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Osseous Tissue
and Bone Structure
Topics:
Skeletal cartilage
Structure and function of bone tissues
Types of bone cells
Structures of the two main bone tissues
Bone membranes
Bone formation
Minerals, recycling, and remodeling
Hormones and nutrition
Fracture repair
The effects of aging
The Skeletal System
Skeletal system includes:
bones of the skeleton
cartilages, ligaments, and connective tissues
Skeletal Cartilage
Contains no blood vessels or nerves
Surrounded by the perichondrium (dense
irregular connective tissue) that resists
outward expansion
Three types – hyaline, elastic, and
fibrocartilage
Hyaline Cartilage
Provides support, flexibility, and resilience
Is the most abundant skeletal cartilage
Is present in these cartilages:
Articular– covers the ends of long bones
Costal – connects the ribs to the sternum
Respiratory – makes up larynx, reinforces air
passages
Nasal – supports the nose
Elastic Cartilage
Similar to hyaline cartilage, but contains
elastic fibers
Found in the external ear and the epiglottis
Fibrocartilage
Highly compressed with great tensile
strength
Contains collagen fibers
Found in menisci of the knee and in
intervertebral discs
Growth of Cartilage
Appositional – cells in the perichondrium
secrete matrix against the external face of
existing cartilage
Interstitial – lacunae-bound chondrocytes
inside the cartilage divide and secrete new
matrix, expanding the cartilage from within
Calcification of cartilage occurs
During normal bone growth
During old age
Bones and Cartilages of the
Human
Body
Figure 6.1
Functions of the
Skeletal System
1. Support
2. Storage of minerals (calcium)
3. Storage of lipids (yellow marrow)
4. Blood cell production (red marrow)
5. Protection
6. Leverage (force of motion)
Bone (Osseous) Tissue
Supportive connective tissue
Very dense
Contains specialized cells
Produces solid matrix of calcium salt
deposits and collagen fibers
Characteristics of Bone Tissue
Dense matrix, containing:
depositsof calcium salts
osteocytes within lacunae organized around
blood vessels
Canaliculi:
formpathways for blood vessels
exchange nutrients and wastes
Osteocyte and canaliculi
Characteristics of Bone Tissue
Periosteum:
covers outer surfaces of bones
consist of outer fibrous and inner cellular
layers
Contains osteblasts responsible for bone
growth in thickness
Endosteum
Covers inner surfaces of bones
Bone Matrix
Solid ground is made of mineral crystals
2/3 of bone matrix is calcium phosphate,
Ca3(PO4)2:
reactswith calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2 to
form crystals of hydroxyapatite,
Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2 which incorporates other
calcium salts and ions
Bone Matrix
Matrix Proteins:
1/3 of bone matrix is protein fibers (collagen)
Figure 6–3 (2 of 4)
2.Osteocytes
Mature bone cells
that maintain the
bone matrix
Figure 6–3 (1 of 4)
Osteocytes
Live in lacunae
Found between layers (lamellae) of matrix
Connected by cytoplasmic extensions through
canaliculi in lamellae (gap junctions)
Do not divide (remember G0?)
Maintain protein and mineral content of matrix
Help repair damaged bone
3. Osteoprogenitor Cells
Mesenchyme
stem cells that
divide to produce
osteoblasts
Are located in
inner, cellular
layer of
periosteum
Assist in fracture
repair
4. Osteoclasts
Secrete acids and protein-digesting enzymes
Figure 6–3 (4 of 4)
Osteoclasts
Giant, mutlinucleate cells
Dissolve bone matrix and release stored
minerals (osteolysis)
Often found lining in endosteum lining the
marrow cavity
Are derived from stem cells that produce
macrophages
Homeostasis
Bone building (by osteocytes and -blasts)
and bone recycling (by osteoclasts) must
balance:
more breakdown than building, bones
become weak
exercise causes osteocytes to build bone
Bone cell lineage summary
Osteoprogenitor cells Osteoclasts are
related to
osteoblasts macrophages (blood
cell derived)
osteocytes
Gross Anatomy of Bones: Bone
Textures
Compact bone – dense outer layer
Spongy bone – honeycomb of trabeculae
filled with yellow bone marrow
Compact Bone
Figure 6–5
Osteon
The basic structural unit of mature
compact bone
Osteon = Osteocytes arranged in
concentric lamellae around a central canal
containing blood vessels
Lamella– weight-bearing, column-like matrix
tubes composed mainly of collagen
Three Lamellae Types
Concentric Lamellae
Circumferential Lamellae
Lamellae wrapped around the long bone line tree
rings
Binds inner osteons together
Interstitial Lamellae
Found between the osteons made up of concentric
lamella
They are remnants of old osteons that have been
partially digested and remodeled by
osteoclast/osteoblast activity
Compact Bone
Figure 6–5
Microscopic Structure of Bone:
Compact Bone
Figure 6.6a, b
Microscopic Structure of Bone:
Compact Bone
Figure 6.6a
Microscopic Structure of Bone:
Compact Bone
Figure 6.6b
Microscopic Structure of Bone:
Compact Bone
Figure 6.6c
Spongy Bone
Figure 6–6
Spongy Bone Tissue
Makes up most of the bone tissue in short,
flat, and irregularly shaped bones, and the
head (epiphysis) of long bones; also found
in the narrow rim around the marrow cavity
of the diaphysis of long bone
Spongy Bone
Does not have osteons
The matrix forms an open network of
trabeculae
Trabeculae have no blood vessels
Bone Marrow
The space between trabeculae is filled with
marrow which is highly vascular
Red bone marrow
supplies nutrients to osteocytes in trabeculae
forms red and white blood cells
Figure 6–8a
Functions of Periosteum
1. Isolate bone from surrounding tissues
2. Provide a route for circulatory and
nervous supply
3. Participate in bone growth and repair
Endosteum
Figure 6–8b
Endosteum
An incomplete cellular layer:
lines the marrow cavity
covers trabeculae of spongy bone
lines central canals
Stained to represent
hardened bone (red)
and cartilage (blue)
Figure 6.15
Stages of Endochondral
Ossification
Bone models form out of hyaline cartilage
Formation of bone collar
Cavitation of the hyaline cartilage
Invasion of internal cavities by the periosteal
bud, and spongy bone formation
Formation of the medullary cavity; appearance
of secondary ossification centers in the
epiphyses
Ossification of the epiphyses, with hyaline
cartilage remaining only in the epiphyseal plates
Stages of Endochondral Ossification Secondary Articular
ossificaton cartilage
center
Spongy
Epiphyseal bone
blood vessel
Deteriorating
cartilage
Hyaline matrix
cartilage Epiphyseal
Spongy plate
Primary bone cartilage
ossification formation Medullary
center cavity
Bone collar
Blood
vessel of
periosteal
bud
1 Formation of
bone collar
2 Cavitation of
around hyaline
the hyaline carti-
cartilage model. 3 Invasion of
lage within the
cartilage model. internal cavities 4 Formation of the
by the periosteal medullary cavity as
bud and spongy ossification continues; 5 Ossification of the
bone formation. appearance of sec- epiphyses; when
ondary ossification completed, hyaline
centers in the epiphy- cartilage remains only
ses in preparation in the epiphyseal plates
for stage 5. and articular cartilages.
Figure 6.8
Endochondral
Ossification: Step 1
(Bone Collar)
Blood vessels grow
around the edges of the
cartilage
Cells in the
perichondrium change to
osteoblasts:
producing a layer of
superficial bone (bone
collar) around the shaft
which will continue to
grow and become
compact bone
(appositional growth) Figure 6–9 (Step 2)
Endochondral
Ossification: Step 2 (Cavitation)
Chondrocytes in the center of
the hyaline cartilage of each
bone model:
enlarge
form struts and calcify
die, leaving cavities in cartilage
Figure 6.9
Postnatal bone growth
Remember that bone growth can only
occur from the outside (appositional
growth). So this type of endochondral
growth is a way for bones to grow from the
inside and lengthen because it is the
cartilage that is growing, not the bone
Key Concept
As epiphyseal cartilage grows through the
division of chondrocytes it pushes the
ends of the bone outward in length.
At the “inner” (shaft) side of the epiphyseal
plate, recently born cartilage gets turned
into bone, but as long as the cartilage
divides and extends as fast or faster than
it gets turned into bone, the bone will grow
longer
Long Bone Growth and
Remodeling
Growth in length – cartilage continually
grows and is replaced by bone as shown
Remodeling – bone is resorbed and added
by appositional growth as shown
compact bone thickens and strengthens
long bones with layers of circumferential
lamellae
Long Bone Growth and Remodeling
Figure 6.10
Appositional Growth
Epiphyseal Lines
When long bone stops growing, between the
ages of 18 – 25:
epiphyseal cartilage disappears
epiphyseal plate closes
visible on X-rays as an epiphyseal line
Figure 6–10
Hormonal Regulation of Bone
Growth During Youth
During infancy and childhood, epiphyseal
plate activity is stimulated by growth
hormone
During puberty, testosterone and
estrogens:
Initially
promote adolescent growth spurts
Cause masculinization and feminization of
specific parts of the skeleton
Later induce epiphyseal plate closure, ending
long bone growth
Remodeling
Remodeling continually recycles and renews
bone matrix
Turnover rate varies within and between bones
If deposition is greater than removal, bones get
stronger
If removal is faster than replacement, bones get
weaker
Remodeling units – adjacent osteoblasts and
osteoclasts deposit and resorb bone at
periosteal and endosteal surfaces
Bone Deposition
Occurs where bone is injured or added strength
is needed
Requires a diet rich in protein, vitamins C, D,
and A, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, and
manganese
Alkaline phosphatase is essential for
mineralization of bone
Sites of new matrix deposition are revealed by
the:
Osteoid seam – unmineralized band of bone matrix
Calcification front – abrupt transition zone between
the osteoid seam and the older mineralized bone
Effects of Exercise on Bone
Mineral recycling allows bones to adapt to
stress
Heavily stressed bones become thicker
and stronger
Response to Mechanical Stress
Wolff’s law – a bone grows or remodels in
response to the forces or demands placed upon
it
Observations supporting Wolff’s law include
Long bones are thickest midway along the shaft
(where bending stress is greatest)
Curved bones are thickest where they are most likely
to buckle
Trabeculae form along lines of stress
Large, bony projections occur where heavy,
active muscles attach
Response to Mechanical Stress
Figure 6.12
Bone Resorption
Accomplished by osteoclasts
Resorption bays – grooves formed by
osteoclasts as they break down bone matrix
Resorption involves osteoclast secretion of:
Lysosomal enzymes that digest organic matrix
Acids that convert calcium salts into soluble forms
Table 6–2
Calcitriol
The hormone calcitriol:
synthesis requires vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol)
made in the kidneys (with help from the liver)
helps absorb calcium and phosphorus from
digestive tract
The Skeleton as Calcium
Reserve
Bones store calcium and other minerals
Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the
body
Calcium ions in body fluids must be closely
regulated because:
Calcium ions are vital to:
membranes
neurons
muscle cells, especially heart cells
blood clotting
Calcium Regulation: Hormonal
Control
Homeostasis is maintained by calcitonin and
parathyroid hormone which control storage,
absorption, and excretion
Rising blood Ca2+ levels trigger the thyroid to
release calcitonin
Calcitonin stimulates calcium salt deposit in
bone
Falling blood Ca2+ levels signal the parathyroid
glands to release PTH
PTH signals osteoclasts to degrade bone matrix
and release Ca2+ into the blood
Hormonal PTH;
calcitonin
Calcitonin
stimulates
Control secreted
calcium salt
deposit
in bone
of Blood Thyroid
gland
Ca
Rising blood
Ca2+ levels
Thyroid
gland
Osteoclasts
degrade bone Parathyroid
matrix and release glands Parathyroid
Ca2+ into blood glands release
parathyroid
hormone (PTH)
PTH
Figure 6.11
Calcitonin and Parathyroid
Hormone Control
Bones:
where calcium is stored
Digestive tract:
where calcium is absorbed
Kidneys:
where calcium is excreted
Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
Produced by parathyroid
glands in neck
Increases calcium ion
levels by:
stimulating osteoclasts
increasing intestinal
absorption of calcium
decreases calcium
excretion at kidneys
Calcitonin
Secreted by cells in
the thyroid gland
Decreases calcium
ion levels by:
inhibiting osteoclast
activity
increasing calcium
excretion at kidneys
Actually plays very
small role in adults
Fractures
Fractures:
cracksor breaks in bones
caused by physical stress
Figure 6.13.1
Fracture Repair Step 2: Soft
Callus
Cells of the endosteum and
periosteum divide and migrate
into fracture zone
Granulation tissue (soft callus)
forms a few days after the
fracture from fibroblasts and
endothelium
Fibrocartilaginous callus forms to
stabilize fracture
external callus of hyaline
cartilage surrounds break
internal callus of cartilage and
collagen develops in marrow
cavity
Capillaries grow into the tissue
and phagocytic cells begin
cleaning debris
Figure 6.13.2
Stages in the Healing of a Bone
Fracture
The fibrocartilaginous callus forms when:
Osteoblasts and fibroblasts migrate to the
fracture and begin reconstructing the bone
Fibroblasts secrete collagen fibers that
connect broken bone ends
Osteoblasts begin forming spongy bone
Osteoblasts furthest from capillaries secrete
an externally bulging cartilaginous matrix that
later calcifies
Fracture Repair Step 3: Bony
Callus
Bony callus formation
New spongy bone
trabeculae appear in the
fibrocartilaginous callus
Fibrocartilaginous callus
converts into a bony
(hard) callus
Bone callus begins 3-4
weeks after injury, and
continues until firm
union is formed 2-3
months later
Figure 6.13.3
Fracture Repair Step 4:
Remodeling
Bone remodeling
Excess material on the bone
shaft exterior and in the
medullary canal is removed
Compact bone is laid down to
reconstruct shaft walls
Remodeling for up to a year
reduces bone callus
may never go away completely
Usuallyheals stronger than
surrounding bone
Figure 6.13.4
Clinical advances in bone repair
Electrical stimulation of fracture site.
results in increased rapidity and completeness of bone healing
electrical field may prevent parathyroid hormone from activating
osteoclasts at the fracture site thereby increasing formation of
bone and minimizing breakdown of bone,
Ultrasound.
Daily treatment results in decreased healing time of fracture by
about 25% to 35% in broken arms and shinbones. Stimulates
cartilage cells to make bony callus.
Free vascular fibular graft technique.
Uses pieces of fibula to replace bone or splint two broken ends
of a bone. Fibula is a non-essential bone, meaning it does not
play a role in bearing weight; however, it does help stabilize the
ankle.
Bone substitutes.
synthetic material or crushed bones from cadavers serve as
bone fillers
(Can also use sea coral).
Aging and Bones
Bones become thinner and weaker with
age
Osteopenia begins between ages 30 and
40
Women lose 8% of bone mass per
decade, men 3%
Osteoporosis
Severe bone loss which affects normal function
Group of diseases in which bone reabsorption
outpaces bone deposit
The epiphyses, vertebrae, and jaws are most
affected, resulting in fragile limbs, reduction in
height, tooth loss
Occurs most often in postmenopausal women
Bones become so fragile that sneezing or
stepping off a curb can cause fractures
Over age 45, occurs in:
29% of women
18% of men
Notice what happens in
osteoporosis
Osteoporosis: Treatment
Calcium and vitamin D supplements
Increased weight-bearing exercise
Hormone (estrogen) replacement therapy
(HRT) slows bone loss
Natural progesterone cream prompts new
bone growth
Statins increase bone mineral density
PPIs may decrease density
Hormones and Bone Loss
Estrogens and androgens help maintain
bone mass
Bone loss in women accelerates after
menopause
Cancer and Bone Loss
Cancerous tissues release osteoclast-
activating factor:
stimulates osteoclasts
produces severe osteoporosis
Paget’s Disease
Characterized by excessive bone
formation and breakdown
An excessively high ratio of spongy to
compact bone is formed
Reduced mineralization causes spotty
weakening of bone
Osteoclast activity wanes, but osteoblast
activity continues to work
Developmental Aspects of
Bones
Mesoderm gives rise to embryonic
mesenchymal cells, which produce
membranes and cartilages that form the
embryonic skeleton
The embryonic skeleton ossifies in a
predictable timetable that allows fetal age
to be easily determined from sonograms
At birth, most long bones are well ossified
(except for their epiphyses)
Developmental Aspects of
Bones
By age 25, nearly all bones are completely
ossified
In old age, bone resorption predominates
A single gene that codes for vitamin D
docking determines both the tendency to
accumulate bone mass early in life, and
the risk for osteoporosis later in life
SUMMARY
Skeletal cartilage
Structure and function of bone tissues
Types of bone cells
Structures of compact bone and spongy bone
Bone membranes, peri- and endosteum
Ossification: intramembranous and endochondral
Bone minerals, recycling, and remodeling
Hormones and nutrition
Fracture repair
The effects of aging
The Major Types of Fractures
Simple (closed): bone end does not break the skin
Compound (open): bone end breaks through the skin
Nondisplaced – bone ends retain their normal position
Displaced – bone ends are out of normal alignment
Complete – bone is broken all the way through
Incomplete – bone is not broken all the way through
Linear – the fracture is parallel to the long axis of the
bone
Transverse – the fracture is perpendicular to the long
axis of the bone
Comminuted – bone fragments into three or more
pieces; common in the elderly Figure 6–16 (1 of 9)
Types of fractures (just FYI)
More fractures