Transportation

Engineering II
Er. Suraj Bhattarai
Lecturer, ACEM
 Chapter 1.0 Traffic Engineering
• 1.1 Introduction
• 1.1.1 General:
• It is a branch of engineering dealing with the improvement of traffic
performance of road networks.
• It can be achieved by systematic studies of road traffic, its scientific analysis
and engineering applications.
 1.1 Introduction
• Traffic engineering deals with the application of scientific principles, tools,
techniques and findings for safe, rapid, convenient and economic movement
of people and goods.
• Road traffic consists of various categories of vehicle traffic and pedestrian
traffic.
• Each of these further has two components, human and machine.
 1.1 Introduction
• Traffic engineering has now been recognised as an essential tool in the
improvement of traffic operations in metropolitan cities, traffic developed
towns.
 1.1 Introduction
• 1.1.1 Definition:
• “Traffic engineering is that phase of engineering which deals with the planning and
geometric design of streets, highways, adjoining lands, and with traffic operations
thereon, as their use is related to the safe, convenient and economic transportation
of persons and goods.”
• Traffic on roads may consist of pedestrians, animals, vehicles or other conveyances,
either singly or together, while using the public way for purpose of travel.
• Traffic in English is taken from the Arabic word “taraffaqa”, which means to
walk along slowly together
 1.1 Introduction
• Traffic Engineering is a comparatively new branch of engineering and has
grown with the increase in traffic in recent years.
• As vehicular traffic began to increase, the congestion on the streets began to
hamper the safe and efficient movement of traffic.
 1.1 Introduction
• A modified definition proposed by Prof. Ress Bluden states “Traffic
Engineering is the science of measuring traffic and travel, the study if the
basic laws relating to traffic flow and generation and application of this
knowledge to the professional practice of planning, designing and operating
traffic systems to achieve safe and efficient movement of persons and
goods.”
 1.1 Introduction
• It was in the twenties of the last century that the role of a traffic engineer
was recognized in any city.
• The installation of the first traffic signal goes back to 1912.
• No traffic studies such as volume studies, speed studies, etc were made to
form the basis for the establishment of traffic regulations for planning
streets and highways.
 1.1.2 Scope of Traffic Engineering
• 1.1.2 Scope of Traffic Engineering:
• The basic object of traffic engineering is to achieve efficient free and rapid
flow of traffic, with least number of traffic accidents.
• The study of traffic engineering can be divided into following six major
sections:
• 1. Traffic Characteristics
• 2. Traffic Studies and Analysis
 1.1 Introduction
• 3. Traffic operation- control and regulation
• 4. Planning and Analysis
• 5. Geometric Design
• 6. Administration and Management
• 7. Research
 1.1 Introduction
• Traffic characteristics deals with following major fields
• a) Human limitation
• i. Physical limitation (vision, hearing, fatigue, etc.)
• ii. Mental limitation (intelligence, skill, experience, etc.)
• iii. Emotional limitation (impatience, attentiveness, anger, etc. )
• b) Vehicular limitations (weight, size, power of the vehicle)
 1.1 Introduction
• Traffic studies and analysis deals with the study of speed, volume,
capacity, travel patterns, origin and destination, traffic flow characteristics,
parking and accident studies.
• Traffic Operations- control and Regulations includes the smooth
operations of traffic. Regulations may be in the form of laws and traffic
regulatory measures such as speed signals and islands are most common
means to regulate and control the traffic.
 1.1 Introduction
• Planning is a separate phase for major highways and other road facilities. Cross-
sections and surface details, sight distance requirements, horizontal and vertical
alignment, manoeuvre areas and intersections and parking facilities are to be suitably
designed.
• Traffic administration and Management involves what are popularly known as
the 3E’s.
• Engineering
• Education
• Enforcement
 1.1 Introduction
• Engineering
• Vehicular Engineering
• Highways
• Traffic Engineering
• Pollution control
• Information engineering
 1.1 Introduction
• Education
• Schools
• Adult education
• Public press
• Radio/television
 1.1 Introduction
• Enforcement
• legislation for Driver and vehicle
• Licensing
• Police and courts
• Regulatory policy
 1.1 Introduction

• 1.1.3. Traffic Characteristics:

• Traffic characteristics can be further divided into two categories:
• Road User Characteristics
• Vehicular Characteristics
 1.1.3 Traffic Characteristics
• 1.1.3.1 Road User Characteristics:
• Human factor is the element involved in each and every actions of the road
may it be in the form of pedestrians, cyclists or drivers.
• As discussed earlier, physical, mental and emotional characteristics of human
beings affect their ability to operate motor vehicle safely or service as a
pedestrians.
 1.1.3 Traffic Characteristics
• Thus it is important to the traffic engineer to study the characteristics and
limitations of the road users.
• The various factors affecting road user characteristics needs to be discussed
in detail.
 1.1.3 Traffic Characteristics
• Physical Characteristics:
• Physical characteristic can be permanent or temporary
• Permanent characteristics can be vision, hearing, strength and reaction to
traffic situation
• Among these vision plays the most vital role including the activities of
vision, peripheral vision and eye movement, glare vision, glare recovery and
depth judgement.
 1.1.3 Traffic Characteristics
• Minimum standards for acuity of vision are often laid down by licensing
authorities.
• Field of clearest and acute vision is within cone of 30, though the vision is
fairly satisfactory up to 100 and up to 200 in horizontal plane.
• However in vertical plane the field of clear vision may be about 2/3 of that
in horizontal plane.
 1.1.3 Traffic Characteristics
• These factors should be taken into account while designing and installing
traffic control devices.
• The total time taken for eye movement depends on some of the physical
characteristics including the response to stimuli.
• The effect of glare, adoptability to changes of light should also be studied.
• Depth of judgement is important for driver to analyse distance and speed of
vehicles and other objects ahead.
 1.1.3 Traffic Characteristics
• Hearing is more important to pedestrians and cyclists than driver.
• Lack of strength make manoeuvers difficult for heavy vehicles particularly.
• Reaction to traffic situations depends on perceive time and take appropriate
action.
• The PIEV theory plays important role in reaction time.
 1.1.3 Traffic Characteristics
• Temporary physical characteristics of the road users are fatigue, alcohol or
drugs and illness may result in efficiency.
• These factors reduce the attentiveness and increase reaction time.
 1.1.3 Traffic Characteristics
• Mental Characteristics:
• Skill, knowledge, intelligence, experience and literacy can affect the road user
characteristics
• Knowledge of vehicle characteristics, traffic behaviour, driving practice, rules
of road and psychology of road users will be uite useful for safe become
more spontaneous with experience.
 1.1.3 Traffic Characteristics
• Psychological Factors:
• The emotional factors like attentiveness, fear, anger, superstition, impatience,
attitude are the factors under this category
 1.1.3 Traffic Characteristics
• Environmental Factors:
• Traffic stream characteristics, facilities, atmospheric condition and the
locality.
• Traffic stream may consist of mixed or heavy traffic
• Adoptability to different traffic stream depends on drivers characteristics.
 1.1.3 Traffic Characteristics
• Time, place and route are fundamentally chosen by road user based on needs.
• Together with motivating factors there is a great variation among road users
and their behaviour in every traffic stream.
• Weather and atmospheric conditions are other factors in environmental
factors.
 1.1.3 Traffic Characteristics
• PIEV time of the drivers vary considerably from driver to driver
• But reaction time of particular driver may vary depending upon type of
problem and environmental factors and or modifying factors.
 1.1.3 Traffic Characteristics
• 1.1.3.2 Vehicular Characteristics:
• It is possible to design a road for any vehicle but not for indefinite vehicle.
• The basic criteria of highway engineering is to cater for the needs of existing
and anticipated traffic.
• It will not be economically feasible to keep on increasing the geometric
standards and thickness of pavements to meet the needs of few vehicles.
 1.1.3 Traffic Characteristics
• The vehicle standards should be uniform at least with the country.
• The standards for the dimension and weights of vehicle should be consistent
with he road facilities now available or could be made available in near future.
• Static characteristics of vehicle affecting road design are the dimensions,
weight, and minimum turning angle.
• Height of vehicle affects the clearance of overhead structures
 1.1.3 Traffic Characteristics
• Height of drivers’ seat affects the visibility distance and the height of
headlights affect the headlight sight distance at valley curves.
• The field of vision depends on design of wind shield and the front portion
of vehicle body.
• Clearance below the chassis, approach, departure and ramp angles of the
vehicle affects vertical profile of driveways
• Length of vehicle affects capacity, overtaking and manoeuvrability of
vehicles.
 1.1.3 Traffic Characteristics
• Minimum turning radius depends on length of wheel base and the features
of the steering system, and tis affects the design of sharp curves.
• Gross weight, axle load govern the structural design of pavements.
• Dynamic Characteristics of vehicles like speed, acceleration and braking
and some aspects of body design affects the road design.
• Speed and acceleration depends upon the power of engine and resistances to
be overcome and are important in overall geometric design elements.
 1.1.3 Traffic Characteristics
• The deceleration and braking characteristics guide safe vehicles operations.
• Stability of vehicles and its safe movement on horizontal curves are affected
by width of wheel base and height of center of gravity.
• Riding comfort on vertical curves depends on the design of suspension
system of vehicle.
• The impact characteristics on collision and injuries to occupants depend on
the design of bumper and body.
 1.1.3 Traffic Characteristics
• Vehicle Dimension:
• The overall length, width and height of vehicle.
• Width of vehicle affects width of lanes, shoulders and parking facilities
• Height of vehicle affects the clearance under the structures such as overhead
bridges, electrical lines etc.
• Length of vehicle affects the safe overtaking distance, capacity lf a road and
parking facilities.
 1.1.3 Traffic Characteristics
• Length of vehicle also plays a role in designing valley curves
• As per NRS-2070 the maximum dimensions of vehicles considered for
design of roads in Nepal are:
• Maximum width: 2.5 m
• Maximum Height: 4.75 m
• Maximum Length: 18 m
• Maximum single axle load: 100 kN.
 1.1.3 Traffic Characteristics
• Weight of Loaded Vehicle:
• The maximum weight of loaded vehicle affects the design of pavement
thickness and gradients.
• The limiting gradients are governed by both the weight and power of heavy
vehicles.
• No axle load should exceed 8.165 tonnes and likely to be revised as 10
tonnes.
 1.1.3 Traffic Characteristics
• The total load of any loaded vehicle or combination of vehicles should not
exceed the value as following as recommended by IRC
• W = 1525 (L+7.3) – 14.7 L3
• W = total weight of vehicle, kg
• L= distance between extreme axles when it is greater than 2.44 m
• When L < 2.44m total load of loaded vehicle should not exceed 14515 kg.
 1.1.3 Traffic Characteristics
• Power of Vehicle:
• The power of heaviest vehicles and their loaded weights govern the
permissible and limiting values of gradients on roads.
• The total resistances to traction consisting of inertia, rolling resistance, air
resistance and grade resistance are considered.
• From the total hauling capacity and the power required to overcome the total
tractive resistance, it is possible to determine the speed and acceleration of
the vehicle which in turn is useful in traffic regulation, planning and design.
 1.1.3 Traffic Characteristics
• Speed of Vehicle:
• Speed of vehicle affects superelevation, sight distance, length of transition
curve and limiting radius of curves, width of shoulders and pavements on
curves, design gradient, traffic lane capacity, control measures at intersection
etc.
• Thus design speed controls most of the geometric features.
 1.1.3 Traffic Characteristics
• Braking Characteristics:
• Braking of vehicle depends upon the design and type of braking system and
its efficiency.
• Braking Test:
• It is possible to measure skid resistance of pavement surface under the
prevailing conditions by conducting braking test.
 1.1.3 Traffic Characteristics
• If the brakes are applied till the vehicle stops it may be assumed that wheels
are fully locked and the brake efficiency is 100%.
• For braking test at least two of the following three measurements are
required:
• 1. Braking Distance (L, Meter)
• 2. Initial Speed (u, m/s)
• Actual duration of brake application (t, Seconds)
 1.1.3 Traffic Characteristics
• Using the above parameters the average skid resistance of pavement can be
calculated
• Force F= ma
• F= frictional force developed = f x W
• f= average skid resistance
• W= weight of vehicle
 1.1.3 Traffic Characteristics
• Thus,
• f x W = (W/g) x a
• f = a/g
• a- acceleration
 1.1.3 Traffic Characteristics
• Off Tracking:
• Rear wheels of a vehicle do not trace the same path as the corresponding
front wheel while in a horizontal curve.
• Centrifugal force developed in slow speed is less than the counteracting force
due to superelevation and transverse friction.
• The rear wheel follow paths on the inner side of the horizontal curve as
compared with path followed by front wheels.
 1.1.3 Traffic Characteristics
• These difference in distance between the curved wheel path of front wheels
and rear wheels is Off Tracking.
• It is also known as Mechanical Widening which is equal to l2/2R, l being
the length of wheel base (Distance between rear and front Axle, R being
radius of horizontal curve.
 Vehicle Kinematics
• The fundamental relation between force and acceleration is given by;
• F= m x a
• Now for uniform acceleration, a= constant, speed – acceleration function,
• dv/dt = a
• dv = a dt
𝑉
• 𝑉𝑜
𝑑𝑣 = 𝑎𝑡
 Vehicle Kinematics
• V – Vo = at
• V= Vo + at ……………………………….1
• For distance - time function,
𝑑𝑥
• 𝑑𝑡
=𝑣
• dx= (vo + at) dt
• x= vot +1/2 at2……………………..2
 Vehicle Kinematics
• For distance speed function, from equation 1 and 2,
• x= (v2 – v02)/2a
• a- acceleration,
• v- speed
• v0- initial speed
• x- distance
• t- time
 Vehicle Kinematics
• Numerical Example:
1. A vehicle traveling at 55kmph was stopped within 2.5 sec. calculate skid
resistance.
2. In a braking test a vehicle travelling at a speed of 40 kmph was stopped by
applying brakes and the skid marks were 7.9 m in length. Determine the
average skid resistance of pavement surface.
 Vehicle Kinematics
• 3. A vehicle was stopped in 1.4 seconds after applying brakes and skid marks
were 7.0 m determine the skid resistance.
• 4. Determine the brake efficiency of a vehicle moving at 40kmph speed was
stopped by applying the brake and skid length was 12.2m and average skid
resistance of pavement surface was 0.7.
• 5. A vehicle has a wheel base of 6.5 m. What is the off tracking while
negotiating a curved path with a mean radius 32 m.
 Vehicle Kinematics
• 6. A driver applied brakes and avoided hitting the parked vehicle on the
roadway. The car left the skid marks of 30m. Determine if the driver was
crossing the speed limit of 50kmph if f=0.62 and brake efficiency of 90%
and was travelling i) 40 uphill ii) 30 downhill slope iii) on level surface.
• 7. A vehicle travelling at 42kmph is approaching a stop sign. At time to and
distance 22m, truck begins to slow down by decelerating at 4m/s2. Will the
vehicle stop in time?
 Vehicle Kinematics
• 8. A driver travelling at 60kmph behind another car decides to pass it and accelerate
it. The rate of acceleration ‘a’ is given by dv/dt = 1.3-0.022v where v is the speed in
m/s at t is time in seconds, find the rate if acceleration after 12 seconds, time taken
to attain a speed of 90kmph, distance travelled by car in 110 seconds.
• 9. An impatient driver stuck behind a slow moving truck travelling at 44kmph
decides to overtake the truck. The acceleration characteristic of car is given by
dv/dt= 1.9-0.07v. What is the acceleration after 20,40 and 60 seconds? Maximum
speed attainable by car, when will acceleration of car approach zero and how far will
car travel in 150 seconds?
 Vehicle Kinematics
• Tire Friction:
• Two cases may arise: force acting on standing tire and force acting on rolling
tire.
• In the first case vehicle loads are transmitted through the wheels to the tire
and then to the road.
• Rolling resistance of tire is the force required to pull the tire over a surface.
It is connected with the non uniform pressure distribution between tire and
road.
 Vehicle Kinematics
• Skid: it occurs if distance travelled along the road surface is greater than
circumferential movement of tires. In horizontal curve when centrifugal
force exceeds the lateral friction, skidding in lateral direction takes place.
• Slip: It occurs when the driving wheels of a vehicle revolves more than the
longitudinal movement.
• Skid Resistance: retarding force generated due to interaction between
pavement and locked tyre while vehicle is moving.
 Vehicle Kinematics
• Tire slip can be calculated by:
• St = (vu-vt)/vu x 100%
• Vu= Vehicle velocity
• vt= circumferential velocity
 Vehicle Kinematics
• Skid resistance are affected by:
• Aggregate Quality
• Binder
• Climate
• Surface Drainage
 Vehicle Kinematics
• Coefficient of friction ‘f ’ for different surfaces can be taken as:
• Dry and rough surface= 0.7
• Dry and even road surface = 0.6
• Wet/moist surface = 0.3-0.5
• Dirty surface= 0.2-0.3
• Iced surface = 0.1-0.5
• Coefficient of lateral friction= 0.15-0.2
 Vehicle Kinematics
• The distance travelled while skidding from a speed v1 to v2 on a slope of
angle γ is:
• S= (v12 – v22 )/2gcosγ (f±tanγ)
• F= coefficient of skid friction
• For level surface
• S= (v12 – v22 )/2gf
 Vehicle Kinematics
• The figure below shows idealized deceleration diagram illustrating a
deceleration-time curve of the braking process with the brake pedal
displacement beginning at zero time. Deceleration begins to increase after
application time ta and attains max deceleration ‘a’ after time tb.
Vehicle Kinematics