TOS I - Chapter 1

Theory of
Structure I
Engr. Gabriel Gamana
1.0 Types of Structures and Loads

2.0 Analysis of Statically Determinate
Structures
3.0 Cables and Arches
Table of Contents 4.0 Influence Lines for Statically
Determinate Structures
5.0 Approximate Analysis of Statically
indeterminate Structures
6.0 Deflections
1
5.0 5.1 Introduction
5.2 Trusses
Approximate 5.3 Vertical Loads on Building Frame
Analysis of 5.4 Portal Frames and Portal Trusses
5.5 Lateral Loads on Building Frames: Portal
Statically Method
5.6 Lateral Loads on Building Frames: Cantilever
indeterminate Method
Structures 5.7 Lateral Loads on Building Frames: Factor
Method
5.1 Introduction
2
5.1 Introduction
• When a model is used to represent any structure, the analysis
of it must satisfy both the conditions of equilibrium and
compatibility of displacement at the joints. As will be shown in
later chapters, the compatibility conditions for a statically
indeterminate structure can be related to the loads provided
we know the material’s modulus of elasticity and the size and
shape of the members.
• For an initial design, however, we will not know a member’s
size, and so a statically indeterminate analysis cannot be
considered. For analysis, a simpler model of the structure
must be developed, one that is statically determinate.
5.1 Introduction
• Once this model is specified, the analysis of it is called an
approximate analysis. By performing an approximate
analysis, a preliminary design of the members of a structure
can be made, and when this is completed, the more exact
indeterminate analysis can then be performed and the design
refined.
• Realize that, in a general sense, all methods of structural
analysis are approximate, simply because the actual
conditions of loading, geometry, material behavior, and joint
resistance at the supports are never known in an exact sense.
In this text, however, the statically indeterminate analysis of a
structure will be referred to as an exact analysis, and the
simpler statically determinate analysis will be referred to as
the approximate analysis.
3
5.2 Trusses
5.2 Trusses
Procedure for Analysis
1. If the diagonals are intentionally designed to be long and
slender, it is reasonable to assume that they cannot support
a compressive force; otherwise, they may easily buckle.
Hence the panel shear is resisted entirely by the tension
diagonal, whereas the compressive diagonal is assumed to
be a zero-force member.
2. If the diagonal members are intended to be constructed from
large rolled sections such as angles or channels, they may
be equally capable of supporting a tensile and compressive
force. Here we will assume that the tension and compression
diagonals each carry half the panel shear.
4
5.2 Trusses
Problem 5-1
Determine (approximately) the force in each member of the
truss. Assume the diagonals can support either a tensile or
compressive force and therefore each is assumed to carry half
the panel shear.
Answer
𝑭𝑩𝑫 = 𝟑. 𝟑𝟑𝟑 𝒌𝑵
𝑭𝑨𝑬 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝑵 9
5.2 Trusses
Problem 5-2
A truss is loaded as shown in the figure.
a. Determine the diagonal tension on panel 2 if diagonals are
assumed to carry half the panel shear.
b. Determine the diagonal tension on panel 2 if diagonals are
slender.
Answer
a. 𝑻 = 𝟒. 𝟖𝟕𝟓 𝒌𝑵
b. 𝑻 = 𝟗. 𝟕𝟓𝟎 𝒌𝑵 10
5
5.3 Vertical Loads on Building Frame
11

Building frames often consist of girders that are rigidly
connected to columns so that the entire structure is better able
to resist the effects of lateral forces due to wind and earthquake.
12
6
• In practice, a structural engineer can use several techniques
for performing an approximate analysis of a building bent.
Each is based upon knowing how the structure will deform
under load. One technique would be to consider only the
members within a localized region of the structure.
• This is possible provided the deflections of the members
within the region cause little disturbance to the members
outside the region. Most often, however, the deflection curve
of the entire structure is considered. From this, the
approximate location of points of inflection, that is, the
points where the member changes its curvature, can be
specified. These points can be considered as pins since
there is zero moment within the member at the points of
inflection
13
14
7
In summary then, each girder of length L may be modeled by a
simply supported span of length 0.8L resting on two cantilevered
ends, each having a length of 0.1L
1. There is zero moment in the girder, 0.1L from the left support
2. There is zero moment in the girder, 0.1L from the right
support
3. The girder does not support an axial force
15

Problem 5-3
Determine (approximately) the internal moments at joints A and
B of the frame.
Answer
𝑴𝑨 = −𝟒. 𝟖𝟔 𝒌𝑵 𝒎
𝑴𝑩 = −𝟑. 𝟕𝟖 𝒌𝑵 𝒎 16
8
5.4 Portal Frames and Portal Trusses
17

5.4.1 Portal Frames
• Portal frames are frequently used over the entrance of a
bridge and as a main stiffening element in building design in
order to transfer horizontal forces applied at the top of the
frame to the foundation. On bridges, these frames resist the
forces caused by wind, earthquake, and unbalanced traffic
loading on the bridge deck.
• Portals can be pin supported, fixed supported, or supported
by partial fixity. The approximate analysis of each case will
now be discussed for a simple three-member portal.
18
9
5.4.1.1 Pin Supported Portal Frames
The elastic deflection of the portal is shown in figure. This
diagram indicates that a point of inflection, that is, where the
moment changes from positive bending to negative bending, is
located approximately at the girder’s midpoint.
19

5.4.1.2 Fixed Supported Portal Frames
Portals with two fixed supports are statically indeterminate to the
third degree since there are a total of six unknowns at the
supports. If the vertical members have equal lengths and cross-
sectional areas, the frame will deflect as shown in figure. For this
case we will assume points of inflection occur at the
midpoints of all three members, and therefore hinges are
placed at these points.
20
10
5.4.1.3 Partial Fixity Supported Portal Frames
Since it is both difficult and costly to construct a perfectly fixed
support or foundation for a portal frame, it is conservative and
somewhat realistic to assume a slight rotation occurs at the
supports. As a result, the points of inflection on the columns lie
somewhere between the case of having a pin-supported portal,
and a fixed-supported portal. Many engineers arbitrarily define
the location at h/3 of column, and therefore place hinges at
these points, and also at the center of the girder.
21

5.4.2 Portal Trusses
When a portal is used to span large distances, a truss may be
used in place of the horizontal girder. Such a structure is used
on large bridges and as transverse bents for large auditoriums
and mill buildings. In all cases, the suspended truss is assumed
to be pin connected at its points of attachment to the columns.
Furthermore, the truss keeps the columns straight within the
region of attachment when the portal is subjected to the
sidesway.
22
11
Consequently, we can analyze trussed portals using the same
assumptions as those used for simple portal frames. For pin-
supported columns, assume the horizontal reactions (shear) are
equal. For fixed-supported columns, assume the horizontal
reactions are equal and an inflection point (or hinge) occurs on
each column, measured midway between the base of the
column and the lowest point of truss member connection to the
column.
23

Problem 5-4
Determine (approximately) the force in each truss member of the
portal frame. Also find the reactions at the fixed column supports
A and B. Assume all members of the truss to be pin connected at
their ends.
Answer
𝑭𝑫𝑭 = 𝟑. 𝟏𝟐𝟓 𝒌𝒊𝒑𝒔
𝑭𝑫𝑬 = 𝟑. 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝒊𝒑𝒔 24
12
Problem 5-5
Draw (approximately) the moment diagram for column AGF of
the portal. Assume all truss members and the columns to be pin
connected at their ends. Also determine the force in all the truss
members.
Answer
𝑭𝑬𝑮 = 𝟐𝟕. 𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝑵
𝑭𝑪𝑮 = 𝟒. 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝑵 25
5.5 Lateral Loads on Frames: Portal Method
26
13
• In Sec. 5.4.1.2 we discussed the action of lateral loads on
portal frames and found that for a frame fixed supported at its
base, points of inflection occur at approximately the center of
each girder and column and the columns carry equal shear
loads.
• A building bent deflects in the same way as a portal frame,
and therefore it would be appropriate to assume inflection
points occur at the center of the columns and girders.
27

If we consider each bent of the frame to be composed of a
series of portals, then as a further assumption, the interior
columns would represent the effect of two portal columns and
would therefore carry twice the shear V as the two exterior
columns.
28
14
In summary, the portal method for analyzing fixed-supported
building frames requires the following assumptions:
1. A hinge is placed at the center of each girder, since this is
assumed to be a point of zero moment.
2. A hinge is placed at the center of each column, since this is
3. At a given floor level the shear at the interior column hinges
is twice that at the exterior column hinges, since the frame is
considered to be a superposition of portals.
29

• By comparison with the more exact statically indeterminate
analysis, the portal method is most suitable for buildings
having low elevation and uniform framing.
• The reason for this has to do with the structure’s action under
load. In this regard, consider the frame as acting like a
cantilevered beam that is fixed to the ground. Recall from
mechanics of materials that shear resistance becomes more
important in the design of short beams, whereas bending is
more important if the beam is long
30
15
Problem 5-6
Use the portal method and determine (approximately) the
reactions at supports A, B, C, and D.
Answer
𝑫𝒙 = 𝟑. 𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝑵
𝑫𝒚 = 𝟓. 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝑵
𝑴𝑫 = 𝟕. 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝑵 𝒎 31

Problem 5-7
Use the portal method and determine (approximately) the
bending moment diagram.
Answer
𝑭𝒙 = 𝟐𝟕 𝒌𝑵
𝑭𝒚 = 𝟑𝟗. 𝟔 𝒌𝑵
𝑴𝑴 = 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒌𝑵 𝒎 32
16
5.6 Lat. Loads on Frames: Cantilever Method
• The cantilever method is based on the same action as a long
cantilevered beam subjected to a transverse load. It may be
recalled from mechanics of materials that such a loading
causes a bending stress in the beam that varies linearly from
the beam’s neutral axis.
• In a similar manner, the lateral loads on a frame tend to tip the
frame over, or cause a rotation of the frame about a “neutral
axis” lying in a horizontal plane that passes through the
columns between each floor. To counteract this tipping, the
axial forces (or stress) in the columns will be tensile on one
side of the neutral axis and compressive on the other side,
33

Like the cantilevered beam, it therefore seems reasonable to
assume this axial stress has a linear variation from the centroid
of the column areas or neutral axis. The cantilever method is
therefore appropriate if the frame is tall and slender, or has
columns with different cross-sectional areas.
34
17
In summary, using the cantilever method, the following
assumptions apply to a fixed-supported frame.
1. A hinge is placed at the center of each girder, since this is
2. A hinge is placed at the center of each column, since this is
3. The axial stress in a column is proportional to its distance
from the centroid of the cross-sectional areas of the columns
at a given floor level. Since stress equals force per area, then
in the special case of the columns having equal cross-
sectional areas, the force in a column is also proportional to
its distance from the centroid of the column areas.
35

Problem 5-8
Determine (approximately) the reactions at the base of the
columns of the frame shown in figure.
Answer
𝑨𝒙 = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟐 𝒌𝑵
𝑨𝒚 = 𝟑. 𝟔𝟐𝟕 𝒌𝑵
𝑴𝑨 = 𝟐𝟏. 𝟕𝟔𝟒 𝒌𝑵 𝒎 36
18
Problem 5-9
Use the cantilever method and determine (approximately) the
reactions at supports A, B, C, and D.
Answer
𝑫𝒙 = 𝟑. 𝟏𝟓𝟎 𝒌𝑵
𝑫𝒚 = 𝟒. 𝟔𝟖𝟎 𝒌𝑵
𝑴𝑫 = 𝟔. 𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝑵 𝒎 37

Problem 5-10
Use the cantilever method and determine (approximately) the
bending moment diagram.
Answer
𝑴𝒙 = 𝟏𝟔 𝒌𝑵
𝑴𝒚 = 𝟑𝟕. 𝟒𝟖 𝒌𝑵
𝑴𝑴 = 𝟔𝟒 𝒌𝑵 𝒎 38
19
5.7 Lateral Loads on Frames: Factor Method
The factor method is more accurate than either the portal
method or the cantilever method. The portal method and
cantilever method depend on assumed location of hinges and
column shears whereas the factor method is based on
assumptions regarding the elastic action of the structure. For
the application of Factor method, the relative stiffness, for each
beam and column should be known or assumed.
39

Factor method procedures:
1. Relative stiffness for each column and beam/girder
𝐼
𝑘=
𝐿
Where; 𝐼 = Centroidal moment of inertia for beam/column
𝐿 = Length of the member
2. Girder factor at each joint
∑𝑘
𝑔=
∑𝑘
Where; ∑ 𝑘 = sum of relative stiffness of column at that joint
∑ 𝑘 = sum of relative stiffness of all member meets at
that joint
40
20
3. Column factor at each joint
𝑐 =1−𝑔
Where; 𝑐 = 1 for fixed support
4. Adjusted Girder and Column factor, at each end of every
member, there will be factors from step 2 or step 3. To these
factors, half the values of those at the other end of the same
member are added.
𝑔
𝑔 =𝑔 +
2
𝑐
𝑐 =𝑐 +
2
5. Moment factor for each member
𝐶𝑀 = 𝑘 × 𝑐′
𝐺𝑀 = 𝑘 × 𝑔′
Where; 𝐶𝑀 = Column moment factor
𝐺𝑀 = Girder moment factor 41

6. End moment for each member
𝑀 = 𝐶𝑀 × 𝐴
𝑀 = 𝐺𝑀 × 𝐵
Where; 𝑀 = Column end moment
𝑀 = Girder end moment
𝐴 = Storey constant
×
=
𝐵 = Joint constant
=
42
21
Problem 5-11
Use the factor method and determine (approximately) the
reactions at supports A, E, I, and L. 𝐼 = 84,000 𝑚𝑚
Answer
𝑳𝒙 = 𝟐𝟕. 𝟒𝟏𝟔 𝒌𝑵
𝑳𝒚 = 𝟐𝟑. 𝟗𝟑𝟗 𝒌𝑵
𝑴𝑳 = 𝟔𝟎. 𝟗𝟐𝟒 𝒌𝑵 𝒎 43

Problem 5-12
Use the factor method and determine (approximately) the
bending moment diagram. 𝐼 = 140,000 𝑚𝑚
Answer
𝑴𝒙 = 𝟒𝟐. 𝟕𝟔𝟔 𝒌𝑵
𝑴𝒚 = 𝟒𝟕. 𝟒𝟕𝟗 𝒌𝑵
𝑴𝑴 = 𝟏𝟗𝟐. 𝟗𝟗𝟑 𝒌𝑵 𝒎 44
22
Results are based on “Stiffness Method” using STAAD Pro
45
23

TOS I - Chapter 1

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Theory of

1.0 Types of Structures and Loads

5.3 Vertical Loads on Building Frame

5.3 Vertical Loads on Building Frame

5.3 Vertical Loads on Building Frame

5.4 Portal Frames and Portal Trusses

5.4 Portal Frames and Portal Trusses

5.4 Portal Frames and Portal Trusses

5.3 Vertical Loads on Building Frame

5.5 Lateral Loads on Frames: Portal Method

5.5 Lateral Loads on Frames: Portal Method

5.5 Lateral Loads on Frames: Portal Method

5.5 Lateral Loads on Frames: Portal Method

5.6 Lat. Loads on Frames: Cantilever Method

5.6 Lat. Loads on Frames: Cantilever Method

5.6 Lat. Loads on Frames: Cantilever Method

5.7 Lateral Loads on Frames: Factor Method

5.7 Lateral Loads on Frames: Factor Method

5.7 Lateral Loads on Frames: Factor Method

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