Scatter Plot:

1. Also called 'XY' Plots

2. Plot of Bivariate Data to depict relationship between two variables.
3. For example, controllable variables and desired quality characteristics. (Hours of study vs. Marks
Scored)
4. Independent Variable (X-AXIS) Vs. Dependent Variable (Y-AXIS)
5. Both variables can be independent (e.g. Weight and Height) -> No choice of Axis -> Usually
Indicates correlation (no causation)
6. Time Sequence Plot: A special type of scatter plot in which one of the variables is time. (on X-
Axis)
 Growth of plants vs. Months
 Control Charts are also Time Sequence Plot

Example, Height vs. Weight Scatter Plot, Ice cream Sales vs. Temperature, Number of Trained Employees
(on X-Axis) vs. Cost of Training (Y-Axis), Depth of Cut and Tool Wear,

Correlation:

 Positive and Negative, Coefficient of Correlation(R): -1 to +1

 Perfect Positive Correlation, High Positive Correlation and Low Positive Correlation
 Prefect Negative, High Negative and Low Negative Correlation and No Correlation.
Scatter Plot Matrix: More than two variables
For k variables, k X k matrix
Check Sheet:
 A simple tool (document) used to record historic data. (ex. causes of nonconformity)
 Check Sheet is used as a source of data for other tools,historgram, Pareto Chart
 No specific format
 Used for quantitative and qualitative data
 When data is quantitative, it is called Tally Sheet
 Fee Usages:
o To check the shape of probability distribution of a process
o To quantify defects by type
o To quantify defects by location
Example, Frequency vs. Film Thickness (to check shape of probability distribution)
LSL: Lower Specification Limit, USL: Upper Specification Limit
Supplier vs. (Scratch, Dent, Pin Hole, others): To check defects by type.
Cause and Effect Diagram:
 Also known as Ishikawa Diagram or Fishbone Diagram
 Structural pictorial diagram showing causes/sub-causes for a problem
 One of the root cause analysis techniques
 Helps to find causes for the process to be out of control (i.e. causes for vibration)
 Causes are identified by brainstorming among the team members
 Graphically illustrates the relationship between a given outcome and all factors that influence
the outcome

 Three types (based on applications):

o Cause Enumeration Type: All causes are first listed (through brainstorming) and then
shown on the diagram under various categories. Smaller causes are considered.
o Dispersion analysis type: Each major cause is thoroughly analysed and sub-causes are
identified by asking question, “Why does this dispersion occur?” Smaller causes may be
neglected. (Few causes may not be revealed in the dispersion analysis).
o Production or Process Classification Type: Set up in accordance with the flow of the
production process (that is, each discrete stage in the production process is shown along
the main arrow or backbone of the diagram) similar to flow diagram.
 Negative Ishikawa Diagram
o When desired effect is positive
o Finding the causes which make the process worst.
Steps to form a Cause and Effect Diagram:

 Step-1: Identify a d clearly define the outcome or EFFECT to be analysed

o Develop Operational Definition of the EFFECT
o EFFECT can be positive ( that is, objective) or negative (that is, problem)
o As far as possible, phrase the EFFECT in positive way
o Example, EFFECT -> Poor Gas Mileage

“It is important to define in quantitative manner, rather than qualitative manner.”

 Step-2: Draw the SPINE and create the EFFECT box

POOR MILEAGE

 Step-3: Identify the main causes contributing to the EFFECT

o These are the labels for the major branches on the diagram
o Typical Main Causes categories:
 3Ms and P: Methods, Materials, Machinery and People
 4Ps: Policies, Procedure, People and Plant
o Environment
o Write the main CAUSES to the left of EFFECT and connect them to spine by diagonal
 Step-4: For each main CAUSE, find minor causes and attach them.
 Step-5: Identify increasingly more detailed levels of causes and continue organizing them under
related causes or categories. You can do this by asking a series of why questions.
 Step-6: Analyse the diagram
o A thick cluster of items in one area may indicate a need for further studies
o A main category having only few specific causes may indicate a need for further
identification
o If several major branches have only a few sub branches, you may need to combine them
under a single category.
o Cause appearing repeatedly may form root cause analysis
 Additional Points in Cause and Effect Diagram:
o Bigger Cause and Effect diagram can be broken into smaller Cause and Effect Diagram,
any cause may be treated as Effect and detailed down further
o When a relationship between the EFFECT and CAUSE can be shown quantitatively, cause
should be enclosed in box
o When it is known that a relationship between cause and effect does exist, but
relationship cannot be supported with data, cause should be underlined.
o All other causes should be just labelled

 Few more main CAUSES categories:

o The 5Ms (used in manufacturing): Machine (equipment, technology), Method (process),
Material (includes raw material, consumables, and information), Man/mind Power
(physical or knowledge work), Measurement.
o 8Hs: 5Ms + mission/mother nature, management/money power maintenance (used in
product marketing
o 8Ps: Product, price, promotion, place, process, people, physical evidence, performance
o 4S’: Surroundings, Supplier, Systems and Skills (used in service industries)
Defect concentration diagram
 A drawing of a product onto which the location and frequency of defects are marked
 All the necessary views of product are drawn
 It may be the drawing of the product, the map of City, the diagram of a motherboard or any
other map on which trouble-spots can be marked down
 Sometimes, a photo taken by camera can be used
 The diagram helps quality control analysts to determine whether there is a pattern in defect.
Example, Shaft Defect Concentration Diagram.
Control Charts

 A graphical tool for monitoring the activity of an ongoing process.

 Also called as Shewart Control Charts
 X-Axis -> samples or subgroups (4 to 5 observation) (in order of time) (time sequence plot)
 Y-Axis -> quality characteristics (ex. Average length)
 Three lines
o Centreline
 The average value of characteristics being plotted (or desirable target or
standard value)
 An indication of where the process is centred
o Upper control limit (UCL) (Decide whether process in statistical control)
o Lower Control Limit (LCL) (Decide whether process in statistical control)
o Trial Control limit (based on minimum 20 subgroups) for initial study
 Helps to determine whether process is in statistical control or not (retrospective data analysis)
o Process in control: If points plot within the control limits and do not exhibit any
identifiable pattern
o Process out of control: If a point plots outside the control limits or if any identifiable
non random pattern exist.
 Control Charts are more effective if applied for process characteristics (ex. Temperature and
Pressure) than Product Characteristics (ex. Diameter and thickness). SPC vs SQC
 Process Characteristics affect Product Characteristics, ex. Temperature may have Effect on
hole diameter
 Data should be as recent as possible
 Cause of Variations
 Variability/Variations is inevitable
 Two types of causes for variability
o Special Causes of Variation (SCV) (Assignable Causes) -> “Eliminate” (1st Focus)
o Common causes of Variation (CCV) (Change causes) -> “Reduce” (2nd Focus)

Special Causes of Variation (SCVs)

o Not inherent in the process (and hence do not affect all items)
o Examples: Wrong Tool, Wrong raw material, wrong procedure
o Observations outside of control limits
o Non-random pattern
o Around 15% of the problems are due to SCV (Deming)
o Actions on the part of both management and employees required.

Common causes of Variation (CCVs)

 Inherent to the process (that is, natural variation in a process

 Cannot be totally eliminated
 Exists as long as process is not changed
 Examples
o Inherent variation in raw material from a qualified vendor
o Vibration of machine
o Fluctuations in working conditions
 When this variation is random -> stable system of common causes -> process is in statistical
control
 Observations within control limits
 Random pattern visible
 Around 85% problems are due to CCV (Deming)
 Actions on the part of only management is required

“A process is said to be in control if it exhibit only common cause variation.”

o Process is completely stable and predictable

“A process is said to be out of control if it exhibit special cause variation.”

o Process is unstable
Basic Principles: Principle of Normal Distribution

 Values of the quality characteristics (statistic)) plotted on a control chart are assumed to have an
approximately normal distribution.
 Central Limit Theorem: If number of observations tends to infinity, the value approaches
normal distribution.
 Population and Sample (Sampling and Inference)
o Population(Parameters): Mean= u and Standard Deviation= σ
o Sample(Statistics): Mean= 𝑥̅ and Standard Deviation=s
 Let’s assume population with mean= μ, and STD. deviation= σ (may or may not be normally
distributed
o Take sufficiently large random samples from the population with replacement
o Each sample size should be sufficiently large (usually, n>=30)
 If only CCV exist, then values of quality characteristics will fall within ± 3 σ limits from the mean
value as the values of quality characteristics are assumed to follow normal distribution
 Therefore, UCL & LCL are located at ± 3σ from CL so that probability of any value falling in
between UCL and LCL is almost 1. (That is, 99.74%)
 If a point falls outside the control limit there’s a reason to believe that a special cause exists in
system.

(Pay-off Matrix between: Crime done, Crime Not Done, Punished, and Not Punished)

Error is when: Crime not done and being punished-Type-1 Error and Crime done and not Punished-
Type-2 Error

Basic Principles: Rational Subgrouping

 All subgroup (that is, sample) should be from the sample population
 Data from different operators, different shifts, and different machines and so on should not be
mixed.
 Variations within a subgroup should be due to CCVs
 Variations between subgroups can be due to SCVs
 That is, subgroups have to be chosen in such a way that the difference between samples will be
maximised, and difference within samples will be minimized
 Instant-of-time method: Put four consecutive parts (from a machine) in first subgroup, say after
1 hour, put another four consecutive parts (from the same machine) in second subgroup
 Period-of-time method: put randomly selected four parts (produced by a machine) in say 1 hour
in first subgroup; put another randomly selected four parts (produced by same machine) in next
1 hour in second subgroup.
 Sample Size Determination

o Sample Size= Number of items in each sample

o Increase in the sample size causes the control limits to be drawn closer and vice versa,
(s= σ/ √𝑛)
o Larger sample size can detect smaller shift in process parameters (ex. Process Mean)
o Sampler sample size can detect only larger shift in process parameters
o As a sample size increases, the costs of inspection increases (especially if it is destructive
testing)
o Sample size of 5 is most common in industry
o If inspection is costly, sample size may be reduced to 4 or 3.

Sampling frequency

 Large samples frequency-> provide good information

 Proper trade-off between sample size and sample frequency is required.
 Two options:
o Choose small sample size at frequent intervals (preferred)
o Choose large sample sizes at infrequent intervals
 If process is unstable sampling should be done at frequent intervals
 If process is already stable, sampling at infrequent intervals may be done
 Sampling frequency depends on:
o Cost of sampling and inspection
o Loss due to nonconforming item
 Figure. Zone of Control Charts
o Action Limit: ± 3 σ
o Warning limit: ± 2 σ
o Zone-C : Average and +1 σ (+ can be replaced by -)
o Zone-B: +1 σ and +2 σ (+ can be replaced by -)
o Zone-A: +2 σ and +3 σ (+ can be replaced by -)
  Note: All points can not be in between a single zone, in short there can not be any repeating
pattern in data.

Rules for identifying Out-of-control Process

 Rule-1: A single point plots outside the control limit
o Since, UCL and LCL are replaced at +- 3 σ limits from CL, probability that any point falling
outside this limit if the process is in control is very small i.e. 0.026

 Rule-2: If two out of three consecutive points are fall outside the 2 σ warning limit on the same
side of centreline. (Zone-A Rule)

o
 Rule-3: 4 out of 5 consecutive points fall beyond 1 σ limit on the same side of the centreline.
(Zone-B Rule)

 Rule-4: If nine or more consecutive points fall to one side of centreline

o For a process in control, a roughly equal number of points should be above or below the
centreline, with no systematic pattern visible (Zone-C Rule)
 Rule-5: If there is a run of six or more consecutive points steadily increasing or decreasing
(Trend Rule)

 Rule-6: If 14 or more points in a row alternate in direction, increasing then decreasing (saw-
tooth pattern) (Over Control Rule)
 Rule-7: If 15 points in a row are all within 1 σ limit of the mean on either side of the mean.
(Stratification Rule)
 Rule-8: If 8 points in a row exist, but none within 1 σ limit of the mean, and the points are in
both directions from the mean. (Mixture Rule).

 Rule-9: If the chart non-random pattern

o Experience, judgement and interpretive skills are required
 Nelson’s 8 Rule: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nelson_rules
Stability Analysis Rules- Diagram
 Types of Control Charts: for variables and attributes
o Variables: Subgroup Size, 3 types
o Attributes: very large Sample Size
 Control Charts for Variables
o Variables: Quality Characteristics that are measurable on a numerical scale
o Examples: length, thickness, diameter, breaking strength, temperature, viscosity, order
processing time, waiting time for service
o The cost of obtaining variable data is usually higher than for attributes
o Since there are many quality characteristics for a product, Pareto Analysis may be
carried out to separate “vital few” from “trivial many”
o Separate control Charts may be prepared for different operators, machine, or vendors
(to ensure minimum difference between within sample and maximum difference
between samples)
o Sample should be made up of items produced at nearly the same time
o Control Chart to control
 Mean( central tendency): μ
 Variability ( process dispersion) (standard deviations): σ

Note:

 X- Bar chart is never drawn alone and is always supplemented by R-Chart.

 Upper and Lower Specification Limits are different than Upper and Lower Control Limits.
Figure X Bar and R Chart