Leffler's theorem there is a meromorphic function with principal part

(z —
g)1 at each element g E G. However we do not have to appeal to that theorem,
since an example is given by the so-called Weierstrass (-function (Weierstrass zeta-
function):
(42)
To prove that (is such an example we prepare a lemma.
Lemma 14.
1
(43) >
Proof: where ImI+JnI1. If

ImI + ml = k either or frzl is k/2; if, say lml k/2 then
+ nw'l = = ka
+
where a =
Now there axe at most 4k pairs (m,n) such that lml + ml = k. Thus
>2
191 k=1 ImI+1n1b
which proves (43). 0

Let us now return to the right hand side of (42). Consider the disc B(O, 1?). There
arc only finitely many g G satisfying R, as is clear from f.ex.. (43). Since
1 1 z
, ,and
z—g g g (z—g)g
= if IgI and Izl R
the series
>2
(1 1 z
z 9 g g
IgI2R
converges uniformly in B(O, R) and represents a holomorphic function in this disc. It

follows that ((z), given by (42) is meromcrphic in C with simple poles precisely at
the points of G.
164
SectIon 7. Exercises
Differentiation of (42) termwise (which is permitted) leads to the p-

function (Weicrstrass pc-function):
(44) p(z) = .-('(z) = + 2 —g1

{ (z—g) }
The p-function is meromorphic in C with double poles precisely at g E G. Let us

now show that the p-function is doubly periodic with periods w and Differentiating
(44) we get
2 — 2
(45) p'(z) = —
— g) — g)
For any h E G the series for p' is unaltered by a change from z to z + h because
C is a group. In other words, p'(z + h) = p'(z), implying that
(46) p(z+h)—p(z) =C(h)

where C(h) is a constant, perhaps depending on h. But the series for p shows that
is an even function : p(z) = p(—z). Now it is immediate from (46) that
C(h+g)=C(h)+C(g) forall h,9eG

Using these facts we find that
But C(h) + C(—h) C(O) = 0, so we must have C(h) = 0 and so p(z + h) = p(z).
We record this in the final statement of this section:
p and p' are doubly periodic with periods andw', and = —p.
Section 7 Exercises
1. Show that
00
2
3
2. For which z E C will the infinite product
:[•J (i +
converge? Show that the value of the product is (1 —

Hint:
(1— z)J1[ (i + = 1—
165
Chapter 10. Representations of Metamorphic Functions
N
3. Assume that the limit urn fl exists and is 0. Show that the product
N—co
n1
4. Assume that the infinite product fi (1 + converges. Discuss convergence
of
5. Let the sequence } of complex numbers satisfy that
(i) Show that the infinite product ( a so-called Blaschke product)
B(z) :=
a function which is holomorphic in B(O, 1). Find its zeros.

(ii) Find a sequence as above with the property that every point on the unit
circle Iz I = I is a cluster point of
6. We shall in this exercise present another way of dealing with the entire function
A from §2 (Herglotz' trick):
/1 00
2z
A(z)=ircot(irz)—
(a) Show that A' satisfies the functional equation
A'(z) = +A'(!j_!)}
(8) Use the functional equation to show that A' is a constant. (Hint: The maximum
modulus principle).
7. Show that
2
by help of the partial fraction expansion of the cotangent.

8. Show that
i-ri
COslrz=Ilcl—
4z 2
( (2n—1) 2
9. Let f be meromorphic on an open subset Cl of C. Show that f can be written as

a quotient I = g/h, where g and h both are holomorphic in Cl.
166
10. Let t R\{O} . Show that
,T.2
Ir(it)I =
11. (i) Show that Euler's constant equals

f 1 1
(ii) Derive Gauss' formula

N!NZ
r(z)= lam for
N—co
and from it deduce Wallis' product

2•2 4.4
21.3 3.5 5.7
(iii) Prove the Legendre duplication formula
= 22z_1r(z)r(z ÷
12. Find the residue of rat z = 0. More generally at z = —n for n =

13. Let C be the following contour
-ì
Prove Hankel's formula
r(z) =
For which z E C is Hankel's formula valid?

14. Let fl and B = {b1, b2, . . .} be as in the Mittag-Leffler theorem. Let fk for
k = 1,2,••• be entut functions with fk(O) = 0.
167
Chapter 10. Representations of Functions
Show that there exists an f Hol(Q\B) such that the principal part of f at bk is
fk((z—bk)) for all k =

15. With the notation of §6 show that
a(z) := —
(l(z)2)}
is entire with simple poles exactly at the g e G.
The logarithmic derivative of is Weierstrass' (-function. a is called the sigma-
fiuzctlon of Weierstrass.
Show the following generalization of Proposition 2:
16.
Let be a sequence of reals with 11k > 0 for all k. Let cl,c2,••• be a
sequence of complex numbers from the open unit disc, and assume that
<00
Show that the product
[1(1
converges (principal determinations).

17. Generalize Corollary 13 to the following theorem:
Theorem.
Let Cl be an open subset of the conzple.x plane and let { z 1,22, .} be a subset of CI
withow limit points in Cl. Let there for each Ic = 1,2,..• be given finitely many complex
nwnbers wk,1,wk,2,•• Then there exists afunction I Holffl) such that
for On and Ic =
Hint: Modify the proof of Corollary 13.
18. Derive the formula (37) directly without resort to the r—function as follows:
Let
i :=J e_t'dx
show that
j2
=J
and introduce polar coordinates.
Another elegant way of proving (37) can be found in [An).
168
Chapter 11 The Prime Number Theorem
Section 1 The Riemann zeta function

The famous prime number theorem states that ir(r), the number of primes less than
or equal to x, is asymptotically the same as z/logz. This was conjectured by Gauss
and about a hundred years later proved by Hadamard and de la ValIde-Poussin. It is
this proof that we present below. An "elementary" proof was given by A. Sclberg [Sc).
The proof uses the celebrated Rieniann zeta function defined for z in the open half
plane {w E C 1) by:
(1) ((z) :=
The (-function was studied already by Euler, long before the time of Riemann (See
[Ayl). Euler found e.g. formulas for ((2n), n = 1,2,•.•. These formulas are derived in
an elementary fashion in [Ber]. The special case ((2) = ir2/6 has a short elegant proof
[Ap2]. Very little is known about the values of the (-function at other natural numbers,
except that it has been established thai ((3) is irrational. See the informal report [Po].
We shall presently show that the function given by (1) for 1 is the restriction
to this open set of a meromorphic function on C with a simple pole at z = 1. It is
the extended function that is usually called the (-function. It is remarkable that the
properties of this function should relate so decisively to the prime number theorem. For
more information on the (-function we refer to the monograph [Ed).
Theorem 1.
The series (1) converges wufornily on every half plane of the form {z E C I a)
where a> 1.
There isameromorphic function(onCsuch that ((z)—(z—1)1 is entire and
such that ((z) is given by (l)for > 1.
Proof: We concentrate on the second statement and leave the first one to the reader.
For > 1 we have
J t'1edt = nt
r(z) 7t*_1eltdt
=
so therefore
00 00
(2) ((z)r(z) =
11=10
= /
0
—
169
Chapter II. The Prime Number Theorem
where interchange of sum and integral is justified by the dominated convergence

theorem. Write
(3) ((z)r(z)=
Noting that the second integral is entire in z, we concentrate on the first one. The
function z/(ex — 1) is holomorphic in the ball Izi so we may expand it
00
Z
—1
>:" for IzI<2ir
The series converges in particular for z = 2, so a,,2" —, 0. Thus there is a constant C
such that Jani C2" for n = 0,1,2,.... Since an = 1, we have
00
1 1
e:_1 =—+Lanz
z
—
n= I
Using this expansion and term by term integration (justified by uniform convergence)
the first integral in (3) can be written
(5) I
Ii
1
dt=—+)
z—1
1
00
a,,
J
0
Thus we may for > 1 write
00
(6)
As said before the third term on the right in (6) is entire; the second term is by our
estimate on a,, meromorphic in the complex plane with simple poles at —(n — 1) if
a,, 0 , n = 1,2,.... And the first term has a simple pole at z = 1. Writing
g(z) = 1/r(z) we may define ( on the complex plane by
(7)
Since g is entire with zeros at 0, —1, . the right hand side of (7) is meromorphic
on all of C with at most one pole, namely one at z = 1. Since g(1) = 1 ,the function
((z) — 1/(z — 1) is entire. 0
Riemann discovered a remarkable functional relation for the (-function from which
many of its properties can be deduced.
170
Section 1. The Ricmann zeta function
Theorem 2 (The functional equation for the zeta-function).

The following relation is valid:
(8) ((1 — z) = (2ir)
or written in a more synvne:ric form
(8') ((1 —
Proof: Integrate by parts in (2) for 1 to obtain

00 00
((z)F(z) =J di =
/
so that
(9) z((z)I'(z) -
=
Now from the formula (8) of Chapter X we get
1 1 001 1
(10)
= j2 + +
4sin2 t(it + (it — 2,rn)2
The function 1 — behaves like z2/3! near z = 0, so
sin2 z / sin z \ I sin

1—
Z2 \ Z/\ Z
behaves like z2/3 near z = 0. Hence the first integral in (9) is holomorphic for
—1. The last integral is in fact entire. Thus (9) holds for > —1. However,
for <1
= —
(11) zC(z)1'(z) = +
171
Chapter ii. The Prime Number Theorem
And now we can use the expansion in (10). We may interchange the sum and the
integral because of dominated convergence: Indeed, if —1 < 0, then
E Il
(2irn) s ( 3
= = s < 00
— + —
n—i
4T2n2 I 1 +
Thus using (10) in (11), changing the summation and integration around and using the
substitution i = we get
(12) z((z)I'(z) =
+iu)2
+
(1
}d
The sum on the tight hand side is just — z). The integral - which is
independent of n - can be evaluated as follows: The integrand is

1—
2 uZ
(1 + u2)2
so the integral equals
00 00 00 00
1 1 — U2 I I u
2 2 I du = I du
J (1+u2) j 1+u J (1+u2) J 1+u2
where we have just integrated by parts in the second integral. The integral on the right
hand side is for —1 < < 1 evaluated below to be
00
(13)21 du=
j 1+u2 cos(!2!)
0
Using (13) in (12) we conclude that (8) is valid in the strip —1 < <0. Since
both sides are meromorphic in all of the complex plane the relation is an identity. 0
Proof of(13):
The substitution v = converts the above integral to
00 00
f uT
I—dv=I dv
j1+v J 1+v
0 0
and the required result is a particular case of the formula
J
f
00
I dx = "
r(p+q)
when >0, >0
172
SectIon 2. Euler's product formula and zezus of
combined with the formula of complementary arguments X.(28). To derive the formula
we write
r(p + q)(1
9—;
= Jte(1 :';rqdt
e_t(l+z)gp+q_lzp_ldg
= J
Now we integrate both sides with respect to x from 0 to ooand change the order of
integration on the right hand side (which is justified by absolute convergence):
r(p + q)J(1 = (le_tz#_;dx)
(le_'vu'_;dv) di r(p)r(q)
SectIon 2 Euler's product formula and zeros of (

Euler's product formula relates the (-function directly to the prime numbers. Simple
consequences are some results on the zeros of the (-function.
Theorem 3 (Euler's product fonnula).
(14) ((z)=[J(1 _x) Wizen
where p in the infinite product ranges over all primes p> 1.
Proof: Let us first prove that the infinite product converges: If we for each prime
p write
1
=
then it suffices by Proposition X.2 to show that
Now
00
p p11=1 pn=1
173
Chapter 11. The Prime Number Theorem
The right hand side is a subset of the terms from the series
>1P_* +p_21 + =
To prove that the value of the infinite product actually is E we consider the
1
finite product
P(N) := fi for NEN
pN
We can multiply this product out and rearrange the terms as we please without
altering the result it is just a product of (finitely many) absolutely convergent
because
series. A typical term is of the form
—aix —a2z —a*z
Pj P2
where . ,p,, are different primes and ai, , are non-negative integers.
By the fundamental theorem of arithmetic P(N) = E where A = A(N) consists
nEA
of those n E N whose prime factors all are N. Thus
n=1 nED
where B consists of those n having at least one prime factor > N. In particular
n1 n>N
E
n)N
The right hand side converges to 0 as N oo, so
asdesirecL
As an amusing commentary on (14) we may note that there are infinitely many
primes (that fact was already known and proved by Euclid): Indeed, if there were but
finitely many then the (-function would not diverge at z = 1. Not only are there
infinitely many primes, but as observed by Euler (1737) there art so many that the
series formed by the reciprocals of the prime numbers diverges, i.e.
174
Section 2. Euler's Foduct formula zeros of C
(Sec Exercise 1). For elementary derivations of this fact consult [AG] or [ApI ;Theorem
1.13].
Coroila,y 4.
The C-function doe.s no: vanish for 1. For <0 is vanishes only at the
points —2m , m =
Proof: The first assertion is inuncdiatc from (14). Since the r-function has no
zeros, the second assertion follows from the first and the functional equation (8). 0
Taking logarithmic derivatives in (14) we obtain for > 1 that
Logp
(15) 1p_Z = = EA(rn)m_z
— =
where
A(m)= fLogp ifmisapower(>O)ofp
0 otherwise
It is permitted to rearrange tenns because of the absolute convergence (Cf Proposition
X.6).
The fundamental link between the C-function and the distribution of primes is
provided by the following function (called Chcbyshev's function)
(16) &(x) A(m) for x E [1,oo[

in
The main result, known as the Hadamard-de Ia Vallée Poussin theorem asserts that
(17)
We will first show that the prime number theorem is a consequence of (17):
Given a prime p the number of k such that pk z is less than or equal to
(Logz)/(Logp), so recalling that A(m) = Logp if m is a power of p we get from
the definition (16) that
(18) Logp = ir(z)Logz

pz
where x(x) = the number of primes less than or equal to x.
On the other hand, if 1 < y < x then
(19) 1
175
Chaper 11. The Prime Numbu Theorem
Taking y = x/(Logx)2 and noting that <y we obtain from (19) for any
x>e that
logz
(20)
z log x x log x — 2 log log z
That the prime number theorem is equivalent to (17) is now evident from (18) and
0
Beforeweembaikonthepmofof(17)weneedonemorefact,namelythat( has
no zeros on the line
=1. That result is due to Hadarnard and de la Vailde Poussin.
Theorem 5.
The (-function has no zeros on the line = 1.
Proof: (is meromorphic, hence so is ('/(. Thus, for any complex number
w, urn (z — w)ii(z) exists and is an integer. It is positive when w is a zero of (,
negative when w is a pole of (, and zero otherwise.
Ifz=1+e+itwheree>OandtERwehavefrnm(15)thal
++ = cos(i logm)
— m2
Using
0(1 +cos6)2 = 1 +2cos6+coa26=
we then get
(21) + e)) + + e + it)) + +e + 2it))
= —EA(rn)m'll +cos(tlogm)12 0
Now multiply the above bye and letelendtoO. Ifl-i-itwereazeroof(then

wegetthatthelimitofthelefthandsideof(21)is8—3+4+0=1.
This contradiction proves Theorem 5. 0
Section 3 More about the zeros of (

In this section, which is a digression we mention couple of results on the zeros
of (. We have seen that ( has no zeros in the closed half plane rtz The 1.
functional equation (8) then tells us that the only zeros in the half plane Rz 0 arc
-2m, m = 1,2,.... These latter zeros are called the trivial zeros. All the non-trivial
zeros - if any - are thus in the open strip 0 < < 1. This is called the critical strip.
176
Sec*ion 4. The prime number theorem
Westartwiththeformula
(2) or rather the consequence
1 co
jz—1
C(z)F(z) =Jet_idt+Jet 1dt
which we for > 1 rewrite as
((z)I'(z) = ]tx_i(, +
i —
The above formula is derived for > 1, but since the right hand side is
meromorphic in > 0 it is valid in > 0. For 0 < t we have
1 1
et —1
so the first integral above is negative when z > 0. For t 1 we have et — 1 t2
so the third term is at most
Finally,forO< z<1 wehave 1/(z—1)< —1,soC(z)r(z)<O. 0

One of the most famous still unsolved problems in mathematics is the
Riemann hypothesis:
All non-trivial zeros of lie on the line =
Nwnerical computations support the validity of the Ricmann hypothesis. In [LR] it

is shown that the C-function has exactly 300 000 001 zeros whose imaginary parts lie
between 0 and 119 590 809.282 and all of them have real part 1/2 See also [Wag).
On the theoretical side we will here just mention that t has infinitely many zeros on
the line = a result due to Hardy (1914).
SectIon 4 The prime number theorem

We now set out to prove the prime number theorem. It is not easy to explain why
or how the method caine about.
Let us start with the right hand side of (15). Using Abel's partial summation
formula (Proposition 1.10) we get
177
where is defined in (16). Since <x the last term above tends to 0 as N
by (18) when > 1. Thus
Since equals for m t < m + 1 the last sum can be written
>z J j_Z_ldjb(flz) = zJ =
where we have just introduced y = log t as new variable - it is much more convenient
to deal with the interval [O,oo[. Thus from (15) we get
(22) — = Je x—l)*H(j)dt when >1

z((z)
0
where H(t) :=
Note that (17) is equivalent to lim H(t) = 1.
We can further rewrite (22) as
(23) A(z) := 1)dt

—
= J —
The reason for doing so is: We know that ((z) — (z — iy' is entire (that is
Theorem 1). A simple computation then shows that the function A is analytic wherever
z((z) 0; in particular (by Theorem 5) in a neighborhood of the line = 1.
The right hand side of (23) is the Laplace transform of the function H—i. Referring
back to the fact that (17) is equivalent to H(t) — 1 —. 0 as t —4 cc, we now realize that
we need to prove a type of Tauberian result (A Tauberian result derives the asymptotic
behavior of a function from the behavior of its averages).
We define p : R —' R by
when ku 2
p(y) := I S
when
and let u > 0, A > 0 be real parameters that later on in the proof will converge to 00.
With z = 1 + E + jAy, where e > 0, we multiply both sides of (23) by
and integrate with respect to y to get
(24) J A(1 + + J(H(t) )e dy

=J {
— 1
178
Section 4. The prime number theerem
Interchange of order of integration is permitted on the right hand side of (24) because
IH(i) — 1 + H(t) = 1 + < 1+t
by (18), so the double integral is absolutely convergent. Effecting this interchange and
evaluating the elementary inner integral we find
(25) fA(1 + + = J(H(t) —
The left hand side of (25) is continuous in e at = 0, because A is holomorphic on

the line = 1, and p is bounded. The limit as e \ 0 of the left hand side therefore
exists. Also
7sin2(u_—_At)df
<oo
J (u—At)
(because > 0 and u is real), so by the monotone convergence theorem we get from
(25) that
00
'
IH(t) sin (u—At) dt<oo
J
0
Going to the limit 0 in (25) we get
JA(1 + = J(H(t) —
The above holds for A > 0 and any real u, so we may replace u by Au and change
variable to get
AJA(1 +
=7 (w(u
—
Writing the integral on the left hand side above as a sum of the integral over [—2,01
and that over [0,2) and integrating by parts we see that the integral on the left hand
side is bounded by C/lu I for a suitable constant C = C(A). In particular the left hand
side converges to 0 as u — oo (The reader may possibly recognize the statement as a
special case of the Riemann-Lebesgue lemma). Thus for A > 0,
(26) tim JH(u — =I
179
It is not necessary to know the value of the last integral,

so we just call it B (Actually
B = by Exercise VI.16).
Observe that e'H(t) = is increasing in t, so that we for b > 0 have
(27) + b), i.e. H(t) H(i + b)e'
Now, for <
11(u) H(u+ — S H(u + —

—
which implies that
exp
1 2\ I sin2 t 1 1 1 t \ sin2 t
+ —
J J
A(II+*)
1 i sin2t
J
Using (26) and letting u / 00 above we get
exp (—i) limsupH(u)J B
This relation holds for all ..\ > 0, so letting .A oo we deduce that
(28) limsupH(u) 1
In particular H is bounded, say H M.

Let e > 0 be arbitrary, but fixed. For sufficiently large say.\ > A(e) we have
I
Replacing u by u
— * in (26) we get for all .A > A(e) that
B=lim
J
e+liminf J
180
5. Exercises
From (27) we get for < that
(31) H(u — S S H(u)e*

—
so we may continue the estimates as follows
B e + liminf J
2 2
<e+ e?TliminfH(u) I <e +
J t
-is;
Letting A —, oo we find B e + IiminfH(u)B , and so, e > 0 being arbitrary,
1 liminfH(u). Comparing with (28) we have finally arrived at
Theorem 6 (The prime number theorem).

denotes the number of primes less than or equal to n, then
ir(n)Iogn
1 as n —4 00
n
SectIon 5 ExercIses
1. Show that
where the summation ranges over all primes p. Hint: If not, then the infinite product
converges, and you may take z = 1 in the procedure of the proof of Theorem 3.
2. Let,i : N R be the Mobiusfwwtion, i.e.
p(l) = 1
-
. - p7k) = if pr,--- ,Pk are distinct primes and = ... = =1
p(n)=O otherwise
Show that the series (a so-called Dirichiet series)
n1
181
Chaper 11. The Prime Number Theorem
converges absolutely when > 1 and that
((z) = 1
when > 1.
Hint: Note first that
(1 ifn=1
din
if n>1
3. Let : N —, C have the pmpeiiies
(i) = whenever (n,m) = 1
(ii) > k(n)I

Show that
(n) = fi {i+ + +
where p in the product ranges over all primes.

Apply this result to := , where z E C is fixed with > 0 and ji
is the Möbius function from the previous exercise, to get
As another application take = 1.

4. The result
21
j 1+u2 du= for
from the proof of Theorem 2 can also be verified by calculus of residues. Do
182
Chapter 12 Harmonic- Functions
Harmonic functions are solutions to the Laplace equation = 0 , where
0202
Ox Oy
The Laplace operator crops up in so many practical and theoretical situations, that it
is hard to overestimate its importance. In the context of holomorphic functions every
harmonic function is the real part of a holomorphic function in a simply connected
domain.
Subharmonic functions, which are the topic for the next chapter, are very useful
in the study of holomorphic functions. It may be said that this largely is due to the
fact that when f is holomorphic then log If(z)I is subharmonic. We will approach this
via Jensen's formula. Harmonic and subharmonic functions are very closely related in
much the same way as linear and convex functions.
Section 1 Holomorphic and harmonic functions

Definition 1.
Let be an open subset of A real valued function u E C2(Q) is said to be
harmonic = 0, where
8202 02
is the so-called Laplace operator.
The Laplace equation = 0 occurs not just in mathematics, but also in many
different connections in physics and mechanics, in particular in descriptions of stationary
situations and equilibrium states.
Theorem 2.
Let be an open subset of R".
(a) 1ff E Hol(1Z) then and are harmonic in ii.
($) Assume thai fl is simply connected. If u is harmonic in then there exists an
I E Hol(f 1) such that u =
The theorem yields a lot of interesting harmonic functions, e.g.
u(x,y) = Log(x2 + y2) defined for (x,y) E R2\{0,0}
183
chapter 12. Harmonic Functions
Proof of Theorem 2:
(n) The Cauchy-Riemann equations tell us that Of/81 = 0 , so the result is a
consequence of the formula
M 8(Of
(fi) The function
h :=
Ou.Ou
- : —+ C
is C' in and satisfies the Cauchy-Riemann equations, so it is holomorphic in

Since is simply connected ii has a primitive f (Theorem V.8), and (again by the
Cauchy-Ricmann equations)
h—
Ox Oy
Comparing with the definition of h we get
Ou — —
and
0x Ox Oy (hj
so u = + some constant. When we absorb the constant in f the proof is complete.D
Corollary 3. A harmonic function Lc
The function u(z, y) = Log(x2 + y2) is not the real part of an analytic function
in all of C\{0} : The analytic function in question would be 2 log z, which, as we
know, cannot be defined in all of C\{O) . However that is the only regrettable thing
that may happen:
Theorem 4 (The Logarithmic Conjugation Theorem).

Let K be a connected compact subset of B(0, R). where R E 10,001. Let zo E K.
flu is harmonic on := B(0, R)\K then there exist an analytic function f on and
a real constant c such that
forall zEQ
The applications of the Logarithmic Conjugation Theorem are typically to ring

shaped domains, i.e. the K of the theorem is a closed ball, possibly degenerated to a
point.
Proof. As in the proof of Theorem 2(o) we note that

Ou .Ou
Ox Oy
184
Secdon 1. Rolomoiphic harmonic functions
is holomorphic in (1, because h satisfies the Cauchy-Riemann equations.

chooser EIo,R(suchthatKcB(o,r),andlCtCdcnOtethecirclc Iz—zol= r.
Let us from now on take zo = 0 for simplicity.
Let be any closed path in (. If we put m := Ind,(zo) , then Ind,(z) =
m forallzElC,Kbeingconnccted. Now,
Ind7(z) = mlndc(z) for all z E
so by the global Cauchy Theorem (Corollaiy V.4) we get for any complex number c
that
=mJ (h(z)_ =m(Jh(z)dz_2iric)

J (h(z)_
choosing
fh
jC
we get
(h(z)_ = 0 for all closed paths7 in C\{0)

/
It follows that z h(z) — c/z has a primitive in each connected component of fl,
hence in all of fl. Letting f denote such a primitive we have f'(z) = h(z) — c/z. We
shall soon need that c is real, so we prove thai now:
c=
J h(z)dz =
=
-. / {
(e*) —
}
so
c is real.
Now,
+ = +cLoglzI} = = =
+
185
Chapter 12. Harmonic Functions
and similarly
8
=
so that
+ cLoglzl = u + g
where g is constant on each connected component of fI. Absorbing the constant in f

the proof is finished. 0
In the above version of the Logarithmic Conjugation Theorem the complement of
has only one bounded connected component, viz. K. In general each bounded
connected component contributes with a logarithmic term.
Let us use the Logarithmic Conjugation Theorem to prove the following classical
result. A simple proof, that uses the maximum principle, but not the relationship between
harmonic and analytic functions, can be found in LPe;Satz 111.30.6).
Theorem 5.
If a harmonic function Lc bounded in a neighborhood of an isolated singularity then
that singularity is a removable singularity.
Proof: We may assume that the harmonic function u is bounded in a punctured

disc JY around 0. By the Logarithmic Conjugation Theorem u has the form
u(z) = + where I Hol(D') and c E R

We will first show that c = 0. If not we may divide through by it and so assume that
c = 1. Now, —oo as z —+ 0, so to balance it —' 00 as z 00.
lnpanicularweseethatff(z)I—.oo as z—.0,i.e. fhasapoleatz=0,andso
f may be written in the form
where N 1 and h(0) is not 0.

Choosing as an Nth root of —h(0)/n we find
—
— h(0)
= 00
— h(O)
as z —0,soc=0 , andthusu =
186
Scction 2. formula
If we assume that f has a pole at 0 we may derive a contradiction in the same way
as above. If we assume that 0 is an essential singularity then we get a contradiction by
Picard's big theorem or just by Casoraii-Weicrstrass ( Remember = u is bounded).
So left is the desired case of 0 being a iemovable singularity for 1. 0
For information on the Logarithmic Conjugation Theorem in finitely connected
regions and its applications we recommend the paper [AxJ from where the above
treatment is taken.
SectIon 2 PoIsson's formula

The important Poisson formula expresses harmonic functions in terms of their
boundary values:
Theorem 6. (PoIsson's Formula).

flu is continuous in B[O,RJ and harmonic in B(O,R) then
u(z) = u(Re'd') for Izi <n
In particular u has the mean value property, i.e.
u(O) =
Proof: The proof is from [Aa]. We will assume that u is harmonic in an open ball
containing B[O, RJ and leave the derivation of the general case to the reader.
Let Izi <R. The Cauchy integral formula for the function
1(z)
Z —4
— za
in the disc B[O,R] is
f(z) — 1
f 1(w) 1
dW
J
IwI=R
f(Re'#) f(Re'#)
— 1 Res*
d— 1
f 1
d
2irJ
0 0
Taking z = a here we get Poisson's formula. 0

187
Chapter 12. Harmonic FUnctions
If we as center of the circle take z instead of 0 then the resulting formula is
u(z) = Ju(z + Res)d4,
i.e. the value of u at the center of a ball is the mean value of the values of u at the
boundaiy. We say that u has the mean value property.
The function
1 R2__1z12
for and IzI<R
iscalled the Poisson kernel for B(O,R) and is of great value in the study of harmonic
functions. We list a couple of its properties that will be useful in the sequel:
Properties of the Poisson kernel:

(i)
PR > 0
(ii)
when IzI<R
(iii)
+
= =
In particular PR(ç6, z) is harmonic in B(O, R) for fixed
(iv)
1 R—IzI 1
—
(v) If 0 < 6 < ir/2 then

1-R2
•2 (5)
am
Proof: The proofs of (i), (iu), (iv) and (v) are elementary estimates and computations
left to the reader. You get (ii) by putting u = 1 in Poisson's formula. 0
The following theorem is a consequence of the mean value property. Maximum
principles are among the most useful tools employed in differential equations. See (PW].
188
Section 2. Poisson's fcrmula
Theorem 7 (The strong maximum psinciple).

Let u be harmonic in an open connected subset Cl of R2, and asswne thoi u takes
its supremwn, i.e. there exists a zo E Cl such thai u(zfl) = sup {u(z) Iz E Cl).
Then u is constant.
Proof: It suffices to show that the set Co := {z E Cl I u(z) = u(zo)} is both closed
and open in Cl. It is closed because u is continuous. Let z E Co ; for the simplicity
of writing, assume that z = 0. If B[O, R] ç Cl, then we get from the mean value
property for any 0 < r R that
0= u(O) — = {u(O) —
and - since t:(0) u(rel#) - we get u(O) = u(re'#) for all So u(0) = u(w) for all
w E B(O, 1?). This shows that the set Co is open. 0
We shall next formulate an inverse to Poisson's formula:
Theorem 8.
Let f be continuous and real valued on the circle IzI = R. Then the function u,
defined by
u(z) := for IzI <R

1.1(z) for IzI=R
is continuous in the closed ball B[0, R] and harmonic in the open ball 13(0, R).
Proot The procedure of proof is borrowed from EMil.

We treat only the case R = 1 and leave the derivation of the general case to the
reader. For Izi < 1 we have
2r 2t
u(z) = Jf(et*)Pi(c5,z)d4 = dçb
::
The last integral can be expanded in a power series in z, so u is the real part of an
analytic function and is hence harmonic.
Left is continuity at the boundary Izi = 1.
To motivate the procedure we recall the MObius transformation A(z; w) from
Example VIII. 14. If our theorem is correct then the mean value property for the
189
chapter 22. HarmonIc Functions
harmonic function u o A(—z,.) implies that
z)dt = u(z) = [u o A(-z, )J(O)
= u(A(_z,e'9))dO
=
The ciucial point of the proof is to establish the identity
(*) = for <1
To do so we note that the map
w —,
is analytic and nowhere vanishing on a sufficiently small neighborhood of [0, so it

has a continuous and hence analytic logarithm there, say ie. We may choose so that
= 0. Letting 0 := we have the identity
= —
1 — ic't 1— z
A differentiation of this identity with respect to t shows that
0'(t) = =
Ic —zi
From property (ii) of the Poisson kernel we infer that 0 is an increasing bijection of
[0, 2ir) onto [0, 2ir). And when we introduce t as new variable on the right hand side
of () we get (*) by the change of variables formula.
Since the restriction of u to the boundary is continuous (being equal to f there),
it suffices to finish the proof of the theorem to show that —. f(e'°°) for any
sequence { } from the open ball B(O, 1) converging to the arbitrary point e'9° of the
f
boundary. But is continuous, hence bounded, so this is an immediate consequence of
(*) and Lebesgue's dominated convergence theorem. D
At this point we must mention the
Dirichiet problem.
Given an open subset fl of and a continuous function I on the boundary O1.
Find afunction u such that u is continuous on the closure of It, u = 0 in It and
UI8() = 1.
190
Section 2. Poisson's fonnula
The Diiichlet problem in It3 may be interpreted as finding the electrostatic potential
u inside a hollow cavity (1, given the potential at the boundary 0(1.
ProposItion 9.
Let (1 be a bounded open subset of R2. Then the Dirichlet problem has at most one
solution, given the bowidasy values.
Proot We shall show that u E C(fl), u is harmonic in (land ulan = 0 implies

that u = 0.
Since is compact, u assumes its supremum somewhere in say at zn E (1. If
E 0(1 then u O(=u(zo)) everywhere. If zo E (1then u is by the maximum
principle constant throughout the connected component of zn, so the value u(zn) is also
taken at some boundary point. Thus u 0 once again.
Replacing u by —u we get u =0. 0
Theorem 8 shows that the Dirichlct problem for a disc has a solution. Even better,
it provides us with an explicit formula for the (unique) solution.
Theorem 10 (Hansack's monotone convergence theorem).

Let Il be an open connected subset of R2. Letu1 bean
increasing sequence of functions that are harmonic in (1. Assume that there exists a point
Zn E (1suchthwsup{u,1(zo)In=1,2,...} <
Then converges locally wuformly in (1 to a harmonic function.
Proof.
Let B[zo, RJ c (1. We will for n,p E N estimate the positive function :=
— in B[zn,R] . Choose e >0 such that B[zo,R+e] ç (1, and let us for
the sake of simplicity assume that zn =0. From the Poisson formula we get for any
z E B(0,R-4-e) that
V,,.p(Z) = / VRP((R +
and so, from Property (iv) of the Poisson kernel, the estimates
/ +
:
1 1 / ,#\R+e+IzI
191
which by the mean value property reduce to

R+e—IzI R+e+IzI Vn,p(O)
R+e+ R+e—
These inequalities show that converges uniformly in B[zo,R)
The argument actually shows that if converges in a point z, then it converges
uniformly in any closed ball B[z,R) in fl. Thus the set {z E converges)
is both open and closed in Q, and so by connectedness it equals or the empty set.
But zo belongs to the set.
We have now shown that converges uniformly on any closed ball in Since
any compact set in Q can be covered by finitely many such balls the convergence is
uniform on compact subsets of
Since is continuous, so is the limit function u.
Let E Cl and B[zi,R] ç Cl. Letting It —. 00 in the formula
= / un(zi + —
we get for z in the ball B(zi,R) that
u(z) = Ju(zi + —
It now follows from Theorem 8 that u is harmonic in B(zj,R). But was arbitraiy
inQ. 0
SectIon 3 Jensen's formula
If f is holomorphic and without zeros in an open set containing the ball B10, II]
then log Ill is harmonic inside the ball, so by the mean value property
log 11(0)1 =
In the case where f has zeros Jensen's inequalny
log 11(0)1 flog fr(Re1')

holds as a consequence of Jensen's formula (Theorem 11 below). Jensen's inequality
also follows from the theory of subharmonic functions (next chapter).
192
Secüon 3. Jensen's (otmula
Jensen's formula tells what the difference is between the right hand side and the
left hand side of Jensen's inequality. It is useful tool for providing information on the
zeros of analytic functions on a disc, when restrictions on their sizes axe imposed.
Theorem ii (Jensen's formula).

Let f be ineroinorphic in an open set containing B[0, R]. Let Z2," , and
Pt,P2, ",Pm be the zeros and poies respectively off in 11(0, R) (counted with multi-
Assume none of them Lc zero.
Then 4' log If(Rei#)I is integrable over and
log 11(0)1 + log = Jiog f (Ret') k4'
Proot Let • ,Zf,1 and be the zeros and poles

respectively of f in the closed ball BED, RJ, counted with multiplicity. The function
is holomorphic and zero free in a neighborhood of BED, RJ, so
log IF(0)l = flog
Putting z =0, we find from the expression for F that
IF(0)l =
so log IF(0)I is the left hand side of the desired formula.
we find that
I = 11 Ii — II Il —
so taking logarithms we get
log = log If(&'9) I
+
j=m+1
193
Chapler 12. Harmoinc Functions
To finish the proof it now suffices to show that —. log — is incegrable over
— ir,ir[ and that
(Now, this is a book on complex function theory, so we shall here evaluate the
integral by help of the Cauchy theorem. But the integral can actually be computed by
elementary means [AGR),[Yo]).
Since x log is locally integrable, and the function (1 — is continuous
and never 0 on (.—lr, irj , the function
+1og141
is integrable over ) — ir, 7r[.

lb show that the value of the integral is 0 we note that
Log z
z •—*
z— 1
is analytic in the right half plane, so chat its integral along any circle I — = r, where
r E JO, 1[ , is zero by the Cauchy theorem, i.e.
0=!
J —f
Taking real parts we get
We will apply the dominated convergence theorem to this for a sequence

The desired result is then an immediate consequence, once we dominate the incegrands
by an integrable function.
By differentiation we see that the function
1— ret*
1 —
> 0,so
2 1_ret 1+r 1
194
and so
6i431
log2 > log — log Ii — — Iog2
Section 4 Exercises
1. Let u be harmonic in Show that u(Q) is open, unless u is constant. Hint:
Connected subsets of the real line are intervals.
2. Derive the maximum principle for holomorphic functions from the strong max-
imum principle for harmonic functions.
3. Let f be a continuous, bounded and real valued function on the real line. Define
forx E Randy>Oafunctionuby
u(z + iy) :=
lIt
( 00
(z—t)7+y2
dt f V 0
(1(x) fory=0
(a) Show that u is bounded and harmonic in the upper half plane.
Show that u is continuous in the closed upper half plane.
4. Let u be harmonic in fl and identically 0 in an open, non-empty subset of
1). Show that u = 0 in all of (This property of harmonic functions is called the
weak unique continuanon property). Hint: The unique continuation for holomorphic
functions.
5. Define the map u : {x +iy E dy >0) by
u(z) := the angle under which the interval [0,1] is seen from z.
Show that u is harmonic. Hint: Consider the function Log((z — 1)/z).
6. Show that the function
u(x,y) :=
x2 + y2
is hannonic on R2 except at the origin.

7. Is harmonic for some
8. Show that the polynomial u(x, y) := x is harmonic on ft2. Find
an I Hol(C) such that u =
Same problems with u(x, y) sin x cosh y
9. Show the following formula for r E [0,1[ and 0 E ft
1
rcos0=— 2d4
27rj
Hint: Solve the Dirichlet problem when the boundary function is f(x + iy) = x.
195
Chapler 12. Harmonic Functions
10. (Liouville's theorem for harmonic functions) Let u be harmonic on ft2 and
assume that u is bounded from below. Show that u is a constant. Hint: Property (iv)
of the Poisson kernel. See also [Bo] and [Chi.
11. Show that the Dirichlet problem on {z E CO < Izi < 1) with the boundary
function 1(z) = 0 for IzI = 1 , 1(0) = 1 has no solution.
12. Let u be harmonic in the annulus (z E dR1 < Izi <R2}. Show that
is a linear function of logr, i.e. there are real constants c and d such that for all
r EJR1,R2[
= clogr + d
Hint: The Logarithmic Conjugation Theorem.

13. Let R ejO, oo[. Inversion in the circle IzI = R is the map
PR : R2\{0} —. R2\{0}
defined by
PR(Z) := for z E R2\{0}
Note that pR(z) = z when IzI = R, that points inside the circle are mapped outside
and vice versa, and that
PR0PR —identity onallof R2\{0}
(ar)Lctu be harmonic in R2\{0}. Show that so iSuOpR.

(fi) Define and prove similar statements for the circle Iz - zol = R centered at
zo E ft2.
14. Let u be harmonic in all of R2, positive on the open upper half space and 0
on the real axis.
(a) Let zo be a point in the open lower half plane. Let p denote inversion in the
circle Iz — zol = R (See the previous exercise). Let z be a point in the open upper half
plane such that Iz — zol < R. Show that u(z) u(p(z)).
Hint: Apply the weak maximum principle to u 0 p — u in the domain D indicated
on the figure
196
Section 4. Exetcises
zo
The curve Cl is the image by p of the interval [A,BI.

Let 0 < vi <112. Show that
forall x1Ix2ER
(y) Show that u(x, y) is independent of x for y > 0
(6) Show that u(x, y) = cy where c is a constant.
(e) Let f be an entire function that maps the upper half plane into itself and is real
on the real line. Show that I is an affine function, i.e. has the form f(:) = az + b
where a and b are constants.
The exercise is taken from [ii]. See also [Bol.
15. Prove the following theorem, due to Kellogg. It says that in special situations
to get harmonicity we do not need the mean value property for all sufficiently small
circles around the points of the domain, but only for one circle around each point.
Theorem (Kellogg's Theorem).
Letu E C(B[0,1))andasswnetharthereforeachz E B(0,1)existsanr = r(z) E
10,1 — IzIE such that
u(z)=
—w
Then u &c harmonic on B(0, 1).

Hints to the proof: Show that we may assume u = 0 on the unit circle by sub-
tracting a suitable harmonic function. Assume u(z) > 0 for some E B(0, 1);
197
obtain a contradiction by applying the assumption of the theorem to a point in

{z B[O, lfl u(z) = IIuIL0} closest to the boundary.
16. As a curiosity derive the fundamental theorem of algebra from Jensen's formula.
198
Chapter 13 Subharmonic Functions
Section 1 TechnIcal results on upper semlcontlnuous functions
Technical results on upper semicontinuous funcdon&
Definition I.
Let X be a topological space. A fluzc:ion u X [—oo, oo( is said to be upper
semi-continuous (usc) if the following holds:
To every xo X and M > u(xo) there exists a neighborhood U of zo such that
M > u(x)forallx E U.
A continuous real valued function is clearly usc. Note for later usc that an USC
function is Borel measurable - indeed, the set {z E ClIu(z) <a) is open for any a E R.
Lemma 2.
If and u2 are usc then so are u 1 + u2 and max { u1,u2).
IfuisuscandA E
IfuG isuscforeachainanon-enzptyindexsetAthen inf is also usc.
oEA
Theorem 3.
An upper semi -conu nuous function on a compact topological space attains its supre-
mum. In particular it is bounded from above.
Proof: As the standard proof for continuous functions. 0

Theorem 4.
Let u : — [—oo, 001 where is an open subset of the complex plane.
Then u is usc if and only jf there exists a decreasing sequence u2 of
continuous real valued functions on fl such that u.(z) u(z) as n — oofor each
zE
Proof: The theorem is trivial in case u(z) = —oo for all z, so we will from now
on assume that there exists a E such that u(zo) E R.
The if direction of the theorem is pan of the lemma above. So assume from now
on that u is usc.
We wifl first treat the special case of u being bounded from above, say u(z) <
MforallzEftl nE N givcn by
sup {u(y) — niy — z fl
199
Chaplcr 13. Subhxmonic
u,, is finite valued, since M uR(z) u(zo) — nizo — zi.

We next prove that uR is continuous: Given z E (1 and 0 we choose y E Q
such that
u,1(z)<u(y)—nly—zI+e
Then for any z' E Il we have
ufl(z)—uR(z') < {u(y)—nly—z'I}

= n{Iz' — vi — Iv — zi) + e — +
and since > 0 is arbitrary we see that
— — z'i
lnteivhanging z and zi we get
Ju,,(z) — tt,,(z')I — z'i
proving the continuity.
Next we note that
u(y) — — zI u(y) — (n + — zI
which implies that uN(z) , i.e. that {uN} is a decreasing sequence.

Since
u,,(z) = sup {u(y) — nly — zI) u(z) — nfz — zI = u(z)

I
it is left to prove that limuR(z) u(z) , i.e. for any prescribed K > u(z) that
K for sufficiently large n. For that we use that u is usc : There is a ball
B(z,6) such that u(y) < K for all y E B(z,6). Now,
= suplu(y)— nly — zI)
I
sup lu(y)—nly—zI), sup {u(y)—nly—zI)
We shall finally deal with the general case in which u is no longer necessarily
bounded from above. Choose an increasing homeomorphism 1-00,001 (-oo,OJ
(E.g. = —exp(—t)). The function u is usc and bounded from above, so the
construction in the special case treated above yields a sequence { v,, } of continuous real
valued functions with the properly that .1 as n —' 00 for all Z E 51. It
suffices to verify that —oo < vR(z) < 0 for all z E 51, because we may then choose
:= 0
200
Section 2. Irnroductoy propenies of suthannonic functions
The left inequality is trivial because is finite valued. To settle the other inequality
we use the definition of v,,, i.e.
= sup — nIy — zI}

I
By hypothesis u(z) < oo , so a < 0, and by upper semi-continuity of ou
there exists 6 >0 such that
forall yEB(z,6)
Thus
va(z)=max sup sup

I,—zI6
<0
Section 2 Introductory properties of subharmonic functions
introductory properties of subharmonic functions.
Throughout the remainder of this chapter denotes an open, connected, non-empty

subset of the complex plane.
DefinItion 5.
A map u : [—oo, oo[ Lt said to be subharmonic in if
(a) u is upper semi-continuous (usc) and no: identically -oo.
(b) For each z E there is a bail ç fl such that
u(z) S for all r EJ0,R1[
Remark: The integral in (b) makes sense: Fix z and r >0. Since u is usc, then
the function 9 u(z + re'9) is Borel measurable and bounded from above. Thus u is
essentially a negative function. The value of the integral may a priori be —oo; as we
shall see in Proposition 9, it is actually finite. There we shall also see that the inequality
(b) holds for all r such that B(z, r) ç not just for sufficiently small r.
A harmonic function is subharmonic by the mean value property.
201
Chapser 13. Subbxmonlc Functions
Theorem 6 (The asaximu principle).

Let u be subhannonic in If there is a zo E such that u(zO) = supu(z), then
sEQ
u is a constant.
In particular, is compact, u subharmonic on in and 0 on Oft, then
u 0 thmughow Il.
The maximum principle is one of the crucial propenies of subharmonic functions.
Proof: The set M := {z E = u(zo)} is closed in il since u is usc. We will

showthatMisopenaswell,solctzEMbearbitrary. Claim:
+ rei) = u(z) for all 0 E ft and r E JO, R5(
We prove the claim by contradiction. If it is false then there are E [0, 2ir[, E JO, R3[
and e > 0 so that
<u(z)—e
Now, u being usc,
<u(z)—e
for all 9 in interval I ç Jo,
Letting J =10, \I we get
+ roci)d0 +
=
'I'
=u(z)_Er
which contradicts (b) and hence proves the claim.
The claim shows that u equals u(zfl) in a ball around z so M is open. By
connectedness Iv! = Cl. 0
202
Section 3. On the set where u = -00
Theorem 7.
Let u be subharmonic in and let B[a, R) be a closed boll contained in Q. Then
u(z) Ju(a+ PR(O,Z —a)dO for all z E B(a,R)
where PR denotes the Poisson kernel.
Proof: Since ii is usc it is the pointwise limit of a decreasing sequence of

continuous functions. The function v,1 defined by
(2ir
J forz E B(a,R)
n( ).
forlz—aI=R
is by Theorem Xll.8 continuous in B[a, R) and harmonic in its interior. u — iS USC
in B[a, R), subharmonic in its interior and 0 on its boundary. So by Theorem
6u— 0 throughout B(a, R). The result follows now from the monotone
convergence theorem. 0
Theorem 7 explains the terminology subharmonic: The graph of u is below the
harmonic function which has the same boundary values on the circle Iz — = R as it.
So subharmonic functions are related to harmonic functions in the same way as convex
functions are related to linear functions in one dimension.
Section 3 On the set where u = —00

In this § we deduce that the set of points in which a subharmonic function takes
the value —00 is so small that all our integrals are finite.
ProposItion 8.
A function u which is subharmonic on Q, is locally iiuegrable in Q.
In particular, the set {z E I u(z) = —oo) isa null set, and u cannot be identically
—00 on any non-empty open subset of Q.
It can be proved that {z E I u(z) = —00) is a set of capacity 0 (See IHK;Theorem

5.32]).
Proof: We first observe that u is integrable over B(a, R) if B[a, R) is contained

in and u(a) > —oo:
Indeed, multiplying the inequality
u(a)
203
Chapter 13. Subbarmonic Functions
by irr and integrating from 0 to R =

R 2w
—oo < JJu(a + re1)d9rdr = J J u(z, y)dxdy

0 0 B(a,R)
As a consequence, if u is not locally integrable at a then u must be identically —00
throughout some neighborhood of a. Thus the complement in of the set
{z E lu is locally integrable at z}
is the set
{z E QIu is identically — oo in some neighborhood ofz}
Both these sets are clearly open, so by the connectedness of one of them is empty.
But u is not identically —oo by assumption, so the latter set is empty, and so the first
oneisa o
The integral in the defining inequality (b) of Definition 5 may a priori have the
value —00. It is, however, finite:
Proposition 9.
Let u be subharmonic on Let a E and R> 0 be such that B(a, R] c Cl. and
let I be the fluiction given by
1(r) := for r E [0,R)
Then I is increasing,flnite and continuous for r JO, R]. and the map t 1(e1) is
convex in the imuer.'al ) — oo, Log RJ.
In particular
for rE[O,R]
a result that extends (b) front Definition 5.
Proof: To establish that I is increasing we use the notation of the proof of Theorem
7. We saw that u For r <R we have by the mean value property for harmonic
functions that
Jun (a + Re'9) dO Jvn (a + re'°) dO

= Vn(a:1=
204
Section 4. Approximation by smooth functions
and the monotone convergence theorem takes over.

We next show by contradiction that I is finite valued on 10, R]. Assume that
I(ro) = —oo for some ro €)0,RJ . Then 1(r) = —oo for all r [0,ro], because I
is increasing, i.e.
= —oo for all r [0,ro)
This implies (integrate with respect to r from 0 to ro) that
/
B(a,ro)
contradicting the local integrability (Proposition 8).

A convex function on an open interval is continuous, so left is only the convexity
statement. We postpone a proof of that to the next section where we will possess more
machinery. 0
Section 4 ApproximatIon by smooth functions
The following characterization of smooth subharmonic functions is very useful and
connects once more the concepts of subharmonic and harmonic functions.
Theorem 10.
Let u Then u Lcsubharmonicon ci <0 on ci.
Proot
SupposeflrstthalAu0. WeshallforzEflverifythat
u(z) < Ju(z + r
for simplicity take z = 0.

The expression for the Laplacian in polar coordinates (r,O) is
1 1
(1) au = U1y + + 7jU99
When we integrate (1) wth respect to B from 0 to (noting that the last term drops
out because —. u,(rel#) is periodic in we get with the notation
1(r) :=
205
chapter 13. Subhannomc Fincuocu
(2) = i" + =
Combining (2) with 0 we see that r —. rr(r) is an increasing function. Since

I'(r) clearly is bounded (for small r), rI'(r) 0 as r 0. But then rI'(r) 0 so
that r(r) 0 and thus I is an increasing function of r. Now, as desired
u(0) = 1(0) <1(r) = _Ju(resO)de
Let next u be subharmonic. We assume that > 0 for some z E Q and

shall derive a contradiction. Take again z = 0 for the sake of simplicity.
Applying the first part of the proof to —u we get that I is decreasing for small r.
But u is subharmonic so I is actually increasing (Proposition 9); hence I is constant and
the right hand side of (2) is zero. But that contradicts the assumption — > 0. 0
A subharmonic function need not be C2. But it can be approximated by smooth

subharmonic functions:
Theorem II.
Let u be subharmonic in Q. Let w be an open subset of Q with the property that
> 0.
Then there is a decreasing sequence u ... of subharmonic functions in
such thai u(z) for all z E Q.
Proof: The standard mollifying method (convolution) works. It goes as follows:

Let 0 < R < Then the function
U(z) f u(z) when <R

10 otherwiseonR2
is locally miegrable in R2, since u is locally integrable in Q. Let 4, E Cr(R2) be

a positive radial function such that supp 4, ç B[0, Rj and f 4' = 1 and define for
n = 1,2,••. the functions
n24,(nz) for z E R2
Then
E c = 1
206
Section 4. Approximation by smooth functions
Let U, be the convolution of U and 4,,, i.e. the function given by the expression
(the integration is over R2):
UJ.(z):=JU(Y)4R(z_Y)dV for zER2
Clearly C°°(R2), because we may differentiate under the integral sign.

U,, E
us next prove that U, is subharmonic on w. Let z E
Let and let 0 < r R.
Then (using Proposition 9 and that is radial)
U(z + y)41R(y)dy
= /
B(0,*)
/
B(0,*)
u(z+y)4R(y)dy
< / 0
0 B(0,f)
= ...LJU,i(z+rei)de
showing that (JR is subharmonic on w.

We continue by proving that is decreasing in n when z E
UR(z)
/ /
B(0,*)
R2r
=
The inner integral is increasing with p (Proposition 9), so we get

R2r
UR(z) UR+1(z)
The computation just made also reveals that
= u(z)
207
Chapie 13. Fwiciions
so now it is only left to show that

lim forall zEw
i.e. given K > u(z) there exists an n so that K.
Bytheuscu<KinaneighborhoodVofz. WhennissolargethatB(z,R/n)ç
V we have
J J
We shall now keep a promise:
Proof of Proposition 9 (continued):

For simplicity of exposition we take a = 0 as usual. Assume first that u E C°°.
We shall show that the function
h(t) :=
is convex for —oo < t < Log R.

During the proof of the first part of Theorem 10 we observed that r —' rr(r) is
an increasing function. Hence so is
t = = h'(t)
implying that h is convex.
If u is no longer assumed we approximate by a sequence of subharmonic
functions u,, u. Then
is a decreasing sequence of convex functions, so its limit, which is h, is convex as

well. 0
SectIon 5 ConstructIng subharmonlc functIons
ProposItion 12.
(a)Ifui
($)Ifu is subharmonic intl then so is Au for any A E (O,oo[.
208
Section 5. Cocstnicdng functions
(y) if is a decreasing sequence of subharinonic functions in fl then lim u,, is

subharmonic In (1, unless U is identically —oo.
Proof: Left to the reader.
For the next result we need (a particular case of) Jensen's inequality for integrals.
Theorem 13 (Jensen's Inequalijy for lntegnzLc).

1ff is a real valued function In L1(O, such that a < f(t) < b and 4, is convex
on )a,b[Ja,bf, then
The cases a = —oo and b = 00 are allowed.
For a proof consult [Ru;Theorem 3.3].
Theorem 14.
(a) flu is harmonic in and 4, is convex on the range of u, then 4,ou is subharmonic
(fi) If u is subharmonic in (1 and 4, is a convex increasing function on the range of

u, then 4,o u is subharmonlc in fl. (We put 4,(—oo) = Urn 4,(t)).
Proof:
(a) A convex function on the real line is automatically continuous, so 4, 0 u is
continuous. From the mean value property
2r
t
u(a)=ju(a+re
we deduce via Jensen's inequality for integrals that
(4,ou)(a)
so 4,o u is subharmonic.
(fi) Similar arguments to the ones from (a) work here. 0
Theoretical Examples 15.
(a) Let f E Hol(1Z). 1ff Is not identically 0 then and :=
{Loglfl, 0) are subharmonlc In fl.
209
Chapter 13. Subhxmonic FwEdons
(fi) 1ff andg are holoniorphic in then IfI'IgI' is subharmonic for all p,q 0.
If u is harmonic in fl then lur is subharmonic in fl for all p 1.
Proof:
(a) is clearly usc and not identically —00. If 1(z) = 0 at a point z E fl
then Loglf(z)I = —oo, so the inequality (b) from Definition 5 is obviously satisfied at
z. If 1(z) 0 then I= is harmonic around z, hence subharmonic.
is the composition of with the convex increasing function t
(fi) Assume first that neither f nor g is identically 0. Then and

are subharmonic, hence so is pLogif I + qLoglgi. Left is just to compose with the
exponential map. The modifications in the cases where f and/or g are identically 0
are left to the reader.
Theorem 14(a).
Practical examples ate now numerous, e.g. u(z, y) = lxI or more generally
= lxi' for p 1
SectIon 6 ApplicatIons
We present three applications: One is a proof of Radô's theorem, the other is a
treatment of H'—spaces, and the third is a proof of the F. and R. Nevanhnna theorem.
Rad6's theorem
Our first application of the theory of subharmonic functions is a proof of Radó's
theorem.
Theorem 16 (Radó's Theorem).

1ff E C(1l) is holomorphic in {z E fl 11(z) 0) then! is holomorphic in all of fl.
Proof: We may assume that f is not identically 0. We write I = u +iv ,where

u and v arc real valued.
The function a := is subharmonic in ci (same proof as in (a) of the
Theoretical Examples 15 above). So is u + es for any e> 0 (same proof).
We will show that f is holomorphic in any ball in ci; for simplicity of notation
we assume that the ball is B(0, 1) and that B[0, 11 fl. We assume funhermore that
11(2)1< 1 for z E D[0,1]. Note that then, 0 on B(0,1).
210
Section 6. Applications
Now, for any z E B(O, 1] we have by Theorem 7 that
u(z) +
At those points z E B(O, 1) where f(z) 0 we get by letting e decrease to 0 that
u(z) <
However, u is continuous and the points where f(z) 0 are dense in B(0, 1)
(Proposition 10), so the inequality holds for all points z E B(0, 1).
Our arguments work in the same way for —1. i.e. with —u instead of u. Thus
u(z) = ..i_Ju(ei)Pi(eiz)do
which shows (Theorem Xll.8) that u is harmonic. In particular u 1)).

Replacing f by if we get v E C°°(B(0, 1)), so f E C°°(B(O, 1)). f satisfies the
Cauchy-Riemann equations on the dense set {z B(0, 1)11(2) 0). and hence on all
of B(0, 1). So f is holomorphic. 0
Hardy Spaces
Definition 17.
Let f be holomorphic in the unit disc. f is said to belong to the Hardy space
p E)0,00( ,
2r
sup
1 t fy'e
I ,9\P dO<oo
I )
O(r<1 J
0
We leave it to the reader to verify that is a linear subspace of Hol(13(0, 1)).
Theorem 18.
If I E where p 1 then there exists exactly one f I/(S') such thai
f(z) = for all <1
211
Chapter 13. Subharmontc Funcuons
Proof: We prove the theorem for p = 1; for p > 1 the argument is similar, bui
simpler.
Let 0 < <r2 < <1 be an increasing sequence such that —' 1 as n —' 00,
and define
:= for t E R
That f E H' means that is a bounded subset of L2(S'). Since the unit ball of
L2 is weakly sequentially compact (See [DS; Corollary IV.8.4J) , we may (possibly by
taking a subsequence) assume that there exists a function g E L2(S') such that g
weakly in L2. Recalling that if is subharmonic (Theoretical Examples 15(,9)) we get
by Proposition 9 for m < n that
where z = rme"
J
and letting n —00 it follows that
Jg(e19)p,(o,z)do
By the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality we get
J{g (e'9) (P,(o, }2d9 JP1(9. z)dO
= Jg(eb)2P,(o,z)do
which we integrate with respect to t to get

This inequality combined with the fact that 9m converges weakly to g implies that
9m — g in L2 And then in L'. Indeed,
=Jigm_giigm_gidt
J 211gm — gii2lig 112
il9m — gii2llgm + gil2
In particular the sequence = Iffr is uniformly inregrable. Hence so is the
sequence {t —. }. By the Dunford-Pettis compactness criterion (See EDS]) we
may (possibly by taking a subsequence) assume that there exists an f E L' (S') such
that —, f(ed) weakly in L'.
Letting n —. oo in the Poisson formula

2v
2.. IzI
2
f(z)=_1-Jf(rnett) 2dt
— zi
0
212
Sectioc 6. Applications
we get the existence part of the theorem.

The uniqueness will follow once we check for any L1-function f' that
J = 0 for all fzf < 1
implies f' = It suffices to prove the statement for f real valued. In that case we
0.
get by property (iii) of the Poisson kernel that
0 =
J f(e")dt + J }
The parenthesis is an analytic function with real part 0, so it is a purely imaginary
constant c, i.e.
2w 2w
Ji' e""f' (est)dt
z
c=
= 0 we see that c = 0,
+2
/
because f' is real. Now,
J =0 for all n 0
Since f is real, complex conjugation shows that this holds for all n E N, i.e. that all
the Fourier coefficients of f are 0. But then f' =0. 0
The following corollary which is equivalent to the theorem just proved, has been
generalized extensively and is useful in prediction theory.
Theorem 19 (F. and M. Riesz's theorem).

Let p be a complex Borel measure on S' for which
0 for all n = 1,2,...
Then p is absoiwely continuous with respect to the linear measure on S'.
Proof: Expanding P1(t, z) in powers of z and and using the condition on p

we see that
f(z) := JPL(t,z)dp(eul) for IZI < 1
213
Chapter 13. Subharmomc Functions
is a power series in z alone, so that f is holomorphic in B(O, 1). Using Fubini we

find that f E H1.
When we apply Theorem 18 and once again expand P1 in z and we find that
J euhltdp(i) = for all n E Z

J
Since the trigonometric polynomials are dense in the periodic continuous functions we
get for all g E C(S') that
Jg(t)f(ett)dt
J g(t)djt(f) =
which finishes the proof. 0
The f of Theorem 18 above cannot be an arbitrary function in L'(S') as the
following result shows:
Theorem 20.
Let f and f be as in Theorem 18. Assume that I is no: identically 0. Then
and f cannot vanish on any set of positive linear measure on S1.
Proof: In the course of proving Theorem 18 we showed that the sequence

{ converges to If (e'8)I in L'. Choosing a subsequence if necessary we
may assume that
I
Ii' (e'°) for almost altO
Since
—
0
Fatou's lemma implies that
(e'9)
By Jensen's inequality,
214
Section 6. Applications
finishing the proof of the first statement.

IffhasazerooforderNatz=O
we apply the above result to F(z) := noting that F'(e") =
f E Hol(D) fl 11(D) for all p E Li, oo[ (Use polar coordinates).

The converse is not true:
Example 21.
The function 1(z) := (1 — z)' belongs to Hol(D) fl L'(D) . but not to H1:
Qearly I E Hol(D) , and we leave it to the reader to check that f E 11(D) for
all p E [1,21
We assume now that f E H1 and derive a contradiction from that assumption:
During the proof of Theorem 18 we saw that f(rned) —. weakly in L'. It
follows that
I (e' ) = 1
1
— &t
, 30
—' i—
1
EL 1
But
—
= = iti <
for small t, so (again for t small)
1 >1
and the right hand side is not integrable over any open interval around 0. 0
F. and R. Nevanlinna's Theorem
Theorem 22 (F. and R. Nevanlinna's Theorem).
Let f be analytic in the unit disc. Then f is the quotieiu between swo bounded
analytic functions, 4ff
sup
o<,<i
I'Ll <00
'. 0
Proof: Let us first assume that
(*) sup <oo ,where
w is subharmonic (Example 15).
215
Chapter 13. Subbarmonic Functions
The harmonic function on B(O, r) that on the boundary coincides with w,

increases with r (Remark immediately after Theorem 7). The values at 0 of the functions
u, are by the mean value property (Theorem Xll.6) bounded by (*), so according to
Harnack's theorem (Theorem Xll.10) U,. —. u as r 1_ , where u is harmonic on
B(O, 1) and nonnegative, because w u.
Choose a holomorphic function g such that u = (Theorem Xll.2(8)). Then
IhI = 1 and I JhI, so both 1/h and f/h are analytic and bounded by 1. We
are through, since their quotient is f.
Suppose conversely that f = a/b where a and b are bounded analytic functions.
We may assume that IaI 1, 1 and that b(O) 0. Then
—Log Ibi
and by the subharmonicity of Log Ibi (Example 15)
—oo <Log Ib(0)I fLog b(re'8) ide
Thus
—Log Ib(0)I
and the right hand side is independent of r. 0

Section 7 Exercises
1. For which values of a, b, c E R is the polynomial
U(x,y) := ax2 +2bxy+cy2
a harmonic function? a subhaimonic function?

2. Let : —, be a holomorphic map between two domains in the complex
plane. Let u be subharmonic on
Show that is subharmonic on fl unless it is identically —oo. Hint: o =
when is holomorphic.
3. Let K be a compact subset of Il. Let u be subharmonic on Let h be a real
valued continuous function on K such that h is harmonic on ir&t(K) and u h on OK.
Show that u < h on all of K.
4. Let f E Hol(B(0, 1)) have the power series expansion
1(z) = for Izi < 1
216
Show that
IEH2 * >1an12<oo
5. Let f E Hol(B(0,1)) and let p E [1,ooj.

(a) Let f E H'. Show that there exists a harmonic function u such that u.
Hint: Theorem XIIL2O.
(fi) Assume that there exists a harmonic function u such that u. Show that
I E H'.
[This exercise gives us a hint as to how to define the Hardy space HP(Q) when
fl is a domain in C : I E Hol(fl) is in HP(IZ) if there exists a harmonic function u
on fl such that I' S u.
6. Let u be a convex function on an open convex subset of R2. Show that u is
subharmonic. Hint: A convex function on an open set is automatically continuous, so
+ re'8)dO
makes sense as a Riemann integral.

7. Let u be usc, and let f be continuous and increasing on the range of u. Show
that f o u is usc.
8. Show that a continuous function with the mean value property is harmonic. Hint:
Theorem 7.
9. Prove
Sckwwz's reflection principle.
Let Il be an open subset of R2 such that (1 is symmetric around the x-axis. Let
u be harmonic on {(x,y) E (fly >0). continuous on {(x,y) E (fly? 0) and 0 on
{(x,y) E =0).
Then there exists a harmonic function U on fl such that U = u on
{(x,y) E >0).
Hint: Show that
(fix
'
fory?0
1 —u(x,—y) for y <0
has the mean value property.
10. Let u be subharmonic on an open subset fl of R2. Let BI0, r] ç Q , where
r > 0 . Define v on (1 by
v(z) := for Z E B(0,r)

I. u(z) for z E cl\B(0,r)
Show that v is subharmonic on fl.
217
Chapter 13. Subharinonic Functions
11. We have seen that hi is subharmonic if h is harmonic. Show the following

general statement:
If a 1 and h1, h2,• , are harmonic, then
(Ihii° + lh2Ia + ... +
is subharmonic.
12. Use the procedure from the proof of Radô's theorem to show the theorem on
an isolated singularity for a harmonic function (Theorem XII.5).
218
Chapter 14 Various Applications
SectIon 1 The Phragmén-Llndelöf principle

The weak maximum principle (Corollary IV.16), which says that an analytic
function never exceeds its maximal boundary value, does not hold in general for
unbounded domains. For example, if fl is the lower half plane, so that Of 1 is the
real axis, then 1(z) := exp(iz) is bounded on Ôfl but not on Il. So we need extra
restrictions on the function and the domain to get maximum principles for unbounded
domains. The so-called Phraginén-Lindelof principle is a way of finding such maximum
principles. Our version is the following.
Theorem I (Phragmén-lindelUJ's principle).

Let fl be a connected open subset of C and let be afunction in (1 Hol(1Z)
which Is bounded and no: Identically 0.
1ff E fl Hol(1l) andthe constant M 0 that
(1)If(z)I Mforailz E ,and
(2) —+ 0 as z —+ 00 In Il for each jixedq > 0,
then If(z)I Mforallz E
Proof: The case M = 0 is a consequence of the case M > 0 , so we may assume

that M >0. Let B >0 be a bound of Consider for > 0 the continuous function
u,,(z) := for z E
which is subharmonic on (1 (Example Xll.17(8)). By the assumption (2) we may

choose R > 0 so large that
fcrall zEIlsuchthal IzIR
Since Offl fl B(0,R)) c E fl IzI = R} we get by the maximum principle
for subharmonic functions (Theorem XIL6) that
uq(z)_<max{M,M}=M for zEflflB(O,R)
This inequality is also true outside of the ball B(0, R) by our choice of R, so
u,,(z) M for z E fl, i.e.
:S M for z E fl
0. However, the zeros of are isolated in Il (Theorem IV.1l), so the desired

inequality holds by the continuity of f everywhere in 11. 0
219
chapter 14. Applications
The connectivity assumption was only used at the very end of the proof. We may
delete that assumption if we in retwn require that 4' vanishes nowhere.
Corollary 2.
Let C be an open subset of the complex plane. Let I e C(?i) fl be
bounded.
11111 MonOQ,then Ill
Proof: Wemayofcourseassumethatfl Lete>0. By
continuity of f there exists a point zo e such that If(zo)I < M + e and then there is
even a ball B(zo,rJ ç such that Ill M + e on that ball. Applying Theorem I to
the set and the function 4'(z) := (z — :o)_1 we get that
If(z)I M + e for all z E Q\B(:ø, r)

This inequality also holds for z E D(zo, r] by the very construction of that ball, so
f(z)I<_M+eforallzEIl. Bute>Owasarbitrary. 0
Corollary 3 (The three lines theorem).
Let := { z E C 0 < f
< 1). Let be bounded and holomorphic on 1 and
continuous on the closure of Q and pw
(1) M(r) := sup + iy)I}

—oo<,<oo
Then log M as a convex function on (0,1]. In particular
(2) M(z) M(0)l_ZM(1)z ford! xE [0,11
Proof: Let g(z) := where a is a real constant. Applying Corollary 2 to

g we see for any x E]O,1[ that
Ig(z+iy)I max{M(0),M(1)ea)
and so that
(3) max
If M(0) = 0 then (3) says that M(z) Since this holds for all real
numbers a, we see that M(x) = 0 , and so (2) is trivially satisfied. The same kind
of arguments works if M(1) = 0.
If both M(0) and M(1) are different from 0 we choose a so that M(0) = M(1)ea
(this minimizes the right hand side of the inequality (3)); then (3) simplifies as desired
M(x) =
220
Section 2. The Riesz-Thorin liucipoladon theorem
If we apply the same arguments to the strip

where O<s<t<1
as we did to the entire strip {z 10 1} we find that
M(z)'
M is convex. 0
SectIon 2 The Rlesz-Thorln Interpolation theorem
Using The Three Lines Theorem we shall now prove the M.Riesz-Thorin interpo-
lation theorem. The interpolation theorem holds for general measure spaces, but for
simplicity we will only consider Rd with Lebesgue measure. A proof for the general
case can be found in [DS;VLIOJ.
We need some preliminaries:
A simple function is a (finite) linear combination of indicator functions for mea-
surable sets of finite measure. We let S denote the complex vector space of simple
functions.
Indeed, if qi <oo , then
fIT + Ifl"lB
where
A := E Rd 11(x)!
I
i} and B := E Rd 11(x)! > i}
I
If = 00, then we may scale f down so that we may assume that Ill 1; and
then f so we are through also in this case.
Theorem 4 (Rlesz-Thorin's interpoLation theorem).

Le:1 <oo, and le:T:S bealinear operator such that
haveftnitenormcM0andM1 ,whenSis
equipped with the norms from and LPt respectively.
Fort E [0,1J we define pg and qg by the formulas
1 1—i t 1 1—i t
—=—+—
pg po
and —=—+—
P1 qg qo qi
Then T maps S into and its norm Lc at most when S is given the
norm from L".
Proof: := {zE <1), and forz put
— 1
p(z)
= 1—z
— + —z and —1
q(z)
=
1—z z
+ —
P0 P1 qo qi
221
Chapler
Furthermore we let rg denote the dual exponent to i.e.

11
—+—=1
rg
Qearly
rt ro ri
which we extend *0 z E by
—=—+—
1
r(z)
1—z
ri ro
z
Note that p(i) = q(i) = qg and r(t) =

FixtE]O,1[. andr=re.
Let f be in S. We must show that Tf E L' has norm less than or equal to
It suffices to prove that
for all g S
For each zE we define
f and g; that
and
If
I=
then
f2 =
so by the linearity of T we get
Since a similar formula holds for 9z we clearly have that the function defined
on by
:= ,
is holomorphic on , and continuous and bounded on ri. By the Three Lines Theorem
applied to and the point z = t we get
(1) k(t)I where No = sup and N1 = sup
I
222
Secdon 3. M. Riesz' theorem
Let us estimate + iy)I : By HOlder
I4(1 + iv)I IIT(fi +iv)IIq(1)1191+iPIly(1) A'I IIfi+iIIIp( l)Ilgl+IVII,( 1)
IIp(1) 1) 11111, IIgII'
N1
We estimate N0 similarly. Substituting these estimates into (1) and recalling how
p and r are defined we get
14<t)I
proving the theorem. 0

A bounded linear operator mapping of L' into V is said to be of type (p, q). In this
language Theorem 4 reads: If T is simultaneously of type (po,qo) and of type (pi,qi),
then it is also of type (ps,qg) for any I E [0,1) where
1—1 1—I I
—=—+--
1
pg po P1
1
and
1
—=—-f—
qg qo qi
and we have an estimate for the the operator norm of T.
A very simple consequence of Theorem 4 is
Theorem 5 (The Hausdorff.Young inequaWy).

lip E [1,2] andf E L'(R") then its Fourier transform Ff belongs to and
11Ff II,. 11111, where = 1
Proof: The Fourier transformation f —, Ff is simultaneously of type (1, oo) and

of type (2,2). Apply the Riesz-Thorin interpolation theorem. 0
SectIon 3 M. Rlesz' theorem
Any harmonic function u on the unit disc is the real part of an analytic function I
(Theorem XIL2). The imaginary part v off = u + iv is not unique, but any two choices
of v differ by a real constant. The conjugoiefiuzcdon (or harmonic conjugate) of u is the
v which is fixed by the requirement that v(0) = 0, or in other words by the requirement
that 1(0) should be real. As simple examples we mention that the conjugate function of
u(z) := is v(z) = and that the one of u(z) is v(z) =
n= more generally, if u is a trigonometric polynomial with real coefficients,
= ao + cos(nO) + b,, sin (nO))
223
14.
then its conjugate function is
v(re19) = + aRsin(nO)}
The holomorphic functions that have u as real part are characterized by Schwarz'
formula:
Theorem 6 (Schwarz' formula).

f
Let = u + iv be holomorphic on the open boil D(O, R) and let u be continuous
on the closed bail B[O, RJ. Then
f(z) = iv(O) + Ju + for oil IzI <fl
Proof: By Poisson's formula (Theorem XIL6)
R2_1Z12&
=
2w
= + z)dO = +
so the real part of the analytic function

2w
z —, f(z)-.
is 0. Hence the function is a constant. Taking z = 0 we see that this constant is iv(O).D
For any complex valued function on the unit disc we let

I
for pE [1,00[
With this notation a holomorphic function f on the unit disc is in 1ff 111 <0o.
1ff is holomorphic or harmonic then If I' is subharmonic (Example XIII. 15) and so the
supremum is the limit as r —. 1_ (Proposition XIII.9). If I furthermore is continuous
on the closed unit disc then clearly
11111,! for pE [1,001

=
224
3. M. Riesz'
i.e. the nomi equals the 1/-norm of the restriction of f to the unit cixcle.
Let f = u + iv be holomorphic on the unit disc and such that f(O) is real, i.e.
v is the conjugate function of u. The problem that we shall now consider is whether
lull, <oo implies Ilvll, <oo, or said differently: Must I E H' if hull, <oo?
Let us analyze the special case p = 2, where we can compute all the norms involved.
We consider an f Hol(B(O, 1)),
1(z) =
such that 1(0) = R. Then
u(z) = =
From the theory for power series we know that the series E for each fixed
r E [0, 1[ converges uniformly with respect to 9 to its real part will then of
course converge uniformly to u (re'°). Since
2r
— jf e
1
e
0
we get
p2d0
111 J
=
/ = ,2 =
Ian 12
=
In a similar way we can compute (we leave the details to the reader) that
00
2
i — a0 -r L1 10*1
ii=1
In particular
Ill = — 4
so I H2 if huh2 < oo , answering our question above affirmatively.
225
Chaper 14.
Marcel Riesz showed in 1927 that this phenomenon persists for p in the range ji, oo[:
Theorem 7 (Al. Riesz' Theorem).

For each ji, oo( there exisss a positive constant C, such that
11111, f E Hol(B(O, 1)) such that 1(0) E R
Remark: We have not specified any bound on the constant C,, except in the case
p = 2. It can be shown that C, = (p/(p — works EHK].
Proof: We let for convenience R denote the set of those I E Hol(13(0, 1)) for
which f(0) is real.
We divide the proof into 3 steps.
Step 1: Here we prove the following claim.
Claim: Let p be fixed and assume that there is a constant C > 0 such that
$1111, for all I E R. Then
111112, (4C + 112, fir all I E 1?.
Proof of the claim: Consider first the case of 1(0) = 0. Possibly replacing I by
z —e f(rz) for r jO, 1[ we may assume that f is holomorphic in a neighborhood of
the closed unit disc, so that
2r 2r
=
/
= 2?
J If(e")
U2
= — + 2iuvl'dO = +
=2' uv+ 2*
which by our assumption this can be estimated by
= JIurIvl'do
and further by the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality
2r
= (2CYIIuII,11f11,
226
Section 3. M. Riesz' theorem
Dividing through by Ill we get that 111112, 2CllulI2,. For a general f E R

we thus have established the inequality
Ill — 1(0)16, 2CIIu — u(0)112,
Now, 1(0) = u(0), so
111112, 2CIIuII2, + (1 + 2C)lu(0)l

To deal with the last term we note that 1u12' is subharmonic (Example X1ll.15(7)),
so that
Iu(0)12P
and finally 111112, (1 + 4C)IIu 112,,' proving the claim.

Step 2:
We know that the inequality of M. Riesz' theorem holds for p = 2 (with the constant
112). From Step I we see that it then also holds forp = 4,8,16,.... In the present
step we use the Riesz-Thorin interpolation theorem to show that the inequality holds
for any p in the interval [2,oo[.
The map that interests us, i.e. u f
= u + iv , where v is the conjugate function
of u, has according to Schwarz' formula (Theorem 5) the explicit expression
(*) for Izl<1
if u is continuous on the closed unit disc. However, u and f are in general only
defined on the open disc, so we must consider the functions on the circle :=
{z E Izi = r} and afterwards let r 1_. More precisely, we define for each
r EJ0,1[ a linear map : L'(S') —. C(S') by
2w
:=
and shall for each p E [2, oo[ study its restriction

/ :
T,,, : TrILP : Il(S1) —. 11(51)

That restriction is a continuous linear operator from LP(S1) into 11(51).
Let now 4' E C(S') be real valued and let f denote the analytic function from (1
with u replaced by 4'. Then
2w
IITr,p4'IIL, = 11111,
m
Chapter 14. Various Applications
If, furthermore, p is of the form p = 2N for some N = 1, 2,... we may by Step

1 estimate as follows:
Ill lip =
where A,, is a constant.
If is not real valued we split it into its real and imaginary parts to get
so that
IITT,PIIL,Lp <2A,, for p= 2N , N =
By the Riesz-Thorin interpolation theorem there exists to each p E [2,001 a constant

C,,, not depending on r, such that
IIT,,SlI,, for all E
1ff is holomorphic on a neighborhood of the closed unit disc and f( 0) is real then
11111, = urn I1IISJILP =
If f is holomorphic on B(0, 1), but not necessarily on a neighborhood of the closed

unit disc, then we apply the result just derived to the analytic function fA( z) := f( Az)
and let A — 1_.
With Step 2 we have proved M. Riesz' theorem for p in the range [2. oo[.
Step 3:
Here we derive M. Riesz' theorem in range Ji, 2[ by the standard technique of
duality, knowing it to be nue in the range (2, oo[.
For exponents q < 2 we consider the conjugate exponent p = q/(q — 1) > 2. Let
=+ where v(O) = 0. We may assume that f is continuous on the closed
disc Izi < 1 (If not consider f(rz) for r < 1), so that the norms reduce to the relevant
L'-norms of the functions on the unit circle.
Since trigonometric polynomials are dense in LP(S1) we have
lit'liq = supJ
where f denotes integration over S' with respect to and where the supremum ranges
over all real uigometnc polynomials g with I/-norm 1. Let
N
g(O) = + cos(nO) + b,, sin(nO)}
228
Section 4. Exctcises
be such a polynomial and consider the harmonic function given by
Its conjugate function h is
h(ret9) = cos(nO) + sin(nO)}
Since g + ih is analytic so is the product f(g + ih). Its imaginary part vg + ub

is harmonic and vanishes at 0, so by the mean value property for harmonic functions
(Theorem XII.6)
fvg= _Juh
Combining Hälder's inequality If uhi IIUIIqIIhIip with the following result, which
we have already proved
+
we get
CpIIuIIqIIgIIp
J
which implies that flVIJq CpIIUIIq . Hence
Ill IIq IIhhIIq + + 1)IIUIIq
which is the desired statement.
Section 4 Exercises
1.Let
where a is a constant. Let f E n Hol(Q) satisfy that
If(z)I Cexp (AIzIb) for all z Q
where A and C axe positive constants and b E [0, a[.

Show that Ill M throughout Q, if Ill M on Oil.
Hint: Consider the function 4(z) := exp(_zc) for c E]b,a[.
229
Chapter 14. Applications
2. Let be the strip
:=
where L EJO,oo[. Assume that f C(Ci) fl satisfies that
If(z)I Cexp for z E ci
where A and C are positive constants and a E (0, [.

Show that If I
M throughout if Ill M on Oci. Hint: Consider for 6 E ]a,
the function
eItIz)
:= exp —
230
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235
Index
A Cauchy-Hadamard radius of
Abel's partial summation formula 7 convergence formula 2
Abel's test 11 Cauchy-Riemann equation 14
Abel's theorem 5, 11 Cay Icy transform 119
addition theorem 23 Cayley transformation 122
Ahifors' lemma 110, 112 chain rule 13
alternating series theorem 11 Chebyshev's function 175
analytic 16 circle 114, 117
angle 118 circle of convergence 2
annulu! 71, 80 closed curve 17
argument 25 complementary arguments 158
argument principle 129, 144 complex derivative 13
complex differentiable 13
B condensation principle 120
Bernoulli's paradox 38 conformally equivalent 122
Blaschke product 166 conjugate function 223
Bloch-Landau's theorem 101 continuous argument 25
Bloch's constant 101 continuous logarithm 25
Bloch's theorem 101 contractible 38
converge 147
Borsuk-Ulain's theorem 42
converge locally uniformly 149
branch 25, 35
critical strip 176
Brouncker's series 6
curvature 109
Brouwer's fixed point theorem 30, 67
curve 17
Brouwer's theorem on invariance
of domain 41 D
derivative 13
C Dirichlet problem 190
Carleman's theorem 139
duplication formula of
Casorati-Weierstrass' theorem 100 Legendre 161, 167
Cauchy inequality 11
Cauchy integral formula 47, 71 E
Cauchy integral formula for a disc 48 EnestrOm-Kakeya 10
Cauchy integral theorem 47, 71, 72, 74 entire 13
Cauchy-Goursal 43 essential singularity 83, 92, 115
Cauchy-Green formula 48 Euler's constant 157, 167
237
Index
Euler's formula for sine 153 Hausdorff-Young inequality 223

Euler's integral formula 158 Herglotz' trick 166
Euler's product formula 173 Hermite polynomial 62
exponential function 23 holomorphic 13, 115
extended complex plane 113 homotopic 33
homotopy invariant 34
F homotopy lifting property 29
F. and M. Riesz' theorem 213
factorial function 158 I
Fejdr 4 index 31
formula of complementary infinite product 147
arguments 158 inhomogeneous Cauchy-Riemann
Fourier transform 106
equation 140, 142
Fresnel integral 68
inversion 96
functional equation 158
isolated singularity 82, 115, 186
functional equation for the
zeta-function 171
fundamental theorem of algebra 39, 99
J
Jensen's formula 193
Jensen's inequality 192
G
Jensen's inequality for integrals 209
gamma-function 157
Gauss' formula 167
K
geometric series 1
Kellogg's theorem 197
Germay's interpolation theorem 163
global Cauchy integral theorem 71
L
global Cauchy theorem and
Landau's constant 101
integral formula 72, 74
Laplace operator 108, 183
H Laplacian 108
Hadamard-de la Poussin's
Laurent expansion 92, 135, 161
theorem 175 Laurent series 79
Hadamard's gap theorem 58 Legendre duplication formula 167
Hankel's formula 167 Legendre polynomial 62
Hardy space 211, 217 Leibniz' series 6
harmonic 183 length 17
harmonic conjugate 223 limit point 51
harmonic function 202 line integral 18
Harnack's monotone convergence line segment 17
theorem 191 Liouville's theorem 7, 65, 99, 112
238
mdcx
Liouvile's theorem for harmonic Picard's big theorem 105

functions 196 Picard's little theorem 106, 107, 112
Littlewood's Tauberian theorem 7 Poisson integral 68
logarithm 25, 76, 77, 146 Poisson kernel 188, 203
logarithmic conjugation theorem 184 Poisson's formula 187
logarithmic derivative 150 pole 82, 83, 92
Looman-Menchoff theorem 14 pole of order k 115
polynomial 130
M positively oriented circle 17
M. Riesz' theorem 226 power 27
Maximum Modulus Principle 55 power series 1, 15
maximum principle 219 primary factors of Weierstrass 155
mean value property 188, 217 prime number theorem 181
Mellin transform 158 primitive 13, 76, 125, 145
Mergelyan's theorem 139 principal branch 27
meromorphic 115 principal part of f at a 162
metric 108 principal square root 36
Mittag-Leffler's theorem 162 principle of permanence 52
MObius function 181 principle of subordination 56
Möbius transformation 116 Prym's decomposition 159
Montel's theorem 120 pseudo-metric 108
Morera's theorem 50
Q
N quotient formula 2
Nevanlinna's theorem 215
null-homotopic 33, 75 R
radius of convergence 2
0 Rado's theorem 210
open mapping theorem 54 rational function 87, 96
order 53 region 122
order of a pole 82 removable singularity 82, 92, 115, 186
removable singularity theorem 46, 82
P residue 83
partial fraction expansion of residue theorem 85
cotangent 153 Riemann's extension theorem 45
path 17 Riemann hypothesis 177
Perron-Frobenius theorem 40 Riemann mapping theorem 123
principle 219 Riemann sphere 114
Phragm6n-LindelOf theorem 67 Riemann zeta function 169
239
Index
Riesz-Thorin's interpolation theorem 221 three lines theorem 220

theorem 53, 134, 135, 145 type 223
Runge's polynomial approximation
theorem 138 U
Runge's theorem on approximation unique Continuation theorem 51
by rational functions 135 univalent 57
upper semicontinuous 199
USC 199
Schonky's theorem 103, 111
Schwarz' formula 224 V
Schwarz' lemma 55, 112, 126 value 148
Vitali-Porter's theorem 126
Schwarz' reflection principle 66, 217
sigma-function of Weierstrass 168
signal 81
w
Wallis' formula 93
simple pole 82, 83
Wallis' product 153, 167
simply connected 75-77, 138, 145, 183 weak maximum principle 55
Sinus Cardinalis 94 weak unique continuation properly 195
square root 35, 76, 146 Weierstrass' factorization theorem 156
starshaped 19, 30, 75 Wcicrstrass' p-function 165
Stirling's approximation formula 160 Weierstrass' theorem 50
strong maximum principle 66, 189, 202 Wcierstrass' zeta-function 164
subharmonic 201, 203 winding number 31
z
Tauber's theorem 6 Z-iransform 82
Taylor series 16 zero 130
240
1212 hc ISBN 981—02—0375—6

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A Concise Introduction to Complex Function Theory

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication data is available.

COMPLEX ANALYSIS. An Invitation

Printed in Singapore by JBW Printers & Binders Pte. Ltd.

Chapter 1. Power Series ...

Chapter 2. Holomorphic and Analytic Functions ......... .13

Chapter 3. The Exponential Function, the Logarithm and

Chapter 4. Basic Theory of Holomorphic Functions ...

Chapter 5. Global Theory ....... ......... 1

Section 1 The global Cauchy integral theorem 71

Chapter 6. Isolated Singularities..... .......... ............ ...................... 79

Section 2 The classification of isolated singularities .82

Section 1 Liouville's and Casorati-Weiersuass' theorems 99

Chapter 9. Meromorphic Functions and Runge's Theorems..... ................. 129

Chapter 10. Representations of Meromorphic Functions ..... .......... 147

Chapter 11. The Prune

Chapter 12. Harmonic Functions ............. ...... .......... .. ..183

Chapter 13. Subharmonic Functions................ 199

Chapter 14. Various Applications............. ........ ...... ........ .. 219

SectIon 1 Elementary facts

wherethe coefficients 0k E Care fixed and wherez E C.

We shall very often only consider the case = 0, i.e.

Proof: Because of boundedness IakII(kI M for some M and all k. Thus if

(b) (The quotient formula). If 0 for all n, then

provided that the limit exists in [0, oo]

Proof. (a) We prove that

urn sup <

urn sup <

So except for finitely many k we have < 1 , i.e. Iakmkl is bounded,

(b) is left to the reader as Exercise 2.

has radius of convergence p = 00.

differemuiaied series Eak+1(k + l)zk.

Our final version of Proposition 6 will be the "Unique Continuation Theorem"

Proof of the proposition: (8) is an immediate consequence of (a), so we will only

so replacing 1(z) by f(z)/z and by repeating the argument we find that = 0.

Section 2 The theorems of Abel and Tauber

Theorem 7 (Abel's theorem).

converges for z = 1 and hence for each Izi 1.

Proof: Note that the sequence

converges to 0 as k —. oo. In particular it is bounded so that the series Erkzk

from which we for z = x E 10,1] get the estimate

Thus we have for any x E [0, 1] that

the case x = 1 being trivial. 0

arctan z = for Izi < 1

yields the following pretty formulas

which are called respectively Brouncker's series and Leibniz' series.

Our next theorem provides a partial inverse to Abel's theorem.

Theorem 9 (Tauber's theorem).

exists for x 1_ , then E 0k converges.

:= and w(n) := sup {klakl}

we have from (5) that

Proposldon 10 (Abel's partial swnmation formula).

SectIon 3 LIouville's theorem

Theorem 11 (Liouville's theorem).

h.we infinUe radius of convergence.

SectIon 4 Important power series

z" for IzI<1

(1 +Z)a = for Izi < 1 (principal branch)

where n is a positive integer.

(a) Show that

(,9) Show that the radius of convergence of is Jim , provided

5. (a) Let and be power series with radii of convergence p and

a respectively. Consider the product series , defined by