SEMI-MECHANICAL PULPING OF NAPIER GRASS :

PULP AND PAPER PROPERTIES

ABSTRACT

In this research, Napier grass was used as a raw material to produce

handsheets using semi-mechanical process. The ratio of pulping liquor and raw

material for these five conditions is 8:1. This research conducted to study the paper

properties for semi-mechanical pulp from Napier grass. About five stocks of pulp

samples of five different percentages of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) were prepared for

this research which is 3%, 6%, 9%, 12% and 15% with same soaking time (24 hours)

for all the pulp samples. In addition, this study was also focusing the influence of

percentage on pulp and paper properties and the effect of it towards total yield,

screen yield and reject yield of pulp which obtained after pulping. The test result of

total yield shows decreasing as the alkali charge of NaOH increases. 3% of NaOH is

obtained highest total yield which is 33.39% while the lowest total yield is at 15% of

NaOH. While for screen yield is increasing respectively from 3% to 15% of NaOH.

The lowest screen yield is at 3% (33.49%) while the highest is at 15% of NaOH

which is 27.45%. Reject yield shows other side of result with screen yield as it

decreased as the percentage of NaOH increasing. The highest reject yield resulted at

3% of NaOH which is 7.58% and lowest is 1.38%. For kappa number determination,

overall result is decreasing as percentage of NaOH increases. 97.52 of kappa number

resulted at 3% of NaOH and 55.79 of kappa number is at 15% of NaOH. However,

pulp treated with 3% of NaOH did not able to make handsheets as the percentage of

NaOH is too low. For result of physical testing, density is higher as percentage of

i
increases. 6% of NaOH have 358.79 g/cm3 while15% of NaOH is 510.85 g/cm3.

While the values of weight, thickness and grammage of handsheets shows fluctuated

results for different percentages. For mechanical properties, the tensile index, Nm/g

shows increasing value as percentage of NaOH increases but similar results for 12%

and 15% of NaOH. 6% of NaOH have 5.73 Nm/g while 9.83 Nm/g resulted at 15%

of NaOH. While for tearing index, burst index and folding endurance also increasing

respectively from 6% to 15% of NaOH. For tearing index, 6% of NaOH is

5.03mNm2/g and 15% of NaOH is 6.60 mNm2/g. Next is bursting index which 6%

of NaOH is 7.92 kPam2/g and 15% of NaOH is 12.06 kPam2/g. While for folding

endurance, 6% of NaOH have 5 while 15% of NaOH have 25. For opacity properties,

which include brightness and TAPPI opacity, both shows decreasing results as alkali

charge is increasing. Brightness for 6% of NaOH is 24.74% while 15% of NaOH is

16.28. Lastly, is TAPPI opacity which 93.94% for 6% of NaOH and 78.20% resulted

for 15% of NaOH.

ii
 PULPA SEMI-MEKANIK DARIPADA RUMPUT NAPIER :

SIFAT-SIFAT PULPA DAN KERTAS

ABSTRAK
Dalam kajian ini, rumput Napier telah digunakan sebagai bahan mentah untuk

menghasilkan kertas dengan menggunakan proses semi-mekanikal. Nisbah antara

likur pemulpaan dan bahan mentah untuk kelima-lima keadaan adalah 8:1. Kajian ini

dijalankan untuk mengkaji sifat-sifat kertas untuk pulpa semi-mekanikal dari rumput

Napier. Lima stok sampel pulpa yang berbeza peratus natrium hidroksida (NaOH)

iaitu 3%, 6%, 9%, 12% dan 15% dengan masa rendaman yang sama (24 jam) untuk

semua sampel pulpa telah disediakan dalam kajian ini. Di samping itu, kajian ini juga

memberi tumpuan terhadap pengaruh peratus NaOH terhadap pulpa dan sifat kertas

seta kesannya ke arah jumlah penghasilan, hasil skrin dan hasil tolakan daripada

pulpa yang diperolehi selepas proses pemulpaan. Hasil keputusan yang diperolehi

dalam kajian ini menunjukkan jumpah penghasilan berkurangan dengan peningkatan

peratus NaOH. 3% NaOH memperolehi jumlah penghasilan yang tertinggi iaitu

33,39% manakala jumlah penghasilan yang paling rendah adalah pada 15% NaOH

iaitu 20.80%. Manakala hasil skrin untuk keadaan masing-masing meningkat

daripada 3% kepada 15% NaOH. Hasil skrin terendah adalah pada 3% (33.49%)

manakala yang paling tinggi ialah pada 15% NaOH iaitu 27.45%. Hasil tolakan pula

menunjukkan keputusan yang berbeza berbanding dengan hasil skrin kerana

memperolehi hasil skrin yang semakin berkurangan dengan peningkatan peratus

NaOH. Hasil tolakan yang tertinggi adalahpada 3% NaOH iaitu 7.58% dan yang

terendah iaitu 1.38%. Bagi penentuan kappa nombor, keputusan keseluruhan

menunjukkan pengurangan kappa nombor dengan peningkatan peratus NaOH.

iii
Sebanyak 97.52 kappa nombor adalah keputusan pada 3% NaOH dan 55.79 kappa

nombor adalah pada 15% NaOH. Walaubagaimanapun, pulpa dengan 3% NaOH

tidak dapat menghasilkan kertas kerana peratus NaOH yang terlalu rendah. Untuk

hasil bagi ujian fizikal, ketumpatan menunjukkan peningkatan jumlah dengan

peningkatan peratus NaOH. 6% NaOH memperolehi 358,79 g/cm3 manakala 15%

NaOH adalah 510.85 g/cm3. Namun demikian, nilai-nilai bagi berat, ketebalan dan

gramage daripada kertas menunjukkan nilai yang tidak terlalu berbeza. Bagi sifat

mekanikal, indeks tensil Nm/g menunjukkan peningkatan nilai dengan peratusan

NaOH yang meningkat tetapi keputusan bagi 12% dan 15% NaOH adalah sama. 6%

NaOH memperolehi 5.73 Nm/g manakala 9.83 Nm/g adalah pada 15% NaOH.

Manakala bagi indeks koyakan, indeks pecahan dan ketahanan lipatan, jmasing-

masing menunjukkan peningkatan daripada 6% kepada 15% daripada NaOH. Untuk

indeks koyakan, 6% NaOH adalah 5.03 mNm2/g dan 15% NaOH adalah 6.60

mNm2/g. Seterusnya ialah indeks pecahan yang menunjukkan keputusan bagi 6%

NaOH adalah 7.92 kPam2/g dan 15% NaOH adalah 12.06 kPam2/g. Manakala bagi

ketahanan lipatan, 6% NaOH memperlohi 5 dan 15% NaOH memperolehi 25. Bagi

sifat kelegapan, termasuk kecerahan dan TAPPI kelegapan, kedua-dua sifat ini

menunjukkan keputusan yang menurun dengan peningkatan peratus NaOH yang

meningkat. Kecerahan bagi 6% NaOH adalah 24.74% manakala 15% NaOH adalah

16.28. Akhir sekali, adalah kelegapan TAPPI iaitu 93.94 % pada 6% NaOH dan

78.20 % pada 15% NaOH.

iv
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It is an honour for me to express my best regard and deep appreciation to my

honourable supervisor, Dr. Mazlan Ibrahim, whose encouragement, always

supporting and inspiring guidance from initial to the final level of this project which

able me to develop my knowledge and understanding more of my project.

Futhermore, I owe my deepest gratitude and sincere appreciation to all

laboratory assistant especially, Mr. Abu Mangsor and Mr. Basrul for their

understanding techniqal support in operating the instrument and apparatus along my

project.

I would also like to apologize for any inconvenience and mistake that I made

throughout this project. Last but not least, for greatest concern and countless support

given by my parents, course mates, and friends.

Thank you.

AMELYATE BTE NAMAT

MAY 2016

v
 TABLE OF CONTENT

Page

ABSTRACT i

ABSTRAK iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v

TABLE OF CONTENT vi

LIST OF FIGURES xi

LIST OF EQUATIONS xiii

1. INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 General 1

1.2 Objectives 3

2. LITERATURE REVIEW 4

2.1 History of Papermaking 4

2.2 Chemical Composition 6

2.2.1 Cellulose 6

2.2.2 Hemicellulose 7

2.2.3 Lignin 8

2.2.4 Extractives 8

2.3 Raw Material for Pulping 9

2.3.1 Wood Fibres 9

2.3.2 Non-Wood Fibres 10

vi
 2.4 Napier Grass 12

2.4.1 History of Napier Grass 12

2.4.2 Characteristics 12

2.4.3 Chemical Composition 13

2.4.4 Morphology 16

2.5 Pulping Method 19

2.5.1 Mechanical Pulping 19

2.5.1.1 Refiner Mechanical Pulping 20

2.5.1.2 Thermomechanical Pulping 20

2.5.1.3 Pressurized Groundwood Pulping 21

2.5.1.4 Chemi-Thermomechanical Pulping 21

2.5.2 Chemical Pulping 21

2.5.2.1 Soda pulping 22

2.5.2.2 Kraft pulping 23

2.5.2.3 Sulphite pulping 23

2.5.3 Semi-mechanical Pulping 24

2.5.4 Pulp and Paper Properties 24

3. METHODOLOGY

3.1 Raw material pulping 26

3.1.1 Napier grass 26

3.1.2 Moisture content analysis 27

3.1.3 Pulping Process 28

3.2 Stock preparation 30

3.3 Freeness of pulp determination 31

vii
 3.4 Stock consistency 32

3.5 Handsheet making 33

3.6 Handsheet testing method 37

3.6.1 Physical testing 37

3.6.1.1 Weight determination 37

3.6.1.2 Grammage determination 37

3.6.1.3 Thickness determination 38

3.6.1.4 Density determination 38

3.6.2 Optical testing 39

3.6.2.1 Brightness 39

3.6.2.2 Opacity 39

3.6.3 Mechanical testing 40

3.6.3.1 Tearing strength testing 40

3.6.3.2 Folding endurance 41

3.6.3.3 Tensile strength testing 42

3.6.3.4 Bursting strength testing 42

4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION 44

4.1 Overall results 44

4.2 Effect of alkali charge on pulp properties 46

4.2.1 Yield 46

4.2.2 Kappa no. 47

4.3 Effect of alkali charge on paper properties 49

4.3.1 Physical Properties 49

4.3.1.1 Density 49

viii
 4.3.2 Optical testing 50

4.3.2.1 Brightness 50

4.3.2.2 Opacity (TAPPI) 51

4.3.3 Mechanical Properties 53

4.3.3.1 Folding endurance 53

4.3.3.2 Tensile Index 55

4.3.3.3 Tearing Index 56

4.3.3.4 Bursting Index 57

5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 59

REFERENCES 62

APPENDIX 66

ix
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1: Chemical composition between Napier grass, pineapple 15

leaves and corn stalk

Table 2.2 : Chemical composition between Napier grass with other 15

perennial grass

Table 2.3 : Physical properties of Napier grass 17

Table 3.1 : Pulping conditions 28

Table 4.1 : Overall results for pulp properties 44

Table 4.2 : Overall results for paper properties 44

Table 4.3 : Overall results for mechanical testing of handsheets 45

Table 4.4 : Overall results for optical testing of handsheets 45

x
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 : Structure of cellulose 7

Figure 2.2 : Structure of hemicelluloses 7

Figure 2.3 : Structure of lignin 8

Figure 2.4 : Napier grass 13

Figure 2.5 : Cross-section images of Napier grass 17

Figure 2.6 : Surface fibre images of Napier grass 17

Figure 3.1 : Chopping process 26

Figure 3.2 : Washing process 27

Figure 3.3 : Dried under sunlight 27

Figure 3.4 : Moisture analyzer 27

Figure 3.5 : Summerville screener 28

Figure 3.6 : Disintegrator 30

Figure 3.7 : Graduate cylinder 34

Figure 3.8 : Pressing and Drying 35

Figure 3.9 : Handsheet cutting for mechanical testing 36

Figure 3.10 : Analytical testing 37

Figure 3.11 : Thickness measure device 38

Figure 3.12 : Brightness and opacity machine 39

Figure 3.13 : Tear resistance machine 40

Figure 3.14 : Folding endurance machine 41

Figure 3.15 : Tensile strength machine 42

Figure 4.1: Comparison of yield between different conditions 43

Figure 4.2 : Comparison of kappa no. between different condition 44

Figure 4.3 : Comparison of density between different conditions 48

Figure 4.4 : Comparison of brightness between different conditions 50

xi
Figure 4.5 : Comparison of opacity between different conditions 52

Figure 4.6 : Comparison of folding endurance between different 54

conditions

Figure 4.7 : Comparison of tearing index between different conditions 55

Figure 4.8 : Comparison of tensile index between different conditions 56

Figure 4.9 : Comparison of bursting index between different conditions 58

xii
 LIST OF EQUATIONS

Equation 3.1 : Total yield (% ) 29

Equation 3.2 : Screen yield (%) 30

Equation 3.3 : Rejected yield (%) 30

Equation 3.4 : Consistency (%) 31

Equation 3.5 : Grammage (g/m2) 37

Equation 3.6 : Density (g/cm3) 38

xiii
 1 : INTRODUCTION

1.1 General

Malaysia is one of country that has abundance of agro waste materials which

give advanced and good potential to contribute high productivity in pulp and paper

industry. In addition, over the past 40 years ago, the world high demand toward

paper production has increase rapidly at an average annual rate of 4.7%.

Traditionally, wood is the main source and widely used as raw material in paper

production. However, government has established alternative fibre sources to meet

the possible shortfall in wood fibre for paper industry (Alireza, Ashori. 2006). Thus,

non-wood materials can be the most suitable as a new alternative fibre which

favourable in paper making industry. With the finding of non-wood fibre as an

alternative source of paper industry it can reduce the negative impact toward

environmental issue due to logging activity which destroys Malaysian’s forest and at

the same time influence developing of human life (Daud. 2015).

Napier grass was introduced into Malaysia in 1920’s which came from East

Africa and currently nine different types of Napier grass were grown with varieties

characteristics in terms of their growth, agronomic performance and nutritive quality

(Collins and Trisha. 2010). From the research of Daud, 2013 which has been

reviewed that non-wood fibre plants such as Napier grasses shows high potential

papermaking as it has high content of cellulose and lower lignin also good

mechanical properties which favourable for paper production. Thus, Napier grass is

suitable to be as raw material in pulp and paper industry.

Semi-mechanical pulping was selected in this project and Napier grass has

been chosen as raw material to produce paper. As Napier grass can be one of

1
important as alternative fibre source for papermaking, thus the objective of this

project to study the potential of Napier grass as alternative fibre for pulp production

by determining the pulp yield and kappa number of obtained pulp also the result of

physical and mechanical properties from the handsheet produced based on certain

testing.

2
1.2 Objectives

In this experiment, the Napier grass is used as a raw material in papermaking

by different percentage of sodium hydroxide, NaOH. The objectives of this

experiment are:

i. To study the pulp properties on different pulping condition of semi-

mechanical pulping

ii. To study the paper properties on different pulping condition of semi-

mechanical pulping

3
 2 : LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. History of papermaking

Paper or known as a pulp is a lignocellulosic fibrous material prepared by

different methods of pulping, either chemically, mechanically or semi-mechanical

pulping which separating the naturally occurring plants fibres, called cellulose fibres

from wood, fibre crops or waste paper (Anonymous, 2016a). Paper is now

predominantly made with wood, but in Europe, non-wood based pulp accounts for

just 1.3% of pulp production.

The word ‘paper’ is derived from papyrus, which is a type of plant found

abundantly in Egypt and used to produce a thick, paper-like material by Greeks,

Romans, and Egyptians. Papyrus is mostly made from inner bark of paper mulberry

tree. Paper has become the most widely used around the world and has a long history

stretching back to ancient Egypt in the third millennium BC (Anonymous, 2016b).

Historically, in ancient times at about 105, writing was generally on bamboo

or on pieces of silk, which were then called ji. However, silk being expensive and

bamboo heavy, thus make these two materials were not convenient. Then, Tsai Lun

which as official of the Imperical Court has broke the bark of mulberry tree into

fibres and pounded them into a sheet. He thought by using a tree bark, hemps, rags,

and fish nets to the pulp, it can improve the quality of paper. Later on, Tsai Lun was

credited as first person that made a report to the emperor on the process of paper

making.

As we know, paper traces its roots back to China at the beginning of 1 st

millennium AD. The Chinese began to use paper for writing and developed

4
papermaking into a highly woodblock printing by 740 A.D. As early as the 6th

century AD, the papermaking moved to Korea. The production of paper was

prepared from non-wood materials, such as rattan, bamboo, and seaweed. The

developing of papermaking was then brought to Japan by a Korean monk, named

Don-Cho. He brought his knowledge regarding papermaking production to share at

the Imperial Palace at about AD 610. In the 13th century, papermaking from cotton

and linen fibres spread to Europe and become main raw materials in production of

paper (Anonymous, 2016c)

At about 15th century a number of paper mills existed in Spain, Italy,

Germany and France. Development of mechanical pulping from wood began in

Germany in 1840s and by the end of 16th century there were 190 mills. By the

beginning of the 17th century, the Dutch being at the forefront of papermaking

technology which confirmed from the invention of the “Hollander beater” to improve

the technical progress in way to make pulp compared to the stamping mill. During

18th century, larger-scale operation was established and innovations also have been

searched in order to step up production and increase as many of jobs done by the

machine as possible as new papermaking machines were designed.

However, in the early 18th century, the using straw as raw material in

papermaking failed due to low quality. Saxon Friedrich Gottlob Keller found a

solution for the problem by invented a wood-grinding machine which produced

groundwood pulp suitable for papermaking in 1843s (Anonymous, 2016d). In the

beginning of 19th century, the invention of flat screen and cylinder machines were

continually improved and increase the production speeds due to improvements of

various machines parts. In late 19th century, the emphasis of pulping from non-wood

5
plants had been shifted to wood materials as the development of chemical and

mechanical pulping technology. The continuous evolution of paper technology and

production process has increase rate of productivity and improved the quality of

production.

2.2 Chemical Composition

2.2.1 Cellulose

Cellulose is a complex of carbohydrate (organic compounds) which made up

of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. It is constitute the major component in the rigid

cell walls in plants and function as sources of energy for living things. Cellulose’s

structure is long polymer chain in form of linear polysaccharide polymer which

formed by the combination of glucose monosaccharide units. Glucose component is

produced by process of photosynthesis of plants to use as energy for living things

and store as a starch. Cellulose do not dissolve easily in the water as long molecules

of cellulose gives a fixed shape of cell wall and strength due to criss-cross mesh of

long molecules of glucose. The crystalline form of cellulose is particularly resistant

to chemical attack and degradation. Hydrogen bonding between cellulose molecules

results in the high strength of the cellulose fiber (Rowell et al., 2000). Figure 2.1

below is structure of cellulose :

6
 Figure 2.1 : Structure of Cellulose (Anonymous, 2016d)

2.2.2 Hemicellulose

Hemicellulose is polysaccharide in plant cell walls by a group complex of

carbohydrates which surround the cellulose fibres of plant cells. They bind with the

pectin of cellulose to form a network of cross-linked fibres. Hemicellulose includes

xylan, arabinoxylan, glucomannan, glucuronoxylan, and xyloglucan. Xylans contain

abundantly in the hemicelluloses. There are many sugar monomer in the

hemicelluloses includes xylose, mannose, galactose, rhamnose and arabinose. The

biological role of hemicelluloses is to give strength for the cell wall of plants by

interaction with the cellulose, and lignin for some walls. Hemicellulose is a branches

polymer. Figure 2.2 below is structure of hemicelluloses:

Figure 2.2 : Structure of hemicelluloses (Anonymous, 2016f)

7
2.2.3 Lignin

Lignin is a class of complex organic polymers to bind the cells, fibres and

vessels which constitute wood and lignified elements of plants. The main function of

lignin is to support through strengthening of xylem cells in trees. Lignin is made up

of carbon, hydrogen, ash and oxygen with different composition percentage and

makes up about 30% of non-fossilized organic carbon. Lignin is covalently linked to

hemicelluloses which form crosslink of polysaccharides and give mechanical

strength to the cell wall of the plant. Lignin contents in different woods range

between 20-30%; typically 25-35% in softwoods and 18-25% in hardwoods

(Biermann, 1996). While, non-wood fibres are contain between 5-23% lignin

(Goring, 1971). Figure 2.3 below is structure of lignin :

Figure 2.3 Structure of lignin (Anonymous, 2016g)

2.2.4 Extractives
Extractives are low molecular weight of organic compounds which found

abundantly in bark of most woods and can be solubilised by organic solvents. Fatty

acids, resin acids, waxes and terpenes are example of wood extractives. Generally, it

is considered to be biosynthesized in order to slow or prevent pathogen invasion. In

8
papermaking, extractives are dentrimental to pulping process as it easily consumed

chemicals which cause pitch problems. On the other hand, Ohtani et al. (2001) have

noted that although extractives consume alkali during cooking to a significant extent,

they can act to protect hemicelluloses and slight increase in pulp yield can be

obtained if higher chemical consumption can be tolerated.

2.3 Raw Material for Pulping

Different types of fibres have a potential to use as raw material for

papermaking. The most well-known of source for pulp and paper industry is the

wood fibre. Besides, non-wood fibres become as an alternatives source of

papermaking instead of wood fibres in order to reduce the problem of fiber shortage

arise in the future and help to solve the higher rate of deforestation.

2.3.1 Wood Fibres

Generally, wood can be classified into two major groups which known as

gymnosperm and angiosperm. The gymnosperm called as softwood or commonly as

conifer, while the angiosperm is known as hardwood or broad-leafed tree.

Angiosperm also be categorized either as deciduous tree or even green (Smook,

1992). Both hardwood and softwood can be used to make paper.

Typically hardwood used in papermaking comes from eucalyptus, beech, oak

and populous trees, while for softwood are basically from spruce, pine, fir and larch

trees. However, wood pulp from eucalyptus tree is treated as different group from

other hardwood trees because of it special dimensions (relatively short and thick).

Both hardwood and softwood have different fiber morphology and chemical

9
composition thus contribute many different in papermaking properties. In term of

fiber length, the softwood fibers are longer and stronger than hardwood which

hardwood only one-third to one-half of the length of softwood fibers which make up

the bulk of paper production fibre world-wide. However,

Hardwood contains higher composition of hemicelluloses compare to

softwood but less lignin and extractives which give high potential to produce great

properties of paper. The composition of lignin can be found abundantly in softwood

compare to hardwood, which is 28% in softwood and 20% in hardwood fibres.

Hardwood also contain higher content of cellulose which is 45% while softwood

only 42%. Higher cellulose content will produced great properties of paper.

Hardwood fibres are specially suited for generating smooth papers which use

in printing and writing applications. Besides, they also can achieve excellent stiffness

and bulking ability, but this depends on species of the tree and pulping conditions. In

addition, hardwood pulps have high tendency to generate paper products with more

uniform formation than softwood fibers. However, softwood fibers have ability to

withstand multiple folding and a range of strength-related properties due to it vertical

structure of conifers which composed almost entirely of long and tapering cells

known as tracheids that contribute high tearing strength.

2.3.2 Non-wood Fibers

Non-wood fibers are alternative sources to meet the possible shortfall of

wood fibers for pulp and paper industry. The utilization of non-wood fibers will

reduce the impact of habitat destruction and forest harvesting in the future. Majority

of the non-wood raw material has proven to be economically inferior to wood fibers

10
which made great competition with wood as a source in pulp and paper industry.

Generally, non-wood plant fibres are divided into three groups based on their

availability in paper industry, which are natural growing plants agricultural residues

and non-wood crops grown primarily for their fibrs. (Mudit, 1998) 17/4/2016

For agriculture residues included sugarcane bagasse, corn stalks, rice straw,

cotton stalks and wheat straw. Bamboo, Sabai grass and Papyrus are the natural

growing plants, while bast fibres, hemp, ramie and Jute are in categorized of non-

wood crops. Pulping process for wood is more complicated compare to non-wood.

Non-woods contain low lignin composition, thus it only require less chemical during

pulping process. Most non-wood plants have higher composition of silica. If too high

content of silica, it will problem during washing process as it will cause poor

drainage of pulp and contribute high viscosity of black liquor (Mudit, 1998). Napier

grass is one of non-wood fibres which recently researched for its potential in

papermaking. Thus, Napier grass has been used as raw material to produce paper in

order to study the performance of its pulp and paper properties.

11
2.4 NAPIER GRASS

2.4.1 History of Napier Grass

Napier Grass (Pennisetum purpureum) also known as elephant grass or

Uganda grass are overflowing found in area of Kenya, Africa as agriculture is the

backbone of Kenya’s economy which is be a popular fodder crop for small scale

dairy farmers instead of be a medium potential dairy production which high rate area

of Kenya under system materialization of cut and carry. It is a very adaptable species

that can be grown under a wide range of conditions and systems include dry or wet

conditions, smallholder or huge scale of agriculture. Napier grass very famous

throughout the tropics and it is precious forage, conspicuous in cut and carry

systems. It is can be harvested about 3-4 months after planting and will be continue

at an interval of 6-8 weeks for up to 5 years with a dry biomass yield per hectare per

annum of 40 tons (K.O Reddy et al. 2011).

2.4.2 Characteristics
The Napier grass is a steadfast growing, deeply rooted, and high yielding

fodder crop with good delectability, highly nutritious especially at young phase of

growing and colour of leaves are dark green (Anonymous, 2016g). Napier grass has

certain suitable habitats for its growth, which are damp grassland, forest margins, and

riverbeds (natural habitats). Napier grass is best suited to high rainfall areas, but

sometime it can also grow mine in dried areas, so it is drought-tolerant. Napier grass’

seeds have low genetic stability and viability (Humphreys, 1994). 4m is a normally

height which can be reach by mature plants and have up to 20 nodes. Napier grass

also can make use otherwise uncultivated lands due to its low water content and

nutrients requirement.

12
 Figure 2.4 : Napier grass

2.4.3 Chemical Composition

From previous study and investigation, the suitability of the fibre for non-

wood and wood materials have compared in term of their chemical composition to

use as paper production. The usage of non-wood species as an alternative fibre for

papermaking can provide an efficient solution to limit the destruction of environment

from depletion of forest in order to obtain the wood as a main source for

papermaking production. This is due to chemical composition for non-wood and

wood species which quite similar which can produce quality performance and

properties of paper for both species (Stenius 2000).

In comparison with other typical kind of non-wood fibre such as pineapple

leaf which also became most significant and high potential for use as an alternative

fiber for papermaking shows that Napier grass have higher ash content compared to

pineapple leaf which is 14% while pineapple leaf fibres contain only 4.5% of ash

content. The composition of ash content indicates the percentage pulp yield which is

obtained from pulping process. The purpose of ash content is to show the presence

and absence of various organic and inorganic matters in the fibre pulp. Napier grass

also contains lower percentage of holocellulose composition (80.4%) in their fibre

compared to the pineapple leaf (85.7%) and corn stalk (82.1%). As a holocellulose

13
also be an important component for production of good quality of paper with high

strength, thus this indicate that Napier grass which have low content of holocellulose

may have low potential in application of pulping and papermaking compared to other

non-wood fibre (Lopez et al 2004).

While the composition of cellulose in Napier grass also show lower

percentage than pineapple leaf and corn stalk. However, it is found that for

hemicelluloses composition, Napier grass have higher content (68.2%) compared to

pineapple leaf. This indicates that Napier grass still have a potential to be a raw

material for pulping and papermaking and may produce fibre pulp which produce

quite better strength of paper. Napier grass also content high percentage of 1% of

sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solubility which is 52.0%.

The extended of fibre degradation is depend on solubility of 1% of sodium

hydroxide and it will determine the pulp production at the end of pulping process. In

term of lignin content, Napier grass have higher amount of lignin than other non-

wood fibres. Higher lignin content indicates the removal of lignin from the pulp

during pulping is complicated and may reduce the ability to produce good quality of

paper (Enayati et al. 2009). According to chemical composition of Napier grass, it

can be conclude that Napier grass have low potential and suitability to be a raw

material for papermaking, however from its acceptable content of hemicelluloses

which is higher than other fibres may contribute moderate potential in papermaking

application. The result of comparison of chemical composition between Napier grass,

pineapple leaf and corn stalk are shown in table 2.4 :

14
Table 2.1 : Chemical composition between Napier grass, Pineapple leaf and Corn
stalk (Zawawi et al. 2013)

Composition (%) Napier grass Pineapple leaf Corn stalk

Cellulose content 12.40 66.20 39.00

Holocellulose content 80.40 85.70 82.10

Hemicellulose content 68.20 19.50 42.00

Lignin content 10.80 4.80 7.30

Ash content 14.60 4.50 24.90

1% Sodium Hydroxide solubility 52.80 39.80 69.80

When compare the chemical composition between Napier grass and others

perennial grasses, such as Miscanthus grass, Reed cannery grass, Switch grass and

Giant reed grass, Napier grass pulp have more suitability and high tendency to

produce good properties of paper compared to others. According to the table 2.1, it

show the results of chemical composition of Napier grass with other perennial grass :

Table 2.2 : Chemical composition between Napier grass with other perennial grass
(K. Obi Reddy et al. 2014).

Cellulose Hemicellulos Lignin Ash Extractiv

Grass fibers
(%) e (%) (%) (%) e (%)

Napier grass 44.4 30.5 18.3 3.7 3.1

Switch 43.4 35.9 21.8 1.5 1.6
Miscanthus 42.2 30.3 19.9 0.7 3.1
Reed cannery 28.0 22.0 14 8 1.1
Giant reed 29.18-32.93 28.48-32.03 20.92-21.31 4.77-6.14 4.55-6.34

15
 From previous investigation, the Napier grass has high ability to be an

effective raw material or fibre substitution for pulp and paper production same as

wood fibre. This is due to its properties or characteristics of fibre pulp according to

its high content of hemicellulose and less value of 1% of sodium hydroxide solubility

compared to other non-wood fibre which prevent degradation of fibre and contribute

moderate pulp yield percentage. In addition, Napier grass has offer good mechanical

strength properties which indicate high measurement similar with wood’s properties

(Zawawi et al. 2014).

2.4.4 Morphological
Napier grass has a vigourous root system, which grow from the nodes of its

creeping stolons. The leaves are broad, linear, hairy at the base, which the length of

leave up to 100-200 cm long and 1.5 cm wide. It has gross and perdurable of culms

which may be up to height of 4-7m, branched above. For spikelets are arranged

around the hairy axis and the length about 4-6 mm long with 2m long plumose

bristles around it.

For Napier grass fibres, the average fibre length was found to be longer,

which is 142mm. The fibre diameter for untreated fibre and treated fibre with alkali

treatment are difference, which alkali treated fibres of Napier grass is longer in

diameter compared to untreated fibre. For untreated fibre, the average diameter is

0.255 mm while for treated fibre is 0.193mm (K.O Reddy et al. 2012). The physical

properties include length, mm and diameter of fibre, mm and aspect ratio (L/D)

values of untreated fibre and treated fibre of Napier grass are presented at table 2.3:

16
Table 2.3 : Physical properties of Napier grass ( K.O Reddy et al. 2012)

Fiber Physical properties

Average length (mm), Average diameter

Aspect ratio (L/D)
L (mm), D
Untreated 142 0.255 556.8

2% Alkali treated 142 0.193 735.7

4% Alkali treated 142 0.158 898.7

Below figures is the results of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analyses of

Napier grass fiber from the cross-section and surface of fiber (Zawawi et at. 2014)

Figure 2.5 : Cross-section images of Napier grass

Figure 2.6 : Surface fibre image of Napier grass

17
 From the figures of cross-section of SEM micrographs of Napier grass (figure

2.5), the cross section is smooth and there is a space between the cell wall and the

fibre of Napier grass. This indicates the presence of lumen component which

surrounding the cell wall of Napier grass. While the analysis of SEM for suface fibre

of Napier grass (figure 2.6) show that the fibres of Napier grass were much unpacked

and the fibre matrix was arranged very far to each other which contribute lower fibre

content. Strength and quality of paper produced is affected by the arrangement and

packing of the fibre bundles inside the materials.

18
2.5 Pulping Method

2.5.1 Mechanical Pulping

Mechanical pulping has been introduced in Sweden with term of “mechanical

pulp” which includes thermomechanical pulp (TMP), groundwood pulp and chemi-

thermomechanical pulp (CTMP) in the 1870s. At that time, only a few mechanical

wood pulp mills have been developed and use wood as raw material as for paper

manufacture after replaced linen rag. The pulp and paper industry became firmly

established about 19th century and production of paper also became improved which

chemical treatments was gradually replaced the mechanical wood pulp in paper

manufacture. In 1913, the chemical production (sulphite pulp as particular) was

became major production of paper than mechanical pulp (Routledge, 2002).

Mechanical pulp (also called groundwood) is a method of producing pulp by

using only mechanical attrition to pulp lignocellulosic materials without using any

chemicals, other than water or steam. Generally, mechanical pulp yield is higher

compared to other method of pulping, which is about 90-98% of the wood or non-

wood (raw materials) as fibre. Mechanical pulp consists of mix of whole fibres and

different sizes of fibre fragments. Paper which containing a high level of mechanical

pulp and only small level of chemical pulp is called as wood containing paper. The

properties of paper produced by mechanical pulp are yellowish and some in grey

tone with high opacity and have smooth surface (Anonymous, 2016h).

Mechanical pulps are primarily used in newsprint, telephone directories,

catalog, paper towels and tissues. Mechanical pulps also involved bleaching to

increase the brightness of pulp but not in high or great degree. However, degree of

bleaching must be control in order to prevent the decreasing of pulp due to loss of

19
cellulose (Anonymous, 2016i). There are four types of mechanical pulping which are

refiner mechanical pulping, thermomechanical pulping, chemi-thermomechanical

pulping and pressurized groundwood.

2.5.1.1 Refiner Mechanical Pulping

Refiner mechanical pulping (RMP) is type of mechanical pulping which

wood chips are sandwiched between the two revolving disks of a disk refiner with

the presence of water and processing at atmospheric pressure. The lignin is softens

due to friction of heat which allow greater separation of cellulose fibres of pulp, and

contributing less fibre damage. The advantages of RMP is produce greater strength

of pulp compared to traditional groundwood, which reduce the need to supplement it

with chemical pulps (Anonymous, 2016j).

2.5.1.2 Thermomechanical Pulping

Thermomechanical pulping (TMP) is almost same with refiner mechanical

pulping in method of pulping but difference in condition of pulping. TMP is

processing under high temperature and pressure, and many cases is wood chips are

preheated first before pulping. Significant fibre separation can occur and higher

content of lignin can soften easily even more with higher temperature and pressure

compared when using frictional heat. Defiberization also increases as additional

passes through the system, and TMP can produce longer fibres and fewer fines. For

properties of paper, TMP generated stronger fibre than RMP, also produce high yield

(Anonymous, 2016k).

20
2.5.1.3 Pressurized Groundwood Pulping

Pressurized groundwood (PGW) is different method of pulping from RMP

and TMP but same condition with TMP. PGW pulping is a method which wood is

ground against an abrasive rotating stone, similar with groundwood, with under high

pressure and temperature (excess of 100ºC). Pulp which generated by PGW have

better quality compared to traditional groundwood (Anonymous, 2016l).

2.5.1.4 Chemi-thermomechanical Pulping

Chemi-thermomechanical pulping (CTMP) use chemical treatment to

pretreated the wood chips to refine it. The wood chips can be preheated with sodium

carbonate, sodium sulphite, sodium hydroxide or other chemicals prior to refine the

raw materials with same equipment of mechanical pulping. The condition of

chemical treatment for process of CTMP are much less vigorous, which is low in

temperature, shorter time and less extreme of PH in order to make sure the fibres

easier to refine. The objective of CTMP is to make the fibres easier to refine and not

to remove lignin in chemical process (Anonymous, 2016m).

2.5.2 Chemical pulping

Chemical pulping is defined as the process of decompose of wood chips or

other fibrous raw material into paper pulp by mechanically, chemically, thermally or

by any combinations of these type of treatments which different from mechanical

pulping. These pulping methods will use treatment of chemical cooking to dissolves

most of the lignin and hemicelluloses which present in the wood in order to produce

high quality of paper as resulting in excellent in separation of the cellulose fibers

(Anonymous, 2016n).

21
 Generally, there are 4 processes involving in the chemical pulping which are

kraft (sodium sulphate), sulfite, neutral sulphite semichemical (NSSC) and soda

pulping (Smook, 1992). Today, the kraft process dominantly the most effective of

chemical pulping method due to its excellent pulp strength properties and suitable for

papermaking from all wood and non wood species, as well as to the efficient

chemical recovery systems which have been developed. There are three types of

chemical pulping which are soda pulping, kraft pulping and sulfite pulping.

2.5.2.1 Soda Pulping

Soda pulping has been introduced in England by Watts and USA by Burgess

and started to develop the first mill in 1860 in USA. The first commercial

introduction of soda pulp was in 1851 (Anonymous, 20160). Soda pulping is an

alkaline chemical process which is use the combination of sodium carbonate

(Na2CO3) and lime (CaO) to produce sodium hydroxide (NaOH) as cooking

chemical to digest the wood chips. Soda pulping is suitable for non-wood

lignocellulosic materials. This is due to the usage of NaOH as alkaline chemical

reagents which low easily extract the lignin content that present in the non-wood

materials. Besides, NaOH is cheap and easily to purchase and can reduce the cost of

pulping. Theoretically, soda process will produce lower properties of pulp compared

to other method of chemical pulping, which are kraft and sulfite process

(Anonymous, 2016p).

22
2.5.2.2 Kraft Pulping
The kraft process has been introduced by Carl F. Dahl in 1879 in Germany

and be the world’s first kraft process for unbleached pulp in 1885 in Sweden. Kraft

pulping is also known as sulfate process which involves the reaction between the

solution of sodium sulphide and sodium hydroxide, known as white liquor by

alkaline treatment to breakdown the bonding between cellulose, hemicelluloses and

lignin composition (Anonymous, 2016q). Through reaction of alkaline attack, the

lignin molecules are broken into smaller particle which cause the sodium salts to

soluble in the cooking liquor (Smook, 1992). Most of pulp and paper industry widely

used this type of chemical pulping system compared to soda pulping. Kraft pulping

produce darker pulp compared to other chemical pulping process and it is not an

environmental friendly of pulping. However, in term of pulp strength, kraft pulping

will produce better quality of pulp and chemical recovery system which can reduces

the cost operation of pulping.

2.5.2.3 Sulphite Pulping

The first commercial of sulfite process was introduced in 1874 in Sweden and

become the dominant pulping of wood pulp in 1990. However, the discovery of kraft

pulping made the kraft process as priority of pulping method in 1940 which lead to

fall down of sulfite mills development and reduce the total of chemical pulp

production from sulfite pulping at less than 10%. The sulfite process involved the

extraction of lignin from the wood chips by using a lots type of salts of sulphurous

acid to produce pure cellulose fibers of wood pulp.

Aqueous sulphur dioxide (SO2) and base include calcium, magnesium or

calcium is use as chemical solution in sulfite cooking process. Sulfite pulping

23
produced low strength properties of pulp compared to kraft pulping and it has been

more expensive in cost production which is lead the decreases of cost-competitivity

with kraft pulping (Anonymous, 2016r).

2.5.3 Semi-mechanical Pulping

Semi-mechanical pulping is a hybrid pulping method that involves the

combination of different pulping methods such as mechanical, thermal or chemical

treatment. This type of pulping is carried out to maximize the yield of pulp without

influence the strength of pulp. Generally, semi-mechanical processes will generate

pulp yields from 80 to 90 percent (Rubin Shmulsky, 2011).Semi-mechanical pulping

performed two stages of process that uses a chemical mixture in order to soften the

lignin composition. Disk refiner is used in second stage to fiberize the cooked of

wood chips. Major portion of the lignin composition is still remain and not get

extracted during cooking time, thus it will produce higher pulp yield percentages

compared to mechanical pulping with the ratio of 60 : 80 of original of raw material,

such as wood fiber. However, for application of semi-mechanical pulping, it is not so

suitable for paper intended in the purpose of writing or printing but still can be

perform in papermaking application (Anoymous, 2016s).

2.5.4 Pulp and Paper Properties

Pulp can be defined as fibrous mass which results when a pulping process

ruptures the bonds in the raw material structure that hold the fibres together. Pulp in

generally indicated as air-dried product that is assumed to be 10% water and 90%

oven-dry pulp. Pulp is usually sold in bales (32 x 32 x 15 inches) which weight about

500 pounds (Anonymous, 2016t). Three most important parameters which defined

24
the pulp are fibre length, brightness and the pulping process used for papermaking.

There are some factors which generally affect the strength of pulp fibres used in

papermaking and how the factors influenced the properties of the fibre network. Pulp

fibres which made up from industrial side are mechanically damage and thus

weakened in fibre line. Besides, fibre strength also may cause chemically

degradation either homogenous or heterogeneous thus affects toward fibre and paper

properties. All the structural levels that contribute to fibre strength which starting

from the composition of cellulose chain in mircofibrils through to visible defects and

fibre deformation were to be considered (Anonymous, 2016u). Fibre properties have

significant effect on the paper properties. Generally, decrease in fracture energy due

to decrease of fibre length and fibre strength. Fibre strength may decrease in

chemical treatment as the degradation of cellulose happen. Homogenous and

heterogenous can affect fibres properties significantly which loss in strength occur

due to random degradation and weaken fibres cause by localized degradation

(Gurnagul, Page. 1989).

25
 3 METHODOLOGY

3.1 Raw Material Preparation

The raw material used in this study was Napier Grasses are collected from

Balik Pulau, Pulau Pinang. Firstly, the Napier Grasses are tied together and then

chopping them into small cubic shapes using Bensaw Machine (Fig. 3.1).

3.1.1 Napier Grass

The Napier grasses are washed (Fig. 3.2) with running water in order to

remove debris like soil and any unwanted dirt also residual wood dust which got

from bendsaw machine after being chopping. The next step is naturally dried them

under sunlight for a few days to ensure all the Napier Grasses were totally dried (Fig.

3.3). The air-dried of Napier grass then stored in close air tight plastic at room

temperature in order to prevent the attack of fungus.

Figure 3.1 :Chopping process

26
Figure 3.2 : Washing process Figure 3.3 : Dried under sunlight

27
3.1.3 Pulping Process
Table 3.1shows the chemical treatment condition for pulping. The weight of

sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is determined 3% from the oven dry (OD) weight of

Napier grasses. The NaOH is in the form of pellets. Next, the NaOH pellets are

dissolved in 2 litres of water inside the beaker and stirred using glass rod or spatula.

After that, the NaOH solution is poured into the timber. Then, 500g of oven-dried

(OD) Napier grasses are soaked or immersed into the NaOH solution. 8000 litres of

water is added into the timber to immerse the Napier grass. Let the Napier grasses

soaked for 24 hours in room temperature. Finally, after 24 hours of NaOH treatment,

the Napier grasses are washed with water. The process is similar for 3%, 6%, 9%,

12% and 15% concentration of NaOH.

Table 3.1 : Pulping conditions

Pulping conditions Value

Percentage of NaOH (%) based on
3% 6% 9% 12% 15%
oven dry (o.d) weight
Weight of NaOH (g) 15 30 45 60 75

Next, the treated Napier grasses are fed into the cleaned Sprout Bauer Refine

through the refiner feeder. Suitable blade (70) of the refiner is fixed and controlled

for each different percentage of NaOH. The process is run for 1 cycle. Once the

pulping process completed, the pulp is filtered out by a screening container in order

to remove water and undersized debris. Then, the pulp is placed inside a cloth bag

and tightly tied. The cloth bag is squeezed to remove the excess water and put into

the dryer part of washing machine to help the dischargeable of remaining water

inside the pulp. After dried with washing water, the pulp is collected and transferred

into plastic bag. The plastic is labelled with correct detail and kept in the refrigerator

28
with control temperature. Before continue the process of screening, the pulp is

required 1g air-dried (AD) to determine the moisture content using moisture

analyser. The total yield after pulping was calculated after using the Eq. 3.1 :

Equation : 3.1

The next process is screening process which used Summerville screener (Fig.

3.5) to get suitable fibre size of Napier grass fibre pulp for papermaking. Before

screened, water is added in order to dilute the pulp to make the process of screening

more efficiently. The pulp is transferred into the screener. The oversized debris

particles of pulp will be screened out as a rejected pulp, while the appropriate fibre

size of pulp are screened out as a accepted pulp by a screening container in order to

discharge the water. Both accepted and rejected pulp are collected and the accepted

pulp is put into the cloth bag and placed in the dryer part of washing machine to

remove water remained in the pulp. The drying process is repeated for 3 cycles to

make sure all the excess water in the pulp was dischargeable. For the rejected pulp,

the pulp is placed in the aluminium foil and oven-dried it for 24hours. After 24hours,

the rejected pulp was weigh to get it oven-dried (OD) weight.

For accepted pulp, the pulp is weighted to get the value of air-dried (AD)

weight after the drying process. The moisture content for accepted pulp is determined

by using moisture analyser. From the moisture content, the oven-dried (OD) of

accepted pulp can be determined and the screened and rejected can be calculated by

using Eq. 3.2 and Eq. 3.3:

29
 Equation 3.2:

Equation 3.3:

Figure 3.5 : Summerville screener

3.2 Stock Preparation

24g of free moisture pulp required to produced overall test sample according

to 60gsm paper, thus 24 g (OD) of pulp is weighted and moisture content of the pulp

is determined using moisture analyser. From the value of moisture content and 24 g

(OD) of pulp, value of air-dried (AD) of pulp can be determined. Then, the AD pulp

is put into the disintegrator machine (Fig. 3.6) and 2 litres of water is added for

disintegration. The disintegration is run for 50000 revolutions. After disintegrated,

the Napier grass’s stock is poured into plastic pail. The disintegrator tank is washed

30
with 1000 ml of water and added to the pail. Next, extra 6 litres of water is added to

the pail which with pulp stock in order to raise up to 8 litres level. The extra water is

added in order to dilute the pulp stock to 0.3% consistency by using Eq. 3.4 :

Equation 3.4:

Figure 3.6 : Disintegrator

3.3 Freeness of Pulp Determination

The freeness test is conducted according to TAPPI Testing Method, the

Canadian Standard Freeness (CSF) by using a CSF Tester. The CSF Tester is cleaned

using distilled water and calibrated before using it. The drainage chamber is placed

on the upper supporting bracket with its lower lid closed and the upper lid and air-

cock opened. The graduate cylinder is placed in correct position to receive the

discharge water from the side orifice and 500 ml beaker also placed to collect the

discharge water from the bottom orifice. After completely cleaned the CSF freeness

tester, stirred the pulp stock which inside the pail thoroughly until the pulp became

homogenous. Then, 1000 ml of pulp stock is measured using 1000 ml of measuring

31
cylinder. The temperature of pulp stock is taken by using thermometer. Next, gently

poured the pulp stock into the chamber and make sure the pulp stock is almost

motionless in the chamber at the end of pouring. After that, closed the top lid and air-

cock is closed. Then, the bottom lid is opened. Start to count 5 seconds from the time

addition of the pulp stock and after completed, the air-cock is fully opened in a single

motion. The water will discharged out from the side orifice and will be collected in a

graduate cylinder. Let the water discharged completely. The corrected CSF freeness

was then calculated at 20º C and 0.3% consistency.

3.4 Stock Consistency

The screen and the cylinder of the handsheet machine are cleaned before used

it to produce handsheet. This was to make sure unwanted debris is removed so that

the handsheet do not contaminated and effect the structure of handsheet formed.

After cleaned it, 400 ml of pulp stock is measured using graduate cylinder. Then, the

cylinder is tightly locked and pulp stock is poured into handsheet cylinder. At the

same time, the machine is turned on and water will filled up inside the handsheet

cylinder. The graduate cylinder is rinsed with water so and poured into the handsheet

cylinder so that there is no remained of pulp stock left inside the graduate cylinder.

The handsheet machine is automatically released air bubble and the water is drained

out to form the wet handsheet on the screen. After drainage time is stopped and water

was fully drained, the handsheet cylinder is unlocked and pushed behind. 2 pieces of

bloter paper are put centrally on the wet handsheet and a couch plate is placed

centrally on the blotter papers.

32
 Took the couch roller carefully as the couch roller was moderate heavy and

gently place the couch roller on the couch plate. The couch roller was rolled

forwards and backwards on the centre of the plate without any pressure for 3 or 5

complete rolls in order to remove the remaining water contained and to make sure

the handsheet attached overally on the couch blotter paper. After lifted the couch

roller, the wet handsheet, the couch plate, the botter plate are removed carefully form

the wire together. The wet handsheet with attached blooter is separated from other

blotter paper and couch plate. Next, dry the wet handsheet on the hot plate. A fresh

blotter paper is used to put on the top of wet handsheet before iron it. After the

handsheet ais dried completely,pulled out the handsheet gently from the blotter and

placed it in the disintegrator for 5 to 10 minutes. This is to cool down the handsheet

to room temperature. After that, took the handsheet and placed in the closed

analytical balance and weight it. With the weight value of handsheet, the consistency

of the pulp stock is calculated.

3.5 Handsheet making

From the consistency which had been calculated, the required volume of the

pulp stock is measured to produce a handsheet of 0.3% consistency with 60

grammage, 60 g/m2. The inner diameter of the handsheet cylinder is assume as 200

cm2. Then, the pulp stock is filled in the graduate cylinder (Fig. 3.7) with correct

volume of pulp stock and poured it into the handsheet cylinder . The graduate

cylinder is rinsed with some water and added into the handsheet cylinder in order to

make sure all the pulp stock is not left in the graduate cylinder. The handsheet

cylinder is filled with water and mixed to make it homogenous by the air bubble.

Next, the water is drained out from the handsheet cylinder. After that, took two

33
blotter paper and put centrally on the wet handsheet formed. Couch plate also is

placed centrally on the blotter papers and rolled gently using couch roller for 3 to 5

cycles in order to remove remaining water inside the wet handsheet. Than, the wet

handsheet which attached on blotter papers are placed on a fresh blotter and centrally

located on the plate using press template. Next, took another clean plate and placed

on the wet handsheet, then followed by the fresh blotter. The screen of handsheet

cylinder is cleaned to prepare for next handsheet.

Figure 3.7 : Graduate Cylinder

The next process is pressing which the cover of pressing machine is placed in

correct position and the wing nuts are screwed hand –tight (Fig. 3.8). Then, switch

on the button of 1st cycle and pressure is increased to 345 kPA (50 psig) in 30

seconds. For 1st cycle process, it almost took about 30 minutes to complete the

process. After 5 minutes, the pressure is automatically released. The press cover,

stack of plates and blotters are removed. Than, the plate and handsheet is laid

centrally on the dry blotter by using the press template. The handsheet is covered

with another clean blotter plate. The stacking is continued for all handsheet. Next,

the wing-nuts are screwed hand-tight again and the 2nd cycle button is pushed to

switch on it. The pressure is increased to 345 kPa (50 psig) automatically and then

mantained after two minutes. After two minutes, the pressure is released and the

34
wing-nuts become less tight amd press cover is removed.

The handsheet that attached to the plate is removed into the drying ring to

make sure the handsheet is dried in flat condition. A heavy weight is placed on the

pile of the rings in order to give the pressure to the edge of handsheet and encourage

the process of drying uniformly under a standard condition room of 50.0 + 2.0% RH

and 23.0 + 1.0ºC as spesified in T 402 om-93. The handsheet is allowed to dry

completely for 1 or 2 days before removing them from the plates.

Figure 3.8 : Pressing and Drying

35
After the handsheet is dried, each of the handsheet was cut according to the figure

3.9 :

Figure 3.9 : Handsheet cutting for mechanical testing

Detail :

1. Tensile index
2. Tear index
3. Folding endurance
4. Bursting index

36
3.6 Handsheet testing method

3.6.1 Physical testing

The physical testing, is conducted in a conditional room of 50.0 + 2.0% RH

and 23.0 + 1.0ºC.

3.6.1.1 Weight determination

The weight determination is conducted by weighted of each handsheet by

using closed analytical balance (Fig. 3.10) to avoid wind interruption. This testing is

done by putting the handsheet into a zero weight beaker.

Figure 3.10 : Analytical balance

3.6.1.2 Grammage determination

The grammage of handsheet can be determined by divide the weight of

handsheet, g with area of paper, m2. The area of paper is assumed approximately

0.02 m2. The calculation for grammage is using Eq 3.5 :

Equation 3.5 :

37
3.6.1.3 Thickness determination

The thickness of handsheet is conducted by using paper thickness measuring

device (Fig. 3.11 ). 3 readings of thickness of handsheets are taken by placed 3

random positions and the average thickness is calculated.

Figure 3.11 : Thickness Measuring Device

3.6.1.4 Density determination

The density of each handsheet can be determined by using the Eq. 3.6:

Equation 3.6 :

38
3.6.2 Optical testing
The optical testing is to determine the brightness and the opacity (TAPPI) of

each handsheets.

3.6.2.1 Brightness determination

The brightness and opacity test is determined by using brightness and opacity

testing machine. For brightness test, the machine is set for brightness testing. Placed

the tester at 3 random positions on the sample according to the tester’s instruction

and the value of brightness will be recorded. The average brightness was calculated

from 3 readings of brightness’s value.

3.6.2.2 Opacity determination

While for the opacity test, the machine (Fig. 3.12) is reset first, and pressed

the ‘opacity’ button to set for opacity test. Three different samples were done

according to the tester for each of sample. The overall results of the samples are

printed out automatically by machine.

Figure 3.12 : Brightness and opacity machine

39
3.6.3 Mechanical testing
For the mechanical testing, folding endurance, tensile index, tearing index

and burst index need is determined to study the performance of pulp and paper

properties.

3.8.2.1 Tearing strength test

First, the on button of tear resistant machine (Fig. 3.13) is pressed. Then, the

plies key is pressed and the desired number of plies is entered and ‘enter’ key is

pressed to confirm it. Next, the menu button is pressed and the click on ‘sample data’

to enter the sample thickness (mm) and grammage (g/m2). After that, pressed the

‘enter’ button after key in all the value required. The test sample which had been cut

according to correct measurement is clamped and the cutter handles is pressed

downward to cut down 20mm slits onto the sample. Then, the ‘test’ button is pressed

to allow the pendulum to make full swing in the tearing direction. The pendulum is

than lowered gently until it got rest against the pendulum stop. Finally, the result of

tearing strength is shown on the screen. The tear resistant data is recorded and the

average tear index is calculated.

Figure 3.13 : Tear Resistance Machine

40
3.8.2.2 Folding endurance test
Switch on the power button of folding endurance testing machine (Fig. 3.14).

The oscillating folding head was turned to make the opening perpendicular the

spectrum holding surface in gap line on the folding chuck. A 1.0 kg weight was

placed on the top and screwed tightly by turning it clockwise to fix the plunger. Next,

the sample was clamped to the upper jaw and the other end of sample to the

oscillating jaw. The ‘start’ button was pressed in order to check for normal operation

and the weight was removed by unscrewed it. After that, the counter was set to zero

and pressed the ‘run’ button to run the machine until the sample broke. The number

of double folds was recorder and the average number of double folds was recorded.

Figure 3.14 : Folding endurance machine

3.8.2.3 Tensile strength test

The test is carried out based on Tensile Test ISO 1924-2 using Horizontal

Tensile Testing Machine model F.81.50200 (Figure 3.15). All specimens are

41
conditioned in a standard conditioning room with 50 ± 2 % RH and 23 ± 1 oC. The

specimens are cut into dumbbell shape using a dumble cutter. Once the machine is

switched on, tensile test ISO 1924-2 is selected. Reference position option is chosen

in the machine. Thickness & grammage of the sample is keyed in into the machine.

The sample is placed under the machine and clipped. The test stops once the sample

breaks.

Figure 3.15 : Tensile testing machine

3.6.3.4 Bursting strength test

Meter with appropriate pressure range for the test is selected. The pointer of

the indicator is returned to zero and shut of the other meter. Next, the hand wheels of

the paper damp are rotated till it rises to appropriate height. Sample inserted and

clamped it tightly. The degree of tightness is indicated by a small turned by operator.

The motor is turned on and shifted the control rod forward so that the pressure

increase slowly until the paper sample burst. The direction of the control rod

immediately reversed to the other extreme, and then leaved your hand.

The motor will still be revolving while the control rod will automatically

returned to centre position. Examine the position of the rod indicating pointer which

42
is now the reading for the burst strength in kg/cm2. If the strength of the paper is too

weak or when it burst in silence one should observed and take noticed of such

phenomenon very carefully. The control rod should be revesed in action immediately

in order to avoid bursting of the diaphragm. Figure 3.16 shows the Mullen Burst

Tester used for burst testing.

Figure 3.16 : Mullen Burst machine

43
4 RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Overall Results

In this experiment, semi-mechanical pulping was used. The Napier grasses

are soaked with different percentage of NaOH for 24 hours. There is 3%, 6%, 9%,

12% and 15% of NaOH. The purpose of using NaOH as is to dissolve the lignin

especially lignin at middle lamella but remain the cellulose composition in the fibre.

Higher percentage of NaOH cause degradation of lignin and carbohydrate thus

decrease the total yield of pulp (Erikson, 1990). From the research, the result for pulp

properties, physical, mechanical and optical properties are obtained. The results are

shown in the Table 4.1, 4.2, 4,3 and 4.4.

Table 4.1 : Overall Results for Pulps

Percentage
of NaOH 3 6 9 12 15
(%)
Pulp yield
33.49 30.72 28.75 25.16 23.88
(%)
Screen yield
16.60 18.40 19.56 21.81 22.08
(%)
Reject yield
10.58 9.66 6.50 5.08 3.38
(%)
Kappa
97.52 91.40 64.71 62.54 55.79
number

Table 4.2 : Overall Results for Physical Testing of Handsheets

Percentage of
Weight (g) Thickness (mm) Density (g/cm3)
NaOH (%)
6 1.417 0.1816 3.588
9 1.322 0.1584 4.194
12 1.624 0.1597 4.746
15 1.336 0.1282 5.109

44
Table 4.3 : Overall Results for Mechanical Testing of Handsheets

% of NaOH
6 9 12 15
Testing
Tensile index (Nm/g) 5.73 8.54 9.83 9.83
Tearing index (mNm2/g) 5.03 5.16 6.00 6.60
Folding (double fold) 5 11 18 25
Burst index (kPam2/g) 7.92 8.69 8.83 12.06

Table 4.4 : Overall Results for Optical Testing of Handsheets

Samples
Percentage of NaOH (%)
6 9 12 15
Brightness (%) 24.74 20.39 19.55 16.38

TAPPI Opacity (%) 93.94 91.56 88.45 78.20

45
4.2 Effect of different percentage of NaOH on pulp properties

4.2.1 Yield
Fig. 4.1 shows that percentage of NaOH influenced the percentage of total

screen and reject yield of pulp during pulping process. As shown in figure, total yield

drops sharply as the percentage of NaOH increases from 3% to 15%. The lost by

weight are because of the mechanical process from refining process and effect of

NaOH toward the fibre.

Figure 4.1 : Comparison of yield between different conditions.

During refining, some of the fibre will probability leftover at the refiner

machine and the lost of pulp also occur during washing process which there is still a

little portion of pulp will be left in the pail. In addition, the increasing of percentage

of NaOH will cause the rapidly of softening of the fibre of Napier grass, thus easily

to become fines which loss during refining process. However, small little content of

lignin is eliminated from the fibre during the dissolving of Napier grass into the

46
solution of NaOH which influence a bit the yield percentage. This can be conclude

that yield percentage is based on the weight of pulp.

For screen yield, the result is increasing respectively when the percentage of

NaOH getting higher. This is can be explained as increasing of NaOH, the process of

dissolving lignin and effect from it cause refining of the fibre to promote the

separation of fibre to form an individual fibre. Thus, the fibre length of fibre

becomes shorter which the fibre can pass through the screener and produce high

percentage of screen yield. As the screen yield is higher, the reject yield produce will

be lower. The reject yield for 3% of NaOH is higher which is 10.58% compared to

15% of NaOH which only obtained 3.38%. This is due as most of the fibre which

treated lower percentage of NaOH is in bundle of fibres, thus the fibre cannot pass

through screener during screening process.

4.2.2 Kappa no.

The Kappa test is an indirect method for determining lignin by the

consumption of permanganate ion by lignin as shown in Fig. 4.2. The kappa number

is usually test for pulp not for paper. The kappa number is the number of millilitres

of 0.1N KMnO4 consumed by 1 gram of pulp in 0.5N sulphuric acid after 10 minutes

reaction time at 25○C under condition such that 50% of the permanganate remains

not react. Figure shows the result of kappa number from different percentage of

NaOH of pulps. From the result, it could be seen that kappa number is highly

dependent on percentage of NaOH which the value of kappa number is decreasing as

percentage of NaOH getting higher. It can be said that the higher the kappa number,

the higher the lignin content in the pulp and vice versa.

47
 120

100

Kappa Number 80

60

40

20

0
3 6 9 12 15

Percentage of NaOH (%)

Figure 4.2 : Comparison of Kappa no. between different conditions

3% of NaOH has highest kappa number which is 97.52 while 15% of NaOH

has the lowest kappa number among others percentage of NaOH which is only 55.79.

The highest kappa number resulted as the percentage of NaOH is low which cause

the pulp uncooked. In uncooked pulp, the lignin has not been removed and

contributed to high kappa number for 3% of NaOH. Higher kappa number indicate

higher content of lignin in the pulp which the lignin do not totally soluble in acidic

medium. While for 15% of NaOH pulp cause some of lignin lost or removal from

the fibre, which the micromolecular lignin of the fibre will become fines during

refining process which cause the micromolecular lignin easily lost and produce small

percentage of lignin in the fibre. Thus, it has the lowest kappa number. Higher

penetration of chemical (NaOH) can increased the delignification rate (Smook,

1992). Increase of degree of delignification contributes in lower of kappa number

(Wan Rosli, 2006).

48
4.3 Effect of different percentage of NaOH on paper properties.

4.3.1 Physical Properties

For determination of physical properties, density of handsheets will be

discussed as it influenced more to the strength of paper.

4.3.1.1 Density
Density is the most important of fundamental of paper property. Density is

related to the porosity, rigidity, hardness and strength of paper (Casey, 1980). It is

frequently termed apparent density because it includes the air spaces in the paper and

is calculated from the measured thickness. Density also influenced the physical and

mechanical properties except weight of paper (Casey, 1981). Based on the Fig. 4.3, it

can be seen that the density of paper increasing consequently as the percentage of

sodium hydroxide increases from 6% to 15%.

4
Density (g/cm3 )

0
6 9 12 15

Percentage of NaOH (%)

Figure 4.3 : Comparison of density between different conditions.

From the result of graph, lowest percentage of NaOH (6%) shows lowest

value of density which is 3.158 g/cm3 while the highest of density is 5.211 g/cm3 at

49
15% of NaOH. This can be concluded that when percentage of NaOH increases, the

density of paper also increases. It is due to the high percentage of NaOH which

cause the efficient of softening of fibre that enhanced the micromolecule lignin

become fines and lost during pulping, thus cause spaces between the fibres well meet

to each other. Thus, contribute to the increases of paper density as porosity is

decreasing. The absence of lignin cause more of hydrogen bonding to form, fibre

become closer and packed to each other and increase the paper density. It is shown

that NaOH concentration directly proportional to the density of the paper.

4.3.2 Optical Properties

Optical properties are determined by testing the brightness and opacity of
handsheets.

4.3.2.1 Brightness
The brightness test is a measure of the reflectance of light by paper (Smook,

1992). Brightness of paper if affect by lignin contents and extractives which are left

with the pulp. Based on the Fig. 4.4 it shows that decreasing of brightness value from

lowest percentage of NaOH, 6% to the highest one, 15%. The highest value of

brightness resulted at 6% of NaOH which is 24.74%, followed by 9% of NaOH

which is 20.39%, 19.55% at 12% of NaOH and the lowest value of brightness at

highest percentage of NaOH, 15% which is 16.28%. This is in line with the theory,

which state by increasing the percentage of alkali can causes the brightness decreases

(Mona et al, 2002). The alkali charge will neutralize the acidic condition in the pulp

and increasing the amount of dissolved solids.

50
 30

25

20
Brightness (%)
15

10

0
6 9 12 15

Percentage of NaOH (%)

Figure 4.4 : Comparison of brightness between different conditions.

Adding NaOH during pulping will increase the PH which enhanced the

yellowing of pulps that as not all lignin had been removed and these called

darkening. Pulp brightness is very sensitive to aging which pulps that not undergoes

bleaching stage contain significant amount of lignin lose brightness rapidly as the

lignin yellows. Besides, increasing NaOH can shorten the fibre length which

contributes to decrease of brightness (Danton et.al, 2013). Short fibre length will

cause the distribution of fibre is not uniform and not evenly disperse, thus cause

difficulties of light penetration. In addition, increasing NOH cause density increasing

which lower the reflection of light onto the paper, thus decreasing the brightness

value.

4.3.2.2 TAPPI Opacity

Opacity is the nature of substance that has demonstrated its ability to hide or

protect the objects at the behind. Opacity can be categorized to two types which are

TAPPI and PRINT Opacity. TAPPI Opacity is defined as the ratio of the reflectance

51
of a single sheet of paper over a black background R○ divided by the reflectance of

the same sheet backed by an arbitrary white body or absolute reflectance 0.89 (Britt,

1970). Fig. 4.5 shows the result of TAPPI Opacity of Napier Grass in different

percentage of NaOH. The TAPPI opacity is greatly influenced by the chemical

impregnation which the higher the percentage of NaOH, the higher the impact on the

fibre composition thus lower the sheet opacity.

100
90
80
TAPPI Opacity (%)

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
6 9 12 15

Percentage of NaOH (%)

Figure 4.5 : Comparison of TAPPI opacity between different conditions.

The result shows that the value of TAPPI opacity decreased consequently

when the percentage of NaOH is increased from 6% to 15%. The highest reading of

TAPPI Opacity is at 6% which is 93.94% while the lowest is at highest percentage of

NaOH (15%) which is 78.2%. The decline of TAPPI Opacity’s value from 6% to

15% of NaOH was influenced by paper density where NaOH concentration is

directly proportional to paper density. This can be explained that as percentage of

NaOH increases, the paper density also increases which cause the fiber position is

closer and packed to each other which than prevent the light to penetrate into the

52
paper. In addition, higher density promotes to increase optical contact and decrease

light scattering which directly decrease the TAPPI opacity (Casey, 1980). Besides,

lower percentage of NaOH will decrease the bulky of paper which increases the

density of paper, thus decreases the opacity value.

4.3.3 Mechanical Properties

For mechanical properties, the folding endurance, tensile strength, tearing

strength and bursting strength has been determined for each of handsheets.

4.3.3.1 Folding Endurance

Folding endurance is an empirical test that measures the amount of folding

which the paper will endure before its tensile strength falls under 1kg of burden.

Folding endurance test are based on fibre length and bonding of the fibre. Based on

the Fig. 4.6, it shows the increasing of folding endurance from 6% to 15% of NaOH.

This indicate that the higher the percentage of NaOH, the higher the folding

endurance. Folding endurance of handsheets increases proportionally to the increase

in grammage in the range of 60-70 g/m2 and the result of grammage of handsheets of

this experiment shows in that range.

53
 30

25

Folding (double fold) 20

15

10

0
6 9 12 15

Percentage of NaOH (%)

Figure 4.6 : Comparison of folding endurance between different conditions

6% of NaOH have lower folding endurance than 9% and others, which is 5.

For the highest of folding endurance is 25 at 15% of NaOH. This is can be explained

that lower percentage of NaOH will have lower degree of delignification which

promote to the weak of bonding strength, thus decrease the folding endurance.

Futhermore, as the percentage of NaOH increased, the concentration of solution was

getting higher which cause more hydroxyl group was exposed and contribute to the

bonding of fibres and resulting in a tighter combination and fibre flexibility which

increase the resistance of paper to endure.

54
4.3.3.2 Tensile Index
Tensile index defined as maximum tensile stress developed in a tension

carried to rupture under prescribed condition. Tensile index depends on the fiber

strength but mostly on degree of bonding between fibres. The results at based on Fig.

4.7 show that the maximum tensile index of Napier grass fibre was achieved at 12%

and maintained the value of tensile index at 15% of NaOH. The tensile index is

significantly increases from 6%, 9% to 12% which recorded at about 5.73 Nm/g,

8.54 Nm/g and 9.83 Nm/g respectively due to the changes in the cellulose

crystallinity during alkaline treatment. The process can be explained due to the fibre

strength of Napier grass which has higher fracture energy. Decreasing fiber strength

and length both decrease damage width and fracture energy. When the fiber strength

is decreasing, the probability of a fiber breaking increases.

12

10

8
Tensile Index (nm/g)

0
6 9 12 15

Percentage of NaOH (%)

Figure 4.7 : Comparison of tensile index between different conditions

In addition, higher percentage of NaOH will promote higher degree of

delignification. Elimination of lignin content makes the surface area of cellulose

expose to bonding increase. Thus, the increasing of bonding strength causes the

55
tensile index increase. However, the tensile index for 15% NaOH was found

maintained at 9.83 Nm/g same with 12% of NaOH. These can be explained that

Napier grass fibre has exhibit optimum tensile index at 15% of NaOH. If increased

the percentage of NaOH, the tensile index have possibility to maintain the tensile

strength or declined the index value as it causes damage on the fibres thus reduce the

strength.

4.3.3.3 Tearing Index

Tearing strength defines as measurement of energy requirement to obtained

out-of-plain tear failure line on predetermined distance in one sheet of paper. Factors

that affect the tearing strength are length of the fibre and the bonding between the

fibres. The Fig. 4.8 shows the tearing index increase respectively from 6% to 15% as

the percentage of NaOH getting higher. 6% of NaOH shows lowest tearing index

compared to others which is 5.03 mNm2/g and the highest of tearing index is at 15%

of NaOH with the value of 6.6 mNm2/g.

6
Tearing index (mNm2 /g)

0
6 9 12 15

Percentage of NaOH (%)

Figure 4.8 : Comparison of tearing index between different conditions.

56
 This can be explained as higher percentage of NaOH means higher

concentration of OH- to dissolve the lignin content which then forms the greater

bonding between the fibres. Researchers discovered that with alkaline treatment will

cause the removal of intra-crystalline and inter-crystalline lignin which significantly

increases the possibility for mechanical interlocking between the fibres and form

chemical bonding A. (Shalwan, 2012) This is can be further explained that why the

tearing index is getting higher because the energy required to rupture the fibre from

the paper also increases due to greater chemical bonding.

4.3.3.4 Bursting Index

Bursting strength is test of the weakest part of the paper and it affected by a

formation (Casey, 1980). The amount of interfibre bonding and individual fibre

strength is predominant important in bursting strength (Britt, 1970). Theory said that

bursting index is depending on the fibre length and amount of interfibre bonding

between the fibre which the fibre length can enhance the bursting strength but it is

even more affected by the fibre bonding (Casey, 1980). Fig. 4.9 shows the effect of

different percentage of NaOH on bursting index of paper and the results show

increasing of bursting strength from 6% to 15% of NaOH respectively. 6% of NaOH

result lowest bursting index which is 17.92kPam2/g while 15% of NaOH have

highest bursting index compare to others which is 12.0692kPam2/g.

57
 14

12

10
Burst Index (kPam2 /g)
8

0
6 9 12 15

Percentage of NaOH (%)

Figure 4.9 : Comparison of bursting index between different conditions.

In this case, fibre bonding is the most important factor which influenced the

performance of bursting strength. Higher percentage of NaOH will produce higher

degree of delignification which then forming the hydrogen bonding in the network

structure, thereby increasing surface roughness. Most of the lignin removal caused

the delignification which resulting in a rough surface thus increased the mechanical

bonding and interlocking between the fibres. In addition, it would promote increases

amount of cellulose exposed on fibre and led to increase the bursting index. Thus, the

higher the percentage of NaOH, it will provided more Na+ and OH ions which react

with substance on fibre causing greater amount of lignin to leach out (Karthikeyan,

2012). However, increasing percentage of NaOH will caused decreasing the diameter

of fibre length thus reduced the fibre strength, but with resultant rough fiber surface

might improve the interfibril bonding between fibres which promotes better bursting

index.

58
 5 : CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusion
From the research, the result obtained show that different percentage of

NaOH used does affect pulp and paper properties such as physical, mechanical and

optical properties. Major mechanism of strength important is due to the interfibre

bonding and density of paper as result of different percentage of NaOH. Fibre length

also influenced the performance of paper properties. The test result obtained show

that decreasing of pulp yield as percentage of NaOH increases due to removal of

lignin content and degradation of carbohydrate. While screen yield getting increases

and reject yield is vice versa. This is due to shorten of fibre length due to the refining

process which able the fibre to pass through the screener during screening process,

thus low reject yield is obtained. High kappa no. means high lignin content. Decrease

percentage of NaOH will increase the kappa no. This can be explained that lignin is

resistance to acid medium. 3% of NaOH shows higher kappa no which is 97.52 while

15% of NaOH have least kappa no which is 55.79. Density of paper increasing

respectively as the alkali charge also increases. It is due to the removal of lignin

content which contributes the formation of interfibre bonding between the fibres and

reduced the porosity and spaces between the fibres, thus increases the density. 6% of

NaOH have lower density which is 315.8 g/m3, while 15% of NaOH have the highest

density which is 521.06 g/m3.

Tensile index also increase as percentage of NaOH increases. 6% of NaOH

shows the lowest tensile index which is 8.54 Nm/g and 15% of NaOH give highest

reading, 9.83Nm/g. This is due to the increasing of bonding strength as degradation

of lignin which exposed the surface area of cellulose to form interfibre bonding.

Same for tearing strength, which increases of percentage of NaOH lead to increase of

59
tearing index due mechanical interlocking between fibres which form chemical

bonding as removal of lignin occurs. 6% of NaOH gives 5.03 mN.m2/g and 15% of

NaOH is 6.6 mN.m2/g. for folding endurance and bursting index are also increases as

alkali charge increases which 6% of NaOH gives 5 and 15% of NaOH gives 25 for

folding endurance result. While, for bursting index shows 6% of NaOH result lowest

bursting index which is 17.92kPa.m2/g while 15% of NaOH have highest bursting

index compare to others which is 12.0692kPa.m2/g. This is due to more hydroxyl

group which exposed thus forming fibres bonding and cause tighter combination of

fibre which leads to increases of strength of physical properties. In case of opacity

results, brightness and TAPPI opacity both shows decreases value as percentage of

NaOH increases. For brightness the decreasing result indicate the lignin yellowing

due to the aging process which is cause darkening thus, reduce the brightness. The

highest value of brightness resulted at 6% of NaOH which is 24.74% and the lowest

value of brightness at highest alkali charge, 15% which is 16.28%. Different reason

for TAPPI opacity which influenced by density of paper that increases as alkali

charge increase thus promotes high of optical contact and reduce light scattering as

the fibre becomes closely packed together. The highest reading of TAPPI Opacity is

at 6% which is 93.94% while the lowest is at highest percentage of NaOH (15%)

which is 78.2%. That is why percentage of NaOH plays an important factor which

may affect the performance of pulp and paper properties either enhance the strength

or reduce the properties.

60
5.2 RECOMMENDATION
After the study was conducted, there were some recommendations for further

work helped to explore in worthwhile areas not being cover by the current study.

1. Using more different percentage of NaOH on pulping of Napier grass in order

to determine the optimum condition.

2. Conduct the fibre analysis testing in order to study more about the

relationship of fibre length towards pulp and paper properties.

3. Using different time soaking of sodium hydroxide which is 48 hours to see

the effectiveness of pulp and paper properties compared to 24 hours of

soaking time.

61
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65
APPENDIX

Appendix A : Stock preparation

1. Determination weight of pulp
Example :

6% of NaOH

Moisture content, MC = 39.81%

Weight of oven dry (od) = 500 g

2. Determination weight of chemical used

Weight of active alkali (AA), g = Percentage of NaOH x Weight of sample (od)

Weight of NaOH, g = 6% x 500 g

= 30 g

3. Determination of liquor

Weight of oven dry (od) : Volume of liquor

1 : 8
500 : 4000
Total volume of liquor

= 8 x 500

= 4000 ml

66
 4. Determination of pulp yield

6% of NaOH

Moisture content, MC, = 73.52%

Weight of air dry (ad) = 580.72 g

Od = 153.72 g

= 30.72%

5. Determination of Screen Yield

6% of NaOH

Moisture content, MC, = 77.50%

Weight of air dry (ad) = 574.40 g

67
 Od = 91.98 g

= 25.85%

6. Determination of Reject Yield

6% of NaOH

= 9.66%

7. Handsheet making

i. Preparation of stock pulp

Example

6% of NaOH

Weight oven dry of pulp (OD) = 24g

Moisture content, % = 74.22%

68
 Ad = 93.09 g

ii. Volume of water to be added to the pulp stock to get 0.3 % of stock consistency.

V = 8000 ml

V = The volume of water to make the stock consistency to 0.3 % . 2000ml water is
added to the disintegration of the pulp and 1000ml of water used for wash the
disintegrator.

Thus, volume of water need to be added = (8000 – 3000)ml

= 5000ml

iii. Determination of real consistency and volume of stock preparation needed to

produce paper with grammage of 60 g/m2

= 0.31%

Grammage of handsheet = 60g/m2

69
Area of handsheet = 0.02m2

Weight of handsheet needed = 1.2g

Weight of handsheet = 1.2g

Thus, 0.31%

V = 387 ml

* V = Volume of stock consistency that required to produce 60 g/m2 grammage of

handsheet

8. Determination of Kappa Number

Calculation of kappa number as follows:

 k = kappa number

 P = Amount of 0.1 N permanganate actually consumed by the test specimen,

mL

 f = Factor for correction to a 50% permanganate consumption, dependent on

the value of p (refer to table)

 w = Weight of moisture –free pulp in the specimen, g

70
  p = Amount of 0.1N permanganate actually consumed by the test specimen,

mL

 b = Amount of the thiosulphate consume in the blank determination, mL

 a = Amount of the thiosulphate consume by the blank test specimen, mL

 N = Normality of the thiosulphate

Where, t = current temperature during temperature

Table (From TAPPI Book)

F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

30 0.958 0.960 0.962 0.964 0.966 0.968 0.970 0.973 0.975 0.977

40 0.979 0.981 0.983 0.985 0.987 0.989 0.991 0.994 0.996 0.998

50 1.000 1.002 1.004 1.006 1.009 1.011 1.013 1.015 1.017 1.019

60 1.022 1.024 1.026 1.028 1.030 1.033 1.035 1.037 1.039 1.042

70 1.044

Example of calculation :

3% of NaOH

Sample OD (g) AD (g) Na2S2O3 (ml) Temp (○C) Kappa No

First 0.7 2.6 14.5 34 99
Second 0.7 2.6 15.4 34 96.03

Blank Test

Volume of Na2S2O3 = 50 ml

71
First Sample

Weight of oven dry of pulp (OD) = 0.7g

Moisture content, % = 71.52%

Weight of air dried of pulp (AD)

P = 71

From table, f = 1.044. Thus ;

72
Second Sample

From table, f = 1.042

Correct kappa number :

Average of kappa number = (Sample 1 + Sample 2) / 2

= (99 + 96.03) / 2

= 97.52

73
Appendix B : Raw Data for Physical, Mechanical and Optical

Physical properties of paper

1. Grammage (g/m2)

2. Density (g/m3)

Mechanical properties of paper

1. Tensile strength (kN/m)

2. Tensile index (N.m/g)

3. Tearing index (mN.m2/g)

4. Bursting index (kPa.m2/g)

74
Physical properties of paper

A. Weight (g) of each handsheet :

i. 6% of NaOH
Weight (g)
Sample
1 2 3 Average
A 1.508 1.505 1.503 1.505
B 1.336 1.336 1.335 1.336
C 1.537 1.532 1.533 1.534
D 1.318 1.316 1.313 1.316
E 1.394 1.391 1.392 1.392
Overall average 1.417

ii. 9% of NaOH
Weight (g)
Sample
1 2 3 Average
A 1.448 1.440 1.445 1.444
B 1.308 1.310 1.306 1.308
C 1.178 1.180 1.178 1.178
D 1.319 1.321 1.320 1.320
E 1.411 1.410 1.412 1.411
Overall average 1.322

iii. 12% of NaOH

Weight (g)
Sample
1 2 3 Average
A 1.417 1.418 1.410 1.415
B 1.625 1.605 1.615 1.615
C 1.527 1.532 1.501 1.520
D 1.456 1.450 1.442 1.449
E 1.621 1.602 1.651 1.624
Overall average 1.523

75
 iv. 15% of NaOH
Weight (g)
Sample
1 2 3 Average
A 1.353 1.347 1.349 1.349
B 1.319 1.320 1.318 1.319
C 1.286 1.284 1.244 1.245
D 1.457 1.455 1.459 1.457
E 1.312 1.310 1.313 1.312
Overall average 1.336

Overall result of weight of handsheets :

% of NaOH
6% 9% 12% 15%
Sample
A 1.505 1.444 1.415 1.349
B 1.336 1.308 1.615 1.319
C 1.534 1.178 1.520 1.245
D 1.316 1.320 1.449 1.457
E 1.392 1.411 1.624 1.312
Average 1.417 1.322 1.523 1.336

76
 B. Thickness (mm) of each handsheet :

i. 6% of NaOH

Thickness (mm)
Sample
1 2 3 Zero Error Average
A 0.1846 0.1833 0.1858 +0.0012 0.1834
B 0.1740 0.1776 0.1753 +0.0018 0.1753
C 0.2005 0.1971 0.1968 +0.0062 0.1918
D 0.1717 0.1692 0.1766 +0.0040 0.1658
E 0.1975 0.1909 0.1938 +0.0025 0.1916
Overall average 0.1816

ii. 9% of NaOH
Thickness (mm)
Sample
1 2 3 Zero Error Average
A 0.1667 0.1723 0.1775 +0.0025 0.1677
B 0.1656 0.1567 0.1427 +0.0018 0.1590
C 0.1350 0.1427 0.1458 +0.0015 0.1403
D 0.1625 0.1635 0.1607 +0.0012 0.1610
E 0.1561 0.1646 0.1756 +0.0015 0.1639
Overall average 0.1584

iii. 12% of NaOH

Thickness (mm)
Sample
1 2 3 Zero Error Average
A 0.1727 0.1631 0.1627 +0.0022 0.1640
B 0.1572 0.1585 0.1448 +0.0020 0.1515
C 0.1718 0.1787 0.1727 +0.0023 0.1742
D 0.1436 0.1570 0.1590 +0.0022 0.1510
E 0.1691 0.1589 0.1518 +0.0021 0.1578
Overall average 0.1597

77
 iv. 15% of NaOH

Thickness (mm)
Sample
1 2 3 Zero Error Average
A 0.1314 0.1318 0.1305 +0.0012 0.1288
B 0.1297 0.1275 0.1248 +0.0021 0.1252
C 0.1253 0.1306 0.1227 +0.0021 0.1241
D 0.1401 0.1399 0.1340 +0.0022 0.1308
E 0.1333 0.1317 0.1369 +0.0020 0.1320
Overall average 0.1282

Overall result of thickness of handsheets :

% of NaOH
6% 9% 12% 15%
Sample
A 0.1834 0.1677 0.1640 0.1288
B 0.1753 0.1590 0.1515 0.1252
C 0.1918 0.1403 0.1742 0.1241
D 0.1658 0.1610 0.1510 0.1308
E 0.1916 0.1639 0.1578 0.1320
Average 0.1816 0.1584 0.1597 0.1282

C. Grammage (g/m2) of handsheet :

Example :

6% of NaOH

% of NaOH
6% 9% 12% 15%
Sample
A 75.25 72.20 70.75 67.45
B 66.80 65.40 80.75 65.90
C 76.70 58.90 76.00 62.20
D 65.80 66.00 72.45 72.95
E 69.60 76.55 81.25 65.65
Average 70.83 67.81 76.24 66.83

78
 D. Density (g/m3) of handsheet :

*Volume = Thickness (mm) x Area (m2)

6% of NaOH

= 408.45 g/m3 = 4.0845 g/cm3

Average of reading

= 383.79 g/m3 = 3.838 g/cm3

i. 6% of NaOH
Density
Sample
1 2 3 Average
A 408.45 410.53 404.47 407.82
B 383.91 376.13 380.77 380.27
C 383.29 388.64 389.48 387.14
D 383.81 388.89 371.74 281.48
E 352.91 364.33 359.13 358.79
Overall average 383.79

79
ii. 9% of NaOH
Density
Sample
1 2 3 Average
A 434.31 417.88 407.04 419.74
B 394.93 418.00 457.60 423.51
C 453.08 413.45 403.98 424.17
D 399.21 403.98 410.70 404.46
E 451.95 428.31 402.05 427.44
Overall average 419.86

iii. 12% of NaOH

Density
Sample
1 2 3 Average
A 410.25 437.70 433.31 427.09
B 516.86 506.31 557.67 526.95
C 444.41 428.65 434.57 435.88
D 506.96 461.78 453.46 474.07
E 479.30 504.09 543.31 509.07
Overall average 474.67

iv. 15% of NaOH

Density
Sample
1 2 3 Average
A 514.84 511.00 516.56 514.13
B 508.48 517.65 528.06 518.26
C 513.68 491.58 506.93 504.06
D 529.99 520.01 544.40 528.13
E 492.12 497.34 479.55 489.67
Overall average 510.85

80
Mechanical Properties of paper

A. Tensile testing of handsheet :

6% of NaOH

 Tensile strength :

= 436.23N/m

Average reading

= 404.94 N/m

 Tensile index :

6% of NaOH

= 5.80 Nm/g

Average reading

= 5.73 Nm/g

i. 6% of NaOH
Tensile
Sample Elongation,
Load (N) Strength, N/m Index, Nm/g
mm
A 21.81 436.23 5.80 1.02
B 17.96 359.22 5.38 0.77
C 20.09 401.71 5.24 1.23
D 20.42 408.39 6.21 0.98
E 20.96 419.16 6.02 1.28
Average 20.25 404.94 5.73 1.06

81
 ii. 9% of NaOH

Tensile
Sample Elongation
Load (N) Strength, N/m Index, Nm/g
,mm
A 28.69 573.72 7.59 1.54
B 30.48 609.53 9.32 1.24
C 26.54 530.86 9.01 0.95
D 31.27 625.49 9.48 1.63
E 25.69 513.79 7.28 2.28
Average 28.53 570.68 8.54 1.52

iii. 1
2% of NaOH
Tensile
Sample Elongation,
Load (N) Strength, N/m Index, Nm/g
mm
A 42.72 854.45 12.08 2.13
B 24.14 482.80 5.98 0.86
C 36.79 735.89 9.06 1.80
D 49.31 986.19 12.98 2.11
E 32.82 656.47 9.06 1.78
Average 37.16 743.16 9.83 1.73

15% of NaOH

Tensile
Sample Elongation,
Load (N) Strength, N/m Index, Nm/g
mm
A 42.54 850.74 12.61 3.84
B 33.06 661.30 10.03 1.84
C 27.86 557.20 8.96 1.26
D 45.60 912.00 12.50 0.40
E 43.80 825.98 13.34 3.11
Average 32.57 761.44 11.49 2.09

82
 B. Tearing Testing of handsheet :

Tearing
Sample Total per ply, mN Total index, mN.m2/g
6% 9% 12% 15% 6% 9% 12% 15%
A 378.54 362.85 407.96 456.96 5.03 5.03 5.77 5.29
B 328.52 395.18 424.63 471.67 4.92 5.51 5.29 6.64
C 397.17 375.57 509.95 467.75 5.18 5.67 6.71 6.91
D 346.18 387.35 457.97 422.67 4.26 5.11 6.32 5.79
E 404.03 367.74 484.45 562.85 5.81 4.50 5.92 7.53
Average 370.89 381.73 454.99 476.37 5.03 5.16 6.00 6.60

C. Bursting testing of handsheet :

 Burst Strength

6% of NaOH

Sample A = 5.4582 kgf/cm2 x 98.068059 kPa

= 535.28 kPa

Average reading

= 559.17 kPa

 Burst Index

6% of NaOH

= 7.11 kPa.m2/g

83
Average reading

= 7.92 kPa.m2/g

Burst
Sample Strength, kPa Index, kPa.m2/g
6% 9% 12% 15% 6% 9% 12% 15%
A 535.28 594.46 606.46 801.71 7.11 8.23 8.57 11.89
B 550.24 603.19 633.73 777.71 8.24 9.22 7.85 11.80
C 565.01 563.92 725.35 775.53 7.37 9.57 9.54 12.47
D 533.38 558.47 786.44 834.43 8.11 8.46 10.85 11.44
E 611.92 563.92 594.46 834.43 8.79 7.99 7.32 12.71
Average 559.17 576.79 669.29 804.76 7.92 8.69 8.83 12.06

84
Optical properties of paper

A. Brightness of handsheet :

% of NaOH
6% 9% 12% 15%
Sample
A 24.40 19.22 19.57 16.69
B 24.83 21.21 19.58 16.78
C 24.54 20.34 19.07 15.92
D 24.86 20.40 19.94 17.05
E 25.06 20.72 19.55 16.01
Average 24.74 20.23 19.55 16.38

B. Opacity of handsheet :
Opacity
Sample TAPPI Print
6% 9% 12% 15% 6% 9% 12% 15%
A 100 92.92 86.94 78.93 98.42 96.66 94.14 89.27
B 92.83 94.64 86.26 80.22 98.04 99.66 94.06 92.20
C 92.31 88.23 93.24 73.66 96.51 94.83 97.09 86.08
D 89.90 89.38 87.39 83.64 94.43 96.10 96.39 93.18
E 94.65 92.57 88.42 74.54 97.45 96.71 95.89 82.22
Average 93.94 91.56 88.45 78.20 96.97 96.77 95.40 88.69

Testing of Kappa Number

Percentage of NaOH, % 1 2 Average

3 99 96.03 97.52
6 93.5 98.30 91.40
9 59.46 69.96 64.71
12 52.30 72.78 62.54
15 44.78 66.79 55.79

85