Construction and Building Materials 135 (2017) 137–150

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Construction and Building Materials

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Durability of pervious concrete using crushed seashells

Dang Hanh Nguyen a,b,⇑, Mohamed Boutouil b, Nassim Sebaibi b, Fabienne Baraud c, Lydia Leleyter c
a
Faculty of International Education, University of Transport and Communications, Lang Thuong, Dong Da, Hanoi, Viet Nam
b
École Supérieure d’Ingénieurs des Travaux de la Construction de Caen (ESITC Caen), 1 rue Pierre et Marie Curie, 14610 Épron, France
c
Normandie Univ, UCBN UR ABTE EA 4651, QALEA, F-14032 Caen, France

h i g h l i g h t s

The crushed seashells can be used as a replacement in the pervious concrete composition, for low-volume roads.

The freeze/thaw performance of shells concretes is considerably more weakly than the control pervious concrete.

The blended of silty clay sand as clogging agent causes a significant decrease in permeability of pervious concrete, especially for shells concretes.

The chemical characteristics of crushed shells have an influence remarkable on the freeze thaw durability of pervious concrete.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Pervious concrete is one of the most important emerging technologies for sustainable facilities and infras-
Received 11 May 2016 tructure. Significant research and development have been carried on pervious concrete; however, the
Received in revised form 8 December 2016 durability of the pervious concrete remains a challenge. In this study, the durability of pervious concrete,
Accepted 30 December 2016
with or without the crushed seashells, are studied by: freeze-thaw resistance test with and without deic-
ing salt, clogging test and leaching test. The shell pervious concrete was created by replacing 60% mass of
the natural aggregates in control pervious concrete by crushed seashells. The freeze-thaw resistance of
Keywords:
the shell pervious concrete is lower than the control pervious concrete and it was not proportional with
Pervious concrete
Shell concretes
the mechanical strength. In addition, a blended material with silty clay and sand as a clogging agent
Durability causes a significant decrease on the drainage capacity of pervious concrete. However, the pervious con-
Freeze-thaw resistance cretes remains permeably even after the clogging (k > 0.5 mm.s1). Furthermore, the leaching of pervious
Clogging concretes occurs quickly after contacting with demineralized water. This experiment showed also that
Leaching some chemical characteristic (chloride ion and organic matter content) of crushed shells could have more
influence on the durability than the physical and mechanical properties of pervious concrete. As a final,
this article shows an acceptable durability of pervious concrete with and without crushed shells for the
application of low traffic load.
Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
In Europe, France has an important fishing and shellfish farming
industry that produces nearly 160,000 tons of shells from shellfish
breeding and 45,000 tons of shellfish per year from fishing [1].
These activities generate thousands of tons of seashell by-
products (empty shells) to be discharged, as they are considered
as a waste. For the moment, some attempts have been made in
France to recycle them as soil conditioner [2] or animals food [3]
but none of them gave satisfaction in terms of viable and added
⇑ Corresponding author at: Faculty of International Education, University of
Transport and Communications, Lang Thuong, Dong Da, Hanoi, Viet Nam.
E-mail address: hanhnd@utc.edu.vn (D.H. Nguyen).
value recycling. The most common method of managing this waste
is landfill disposal, increasing the environmental impact.
On the other hand, production and utilization of concrete as a
building material are constantly increasing nowadays, which
results in the increasing consumption of natural aggregate as the
largest concrete component. It is estimated that today’s world con-
crete production is about six billion tons per year [4]. In France, an
average 400 million tons of aggregates is consumed each year, i.e.
6 tons per inhabitant [5]. In the United States, two billion tons of
aggregate are produced each year and the production is expected
to increase to more than 2.5 billion tons per year by the year
2020 [6]. This situation leads to a question about the preservation
of natural aggregates sources.
Many studies have been implemented to investigate the
replacement of natural aggregates in concrete by recycled

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.12.219
0950-0618/Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
138 D.H. Nguyen et al. / Construction and Building Materials 135 (2017) 137–150
aggregates, slag aggregates, and recently seashells. In the previous
years, the properties of the recycled aggregates and the effects of
their incorporation in concrete have drawn the attention of various
researchers [7–11]. According to authors, the source of recycled
aggregates highly influents concrete properties. The recycled
aggregates from medium/high strength concrete have little influ-
ences on concrete properties. The mechanical properties of recy-
cled aggregate concrete decrease by approximately 15–35% over
the values of conventional concrete. In fact, recycled aggregates
are particularly characterized by a significantly higher water
absorption capacity and lower mechanical properties with respect
to natural gravel and sand. The lower mechanical strength can be
attributed to the higher porosity characterizing the outer layers
of the crushed concrete particles, called ‘‘attached mortar” [10].
Regarding the seashells, it was reported [12,13] that they are
hard materials that can produce good quality concrete. Moreover,
due to the angularity of the seashells, additional cement paste is
required to obtain the desired workability. A uncrushed seashells
should be avoided as their presence may result in voids in the con-
crete and lower the compressive strength. The mechanical strength
is decreased, proportional to the percent of substitution of aggre-
gate by seashells in concrete. The durability of the concretes made
of seashell is worse because their structures are more porous. The
workability is decreased because of the higher absorption and the
flat shape of seashells.
Recently, the seashells were used to fabricate the pervious con-
crete. The properties of these concretes were initially recently pub-
lished in the technical literature [14–18]. Those papers mostly
focus on comparing the relevant performance aspects of seashell
pervious concrete with the control pervious concrete, made with
natural aggregates. Through those studies, the physical and
mechanical properties of seashells pervious concrete strongly
depend on the quality (nature, size and grading) of the seashell
aggregates. The mechanical strength of seashell pervious concrete
is smaller than that of control pervious concrete (without sea-
shells). The permeability was strongly increased because the con-
crete with seashells was more porous. The pervious concrete
made from seashells was kept stiff in fresh state.
In this study, crushed seashells from the French West coast
were prepared and used to partially replace natural aggregates
for making pervious concrete. Pervious concrete is an environmen-
tally friendly material and an effective mean to meet the growing
environmental demands. Pervious concrete is used to prevent from
flooding during heavy rain and increase the water infiltration into
the soil [14,15,19–24].
Although pervious concrete has been used successfully in
numerous geographical locations and many of the fundamental
properties of pervious concrete have been established, a number
of issues are still not completely resolved. Many of these issues
are related to the long term behavior of the pervious concrete in
service. The main purpose of this work is to determine the durabil-
ity of pervious concrete made with and without seashells, in term
of freeze-thaw resistance, clogging and leaching.
2. Methodology
2.1. Materials
2.1.1. Cement and natural aggregate
The cement used in this study is an Ordinary Portland Cement
(OPC) CEM I 52.5 R. The chemical and physical properties of this
cement are summarized in Table 1.
The alluvial quartz sand with a grain size 0/4 mm was used. This
sand presents a specific gravity of 2620 kg.m3, an absorption coef-
ficient of 0.50% and a fineness modulus of 2.81.
To ensure the infiltration capacity of pervious concrete, the
selection of monogranular aggregate (single-sized aggregates) is
critical to achieve the interconnection of the porous system
[14,19–22] The monogranular angular aggregate fraction
2/6.3 mm was employed with a specified gravity of 2716 kg.m3
and water absorption of 0.53%. The size distribution of natural
aggregate and sand is given in Fig. 1.
2.1.2. Crushed shells
Three types of seashells are used for this research (Fig. 2):

CRepidula (CR),

SCallop (SC) and

Queen Scallop (QS).
These seashells are very abundant on the Normandy and Brit-
tany coasts of France. They were collected from a fish companies
and subjected to different preparations such as grinding and
screening on site to obtain the fraction 2/4 mm. Indeed, through
previous study, the fraction 2/4 mm is optimal to have a compro-
mise between the compressive strength and permeability to water
of pervious concretes [15]. The particle size distribution of crushed
shells is given also in Fig. 1 while the Table 2 summarizes their
physical and chemical properties. The crushed shells are mainly
formed from calcium carbonate (Fig. 3), thus the specific gravity
of crushed shells is similar or slightly lighter to that of the natural
aggregate (Table 2).
The organic matter is measured in accordance with the French
Standard XP P94-047 [25]. The chloride content is determined
according to the European standard EN 1744-5 [26]. The impuri-
ties, the organic matter and chloride ions content of these shells
are high, exceeding the recommended limit of the European stan-
dard for aggregates. In addition, as a result of their porous struc-
ture [13,14], the crushed shells absorb more water than natural
aggregate, justified by absorption coefficients greater than 2.2%
which were determined in accordance with the European Standard
EN 1097-6 [27]. Furthermore, the surface areas of crushed shells
were obtained by image analysis in which the procedure is detailed
in [14]. The surface areas of crushed shells are more important
than the natural aggregate due to their flat shape.
2.2. Mix composition and specimen preparation
In this study, the target performances are a compressive
strength of 15.0 MPa at 28 days and a permeability to water
greater than 2 mm.s1. In fact, a minimum compressive strength
of 14.0 MPa at 28 days is recommended for potential application
as surface layer of parking lots [28]. Furthermore, a minimum per-
meability of 1.0 mm.s1 is required to ensure a sufficient drainage,
and adequate function in the event of clogging [29]. The mix pro-
portions of the control pervious concrete and the pervious concrete
based on the crushed shells are summarized in Table 3. For these
mixtures, cement, water, sand contents and effective w/c ratio
are kept constant. In theses shell concretes, 60% by mass of natural
aggregate in control pervious concrete were replaced by crushed
shells fractions 2/4 mm. An amount of water corresponding to
the absorption of crushed shells was added. This was done to
ensure that the crushed shells will not absorb a large amount of
water during casting and interfering the effective w/c ratio.
All the mixtures were cast to make cubic pervious concrete
specimens 150  150  150 mm. The fresh concretes were com-
pacted with a pressure of 7.4 kPa which is the optimum pressure
to obtain the highest compressive strength [15]. Immediately, after
casting, all specimens were stored during 24 h in a controlled room
maintained at 20 °C ± 2 °C and 95% ± 5% relative humidity. After
 D.H. Nguyen et al. / Construction and Building Materials 135 (2017) 137–150 139

Table 1
Physical and chemical properties of cement CEM I 52.5 R.

Chemical analysis (%) Physical properties

CaO 63.4 Specify gravity (kg.m3) 3140
SiO2 19.2 Specific surface Blaine (cm2.g1) 4900
Al2O3 4.5 Compressive strength (MPa)
Fe2O3 3.9 2 days 39
MgO 1.1 7 days 53
SO3 3.5 28 days 64
K2O 0.90 Initial setting time (min) 170
N2O 0.07
Loss on ignition 2.6
Phase composition C3S C2S C3A C4AF
68% 9% 6% 13%

100 The total porosity has been measured, using ‘‘the experimental
90 procedure” recommended by French Association of Civil Engineer-
ing [33]. Then, the dry bulk density of concrete can be calculated.
80 The image analysis was employed to assess the porosity and
Percent passing (%)

70 pores diameter of pervious concrete using the free software ‘‘Image

60 J”, initially developed by the Research Services Branch (RSB) of
National Institute of Health [34]. In this method, the pores were
50
considered as the ellipses, the maximum and minimum diameters
40 of the selected pores were recorded. The procedure of image anal-
Crepidula 2/4 mm ysis was detailed in [14].
30
Scallops 2/4 mm
20 Queen Scallops 2/4 mm
2.3.3. Water permeability test
10 Sand 0/4 mm
Aggregate 2/6.3 mm The water permeability of the specimens was determined using
0 a permeabilimeter developed by Nguyen et al. (Fig. 5) [15]. The
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 specimens were wrapped with a thin layer mortar and enclosed
Grain size (mm) in a mold. The space between the specimen and the mold is filled
with plaster to prevent any flow along the sides of the specimen
Fig. 1. Grain size distribution of natural aggregate and crushed shells. that would affect the measured results. The specimens were
secured in the apparatus, and water was added under pressure to
the downstream pipe in order to expel any air that may have been
24 h, the specimens were removed from the molds and kept at the
present in the specimen.
same conditions for 28 days.
The falling head method was used to measure the water perme-
ability with an initial water level h1 = 255 mm and final height
h2 = 75 mm. Then, the permeability coefficient is calculated using
2.3. Test methods
Darcy’s First Law [35]. Tests were performed a minimum of three
2.3.1. Mechanical test times per specimen to ensure the accuracy of reported results.
The compressive strength is measured at 28 days of age on The permeability testing was done on the same specimens as those
cubic specimens 150  150  150 mm in accordance with the for the porosity measurement.
European Standard EN 12390 [30], with a constant rate loading
of 0.06 MPa.s1 (Fig. 4). The reported result is an average of three 2.3.4. Clogging test
to five tests. The clogging phenomenon is an essential factor that must be
According to the European Standard EN 1338 [31], the splitting taken into account when using and maintaining the pervious con-
test was also performed on cubic specimens 150  150  150 mm. crete after construction, it can reduce the permeability signifi-
This test was performed at constant load rate of 0.05 MPa.s1 cantly. In fact, because of the open structure, pervious concrete
(Fig. 4). acts as a filter, retaining sediments, organics, chemicals, and other
contaminants flushed through the pervious concrete during a pre-
cipitation event. Thus, a clogging test will need to be developed to
2.3.2. Porosity and density tests help in designing pervious concrete maintenance schedules for the
The open porosity and density of pervious concrete can be optimum performance.
obtained based on the method proposed by Nguyen [14] and Mata Clogging tests were conducted on the pervious concrete speci-
[32]. The sample is kept dry continuously for 3 days at 40 °C, then mens in this study. The amount of clogging agent (soil) which
it is immersed in water for 30 min. The mass of the sample in the deposits on the pervious concrete surface is determined based on
dry and under water condition is determined. The open porosity of the following assumptions:
the sample is calculated according to the equation 1 below.

The parking lots are usually the main application of pervious
 
 concrete, those of commercial site can be used to estimate the
Mair  Msub
Po ¼ 1   100% ð1Þ amount of soil that would deposit on the pervious concrete.
qwater  Vt

The total suspended solids (TSS) per year for a commercial site
is about 1125 kg per hectare, according to EPA estimation [36].
where Po: Open porosity, [%], Mair: Mass of sample at the outlet of
TSS is the dry-weight of particles trapped by a filter. TSS con-
the oven at 40 °C, [kg], Msub: Mass of sample under water, [kg],
centration is defined as the mass of particles above 1 lm in
Vt: Sample volume, [m3], qwater: Density of water, [kg.m3].
140 D.H. Nguyen et al. / Construction and Building Materials 135 (2017) 137–150

Before crushing Before crushing Before crushing

After crushing After crushing After crushing

Crepidula (CR) Scallops (SC) Queen scallops (QS)
Fig. 2. Crushed seashells to be reused in pervious concrete.

Table 2
Physical and chemical proprieties of the crushed seashells and natural aggregates.

Characteristics Natural aggregate CR SC QS

Specific gravity (kg.m3) 2716 2696 2523 2497
Bulk density, uncompacted (kg.m3) 1375 1216 1061 1083
Bulk density, compacted (kg.m3) 1574 1399 1253 1258
Water absorption (%) 0.53 2.25 2.93 2.91
Chloride ion content (%) 0.000 0.096 0.055 0.074
Organic matter content (%) 0.00 1.87 1.01 1.73
Surface area (mm2.g1) 421 943 1078 1190
*
CR: Crepedula, SC: Scallop, QS: Queen Scallop.

For a commercial site, 25% of the area is impervious (roofs and

C
sidewalks), the floor (streets and parking) represents 60% of the
total area and the remaining 15% are represented by vegetation
C zone which is the source of soil particles by erosion [37,38].
Intensity

C
Only 5% of the pervious concrete surface was considered to

C C C C C QS receive the soil load.
C C C C C C
SC Finally, for a service life of 20 years, and for the surface area
A A A A A A A 150  150 mm of each test specimen, a total amount of 0.253 kg
A AA CR soil was used. The more detailed calculation was presented in
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 [14]. For each clogging cycle, this amount of soil is mixed into
the water to have a concentration of suspended solids of 1.0%.
2 Theta
The type of soils used in this study was selected to have the
Fig. 3. X-ray diffraction of crushed seashells (A: Aragonite, C: Calcite). most significant effects on reduction of permeability of pervious
concrete. The potential of the pervious concrete clogging depends
on the type, the size range of soil, the pore size and the initial
diameter. It is a water quality parameter used as an example to porosity of the concrete. Moreover, Chebbo [39], Chocat et al.
assess the quality of wastewater after treatment in a wastewa- [40], Zukos and Pisano [41] and Verbanck [42] report that over
ter plant. 70% of TSS of rainfall are smaller than 100 lm. In addition, a soil
 D.H. Nguyen et al. / Construction and Building Materials 135 (2017) 137–150 141

Table 3
Composition of different mixes proposed.

ID Specimen type Cement 52.5 R Water1 Aggregate 2/6.3 mm Sand (kg.m3) Crushed shell 2/4 mm Chloride ion content
(kg.m3) (kg.m3) (kg.m3) (kg.m3) (%)
CPC Control 301 111 1574 110 0 0.05
CRPC 60% Crepidula 301 111 630 110 945 0.34
SCPC 60% Scallops 301 111 630 110 945 0.22
QSPC 60% Queen Scallops 301 111 630 110 945 0.27
1
Efficient water.

with both coarse and fine particles is worst in terms of pervious

concrete permeability [14,32,37,43]. Therefore, a blended material
with 75% silty clay 0/80 lm and 25% of sand 0/4 mm are used as
clogging agent in the clogging procedure of the present study
(Fig. 6). This range of clogging materials offers a good representa-
tion of field condition. The grain size distribution of these materials
is shown in the Fig. 6.
The clogging test was carried out on the same apparatus used
for the water permeability test (Fig. 7). The clogging procedure
includes the following steps:

Measuring the initial permeability of the specimen by the fall-

Fig. 4. Compressive (left) and splitting tensile test (right). ing head permeability test,

Mixing the clogging agent (soil) in water. The concentration of
suspended solids is 1.0%,
Graduated transparent
Pouring progressively the solution in suspension on the testing
Inlet valve pipe with an inside specimen top to allow water flow through the test specimen
diameter of 99.4 mm and bring the clogging agent into the specimen,

After the water was completely drained, measuring the perme-
100 100 100

Valve to ability under falling head test with the presence of the clogging
keep the agent remaining on the specimen surface. The value of perme-
constant ability recorded is referred to as value before cleaning.
water level
Removing and gently rinsing with water the residual clogging
agent on the specimen surface,
Pervious

After cleaning, measuring again the permeability by allowing
concrete
55

Drain pipe pure water flow through this ‘‘cleaned specimen” and perme-
paver
ability was recorded. This value is referred to as value after
enclosed in cleaning.
mold
Repeating these above steps at least 5 times or until the differ-
Outlet
valve ence in permeability measured after cleaning between two con-
secutive times is low (<15%),

Observing the distribution of the clogging agent on the height of
Fig. 5. Device for measuring the permeability coefficient of the pervious concrete. the concrete specimen by splitting test.

100
90 Silty clay 0/80µm
Sand 0/4 mm
80
Percent passing (%)

Blended 75% Silty clay + 25% Sand

70
60
50
40
30
20
Silty clay Sand 0/4mm 10
0
0,1 1 10 100 1000 10000
Grain size (µm)

Fig. 6. Clogging agent and their grading curves.

142 D.H. Nguyen et al. / Construction and Building Materials 135 (2017) 137–150
Clogging agent mixed in water
Fig. 7. Clogging testing apparatus.
2.3.5. Freeze-thaw TESTING
For freeze-thaw resistance, two series of tests were conducted
on concrete specimens. In the first series, only the control pervious
concrete was saturated and then frozen and thawed in 3% sodium
chloride (NaCl) solution. This deicing chemical was selected based
on their wide applications and ease of access. While in the second
series, all of the concrete was frozen and thawed in drinking water
instead of the salt water.
The profile of freeze/thaw cycles for determining the freeze-
thaw resistance is defined in standard EN 1338 [31] with the tem-
perature varying from 18 °C to +20° for 24 h and the specimens
were completely saturated. Mass loss of the specimens was mea-
sured every week. A pervious concrete specimen
150  150  75 mm is considered the off state due to freeze/thaw
when the mass loss is about 15% or test was completed when a
specimen reached 300 cycles [44,45].
2.3.6. Leaching test
The pervious concrete is used principally for the pavement,
water penetrates the concrete and dissolves hydration products
in the concrete (and aggregate if it is easy soluble). Dissolved mate-
rial will be carried away by the flow of water downstream and out
of the concrete. Leaching is the name of the whole process of dis-
solving and transporting substances out of the concrete. For pervi-
ous concrete, this can be a rapid process because the percolation
through the concrete is fast and the internal area which the water
meets on its way is very important.
The leaching behavior of the pervious concrete was tested fol-
lowing process detailed in [14]. The monolithic concrete prism
specimens 70  70  150 mm were immersed in demineralized
water with initial pH equal to 5.5 and at room temperature
(Fig. 8). The weight ratio between the liquid and the solid is equal
to 3. The test was performed with continuous stirring to ensure
homogeneity of solution. A speed of 100 rpm with a propeller stir-
rer was adopted. The pH of the well-homogenized solution was
measured two times per day. Solution samples were taken daily
from leaching solution for element concentration analysis. A sys-
tem was considered to have reached its equilibrium when the dif-
ference between each pH measurement of the solution in 24 h by
less than 0.1 pH units. The eluates were filtered through a
0.45 lm membrane, acidified with nitric acid and analyzed for
cations with an inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spec-
trometry technique (ICP-AES) and expressed in mg.kg1 of dry
matter.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Mechanical strength
The compressive and tensile strengths for all mixtures are
shown on the Fig. 9. The compressive strength of shell pervious
concretes varied from 15.2 to 18.6 MPa, higher than the initial tar-
get value (15.0 MPa). Results of mechanical strengths found in this
study were within the typical range of about 3.5 MPa to 28.0 MPa
for compressive strength and about 0.8 to 4.3 MPa for tensile
strength [19]. Thus, the obtained values in this study are according
to the typical strengths and allowing the concrete been used for
surface layer of parking lots.
It could be noted that the pervious concrete incorporating
crushed shells present smaller compressive strength values than
the control pervious concrete. The compressive strengths decrease
from 13.2% to 29.2% and the tensile strengths also decrease from
11.8% to 28.8%. The mechanical strengths decrease of the pervious
concrete made from the crushed shells may be explained by the
following assumptions:

The crushed shells are more fragile than the natural aggregate
[13–15].

The substitution of aggregate with crushes shells can increase
the porosity of concrete. In fact, the natural gravel has a round
shape that allows an optimum packing degree of mixture. By
contrast, the crushed shells have the flat shape, once incorpo-
rated, they play a role as a wall and disturb the granular
arrangement, thus reduce the compactness [15]. To confirm this
observation, compactness test on the shaking table has been
used to determine the packing of mixture of crushed shells
and natural aggregate [46]. Referring to the Table 4, packing
density was decreased by the appearance of crushed shells in
the mixture.

The crushed shells are flats and their surface area is greater than
the natural aggregate (see Table 2). As a consequence, with the
same amount of cement paste, the layer of cement paste around
the grains of the natural aggregate and crushed shells for shell
concrete is slighter, probably the aggregate and the crushed
shells are not fully covered. One incorrect paste thickness
causes a weak bond of the matrix.

The important organic matter and impurities of shells can dis-
rupt the hydration process or cause defects of adhesion
between the crushed shells particles and the cement paste.
Thus, they can generate structural defects in the cement paste.
3.2. Physical properties
Fig. 10 shows densities and dry bulk densities of pervious con-
crete specimens obtained by the volumetric method. Average den-
sity values of the pervious concrete incorporating crushed shells
ranged from 1810 to 1926 kg.m3 corresponding to a maximal
decrease of 6.3% in comparison to the control pervious concrete
(1932 kg.m3). The dry bulk density of concrete varied from 1761
to 1862 kg.m3. The lower densities of the shells concretes can
be explained by its more porous structure because of a strong per-
turbation of the granular arrangement. The decrease in densities of
the shells concretes could be also due to the density difference
between the crushed shells and the natural aggregate. However,
the value range of density is comparable to density values reported
in previous research on pervious concrete, which ranged from
1710 to 2009 kg.m3 [15,19,45].
Fig. 11 shows the open porosity and the total porosity of the
four mixes. The open porosity of shells concretes is between
22.3% and 23.1% and the total porosity varies from 31.7% to
 D.H. Nguyen et al. / Construction and Building Materials 135 (2017) 137–150 143

(a) Specimen (b) Leaching test setup

Fig. 8. Leaching test.

24,0 4,0 certainly linked to a better accessibility of the pores of small size
Compressive strength by water. Moreover, the image technique did not allow obtain a
sufficiently fine resolution to quantify the finest porosity, such as
Tensile strength
gel pores or capillary pores of the cement paste.
21,0 3,5
Following the result of image analysis, the characteristic pore
Compressive strength (MPa)

size of control pervious concrete is 3.3 mm. However, the charac-

Tensile strength (MPa)

teristic pore size of shells concretes was smaller, varying from

18,0 3,0 2.6 to 3.2 mm. The smaller size range of the shells in comparison
with natural aggregate could be advanced to explain this difference
[47]. Among three shells concretes, crepidula concrete represents
15,0 2,5 the smallest pore size.

3.3. Permeability to water

12,0
9,0
CPC CRPC SCPC
Fig. 9. Compressive and tensile strengths of pervious concrete at 28 days.
34.3%. These values are more important than the control pervious
concrete (29.9% and 31.4% respectively). Inversely to the densities
of concrete, the porosities of shells concretes increase in order of
crepidula concrete, scallops concrete and queen scallop concrete.
Based on the results performed in the Figs. 9 to 11, the variation
of densities and the porosities are coherent with the variation of
mechanical strength.
The porosity and pore size of concrete were also estimated
using the images analysis. The evolution of the porosity estimated
by image analysis is similar to the open and total porosity mea-
sured (Table 5). The porosity obtained by image analysis is always
lower than the total porosity measured. The difference was
2,0
Permeability coefficient of the pervious concrete is very impor-
tant to ensure proper design and work for permeable pavement,
and rainwater should be fully permeated when it rains, regardless
1,5 of how heavy the rainfall is. The permeability to water of pervious
QSPC
concretes with or without crushed shells varies between 2.2 and
3.4 mm.s1 (Fig. 12). In comparison to the recommended value
1.0 mm.s1, these values are high enough to be used as a surface
layer for pavement structures. From the Figs. 11 and 12, it can be
seen that the variation of the pervious concrete permeability is
exponentially proportional to the porosities.
3.4. Clogging test results
The changes in permeability of the cubic specimens subjected
to clogging test are shown in Figs. 13 and 14. One example of depo-
sition of clogging agent in the pores of the pervious concrete is
illustrated in Fig. 15.
The permeability of the pervious concrete, with or without
shells, after each clogging cycle and before cleaning is very low,
regardless of the initial permeability. After each clogging cycle

Table 4
Parking density of the aggregate skeleton depending on the type of crushed shells

Natural aggregate 40% Natural aggregate + 60% Crepidula 40% Natural aggregate + 60% Scallop 40% Natural aggregate + 60% Queen Scallop
Parking density 0.574 0.547 0.530 0.535
144 D.H. Nguyen et al. / Construction and Building Materials 135 (2017) 137–150

2000 2 000 4,0

Density
Dry bulk density 3,5
1950 1 950

Permeability to water (mm.s-1)

3,0

Dry bulk density (kg.m-3)

1900 1 900
Density (kg.m -3)

2,5

1850 1 850 2,0

1,5
1800 1 800
1,0
1750 1 750
0,5

1700 1 700 0,0

CPC CRPC SCPC QSPC CPC CRPC SCPC QSPC

Fig. 10. Densities and dry bulk densities of concrete. Fig. 12. Permeability coefficient by falling head test.

40,0 40,0 the mechanisms including of the filter and deposition process.
Total porosity
The filter function means that the diameter of suspended
Open porosity particles is larger than the diameter of the pores; the deposition
35,0 35,0 function implies the suspended particles deposits on the pore
wall due to particle-particle interactions and particle-surface
interactions.
Open porosity (%)
Total porosity (%)

The restoration of the permeability after washing depends on

30,0
25,0
20,0
15,0
CPC CRPC SCPC
Fig. 11. Open and total porosities of concrete.
(excepting cleaning), the four specimens show the same lost of
permeability, lower than 95% of the initial value. This observation
is consistent with the results given in previous studies
[14,32,43,48]. For example, according to Schaefer et al. [43], due
to clogging by a blended agent clogging (silty clay sand), the
decrease in permeability was from 93 to 96% of the initial value.
In effect, a blended clogging agent – fines and sand – was con-
firmed to be the most ‘‘damaging” clogging agent, that can lead
to fully clogging in a small number of clogging cycles.
The quick permeability reductions of specimens subjected to
a blended agent clogging (silty clay/sand) can be explained by
30,0
the initial permeability value. The higher the initial permeability
is, the greater the efficiency after washing is. Pervious concrete
made from queen scallops presents the most significant recovery.
25,0 By contrast, crepidula pervious concrete presents a faster blockage
because of its lower initial permeability.
The pores sizes significantly influence the permeability changes
20,0 under clogging. The crepidula pervious concrete, despite an initial
permeability equivalent to control pervious concrete, shows a
greater decrease in permeability. This can probably be explained
by the smaller pores size than those ones of control pervious
15,0 concrete.
QSPC The specimens were not able to recover totally the permeability
after the washing procedure. Recovery ranged between 27% and
47% of initial permeability after 5 clogging cycles. The permeability
of the scallops and queen scallops concretes is always greater than
1.0 mm.s1 while the permeability of crepidula concrete, contain-
ing the lowest porosity, show the lowest clogging resistance,
approached very quickly to a value of around 1.0 mm.s1, after 1
clogging cycle.
The deterioration rate of permeability was highest in the begin-
ning, decreased gradually as clogging developed, and tended to
level off as clogging progressed to an advanced stage. The test
results suggest that the specimens with initial permeability higher
than 3.0 mm.s1 were able to keep their permeability coefficient
values above 1.0 mm.s1 throughout the service life of the pervious
pavement.

Table 5
Evolution of porosities of the pervious concrete specimens determined using the volumetric method and the image analysis procedure.

Type of concrete Characteristic pore size by image analysis (mm) Porosity by image analysis (%) Open porosity (%) Total porosity (%)
Control pervious concrete – CPC 3.3 24.0 21.9 31.4
Crepidula concrete – CRPC 2.8 24.1 22.3 31.7
Scallops concrete – SCPC 2.9 25.3 22.9 33.1
Queen scallops concrete – QSPC 3.2 28.5 23.0 34.3
 D.H. Nguyen et al. / Construction and Building Materials 135 (2017) 137–150 145

4,0
CPC
3,5
Permeability to water (mm.s-1)
CRPC
SCPC
3,0
QSPC
2,5

2,0

1,5

1,0

0,5

0,0
Initiale Before After Before After Before After Before After Before After
cleaning cleaning cleaning cleaning cleaning cleaning cleaning cleaning cleaning cleaning
Before test 1st cycle 2nd cycle 3rd cycle 4th cycle 5th cycle

Clogging cycles

Fig. 13. Permeability changes with the number of clogging cycles.

Remaining permeability after clogging cycles (%)

100
CPC
90
CRPC
80 SCPC
70 QSPC
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Initiale Before After Before After Before After Before After Before After
cleaning cleaning cleaning cleaning cleaning cleaning cleaning cleaning cleaning cleaning
Before test 1st cycle 2nd cycle 3rd cycle 4th cycle 5th cycle
Clogging cycles

Fig. 14. Percentage of remaining permeability change with the number clogging repetition in comparison to initial permeability before clogging test.

Top of specimen Natural

aggregate

Silty clay
deposit

Shell
Bottom of specimen 5 mm
aggregate
Top surface before Section after clogging test
cleaning
Fig. 15. Crepidule concrete specimen of after exposure to clogging test.
146 D.H. Nguyen et al. / Construction and Building Materials 135 (2017) 137–150
3.5. Freeze-thaw durability
The freeze and thaw damage developments of pervious con-
crete were evaluated based on the weight loss and visual
appearance.
3.5.1. Phase 1: Freeze-thaw durability in deicing salts
In the cold climates, road salts are used to melt snow and ice on
pavements, then, the first test to evaluate the freeze-thaw durabil-
ity was performed with deicing salt and on the control pervious
concrete.
The control pervious concrete specimens were entirely
immersed in deicing solution which is 3% sodium chloride (NaCl)
solution according to the standard NF EN 1338 [31]. After 5 cycles,
the control pervious concrete specimens are totally destroyed
(Fig. 16). On the contrary of the gradual internal cracking and sur-
faces scaling of conventional concrete subjected to freeze/thaw
cycles, the control pervious concretes are structurally damaged:
all the grains are separated from each other.
This short life of pervious concrete under the action of deicing
chemicals has already been reported by Cutler et al. [49] and Mata
[32] and Anderson [50]. The rapid degradation of pervious concrete
subjected to freezing and thawing cycles in the presence of deicing
salts can be explained by three mains hypotheses:

Firstly, the salt water volume increase is greater than the fresh
potable water during solidification.

Secondly, the dissolution of portlandite was accelerated in brine
following the Eq. (2). In fact, for pervious concrete, cement paste
layer around the aggregate is very thin; the sodium chloride salt
solution can reach rapidly the gravel surface to dissolve the
portlandite that preferentially deposited in the gravel-cement
interface.
2NaCl þ CaðOHÞ2 ! 2NaOH þ CaCl2 ð2Þ

Thirdly, the hydraulic pressure was increased by the pressure of
osmosis caused by local increases in solute concentration due to
the removal of frozen (pure) water from the original solution. In
fact, freeze-thaw testing conducted with a 3% sodium chloride
solution showed that as the solution freezes, the concentration
of the unfrozen solution can rise to nearly 4 times the original
concentration [51].
Fig. 16. Control pervious concrete specimen deteriorated after 5 freeze/thaw cycles
in deicing salt solution.
3.5.2. Phase 2: Freeze-thaw durability in drinking fresh water
The freeze/thaw resistance of seashells pervious concretes
and control pervious concrete in drinking fresh water is shown
in the Fig. 17 and the Fig. 18 presents the deterioration of
pervious concrete based shells. For all specimens tested, the
damage was seen to originate from the bottom side of the
specimens, by referring to the compaction direction. The location
of the most damage corresponded to the place with the lowest
level of compaction, as the specimens would be lightly
compacted on the bottom.
It should be noted that the control pervious concrete shows a
better freeze/thaw performance in fresh water than in deicing
solution. However, the number of freeze-thaw cycles suffered by
control pervious concrete in this study is still lower than those
announced by Wang et al. [29], Kevern [44] and Hager [52] (maybe
reach to 300 cycles). In fact, the previous research in the literature
used the standard ASTM C666A [53] in which the temperature
changes from 18 to +4 °C in comparison from 18 to +20 °C in
present research. In our experiences, a maximum temperature of
+4 °C does not lead to a total thawing of the water, the following
freezing phase are not ‘‘completed”. However, the phase freezing
with repeated hydraulic pressure is a primary factor of the deteri-
oration of the pervious concrete.
The numbers of freeze/thaw cycles are 23, 50 and 49 for crepi-
dula, scallop and queen scallop concrete respectively, against 83
cycles for control pervious concrete. The number of freeze-thaw
cycles suffered by shells concrete was decreased 73, 40 and 41%
correspondingly in comparison to the control pervious concrete.
Then, the impact of the presence of the shells on the freeze/thaw
performance is more pronounced than on the mechanical strength
of pervious concrete.
In order to explain the lower resistance to freeze-thaw cycles of
shell concretes, some following assumptions can be advanced:

The tensile strength of the shells concretes is lower than the
control concrete. Under the action of freeze/thaw, concretes
are strongly subjected to the traction stress.

Significant amount of chlorides, organic and impurities matter
of shells cause unfavorable interactions with the cement matrix.
In the phase 1, it was remarked the harmful effect of salt
solution on resistance to freeze/thaw of pervious concretes. In
100
90
CPC
Number of freeze/thaw cycles (days)
80
70
60
QSPC SCPC
50
40
30
CRPC
20
10
0
1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5 3,0 3,5
Tensile strength (MPa)
Fig. 17. Number of freeze/thaw cycles suffered by pervious concrete in drinking
fresh water before failu.
 D.H. Nguyen et al. / Construction and Building Materials 135 (2017) 137–150
Top side during compacting
Bottom side during compacting
(a) Deterioration of queen scallops concrete
Fig. 18. Deterioration of shell concrete due to freeze-thaw cycles in drinking fresh water.
addition, the organic matter can acidify the solution according
to a reaction as Eq. (3) and degrade the concrete by leaching
mechanism.
2R  H þ Ca2þ ! R  Ca  R þ 2Hþ

The gradual dissolution of the shells (calcium carbonate) by the
leaching mechanism, as the Eq. (4):
CaCO3 ðsÞ þ H2 O ! Ca2þ þ HCO3 þ OH
In spite of a higher mechanical strength, it could be noticed that
the crepidula concrete weakly resist to freeze/thaw cycles. The
high contents of chlorides and organic matter of these shells are
the most likely reasons for this finding.
3.6. Leaching results
3.6.1. pH evolution
Fig. 19 shows the pH evolution of leaching solutions measured
during the leaching test. The pH increases quickly from the initial
value of 5.5 to nearly 12.0 in a few hours. It then evolves more
slowly, decreases and stabilizes at a value of 8.5 after one week.
The details of these processes can be explained below.
3.6.1.1. Increase of pH. The strong increase of the leaching solution
pH observed at the first period is probably related to the diffusion
of ion OH- from concrete pore solution. This can be enriched by dis-
solving of portlandite which is located preferably in the porous
zones (Eq. (5)) [54]. The dissolution of the portlandite might be fol-
lowed by the dissolution of calcium silicate hydrates (C-S-H),
which also releases OH- ions according to Eq. (6) [55]. Finally, the
dissolution of calcium carbonate CaCO3 from the added shells
contributes to increase the pH (Eq. (7)).
CaðOHÞ2 ! Ca2þ þ 2OH
½xCaO  SiO2  yH2 OðaqÞ ! ½x  aÞCaO  ð1  bÞSiO2
 y  aÞH2 OðsolideÞ þ aCaðOHÞ2 ðaqÞ þ bSiO2 ðaqÞ
CaCO3 ðsÞ þ H2 O ! Ca2þ þ HCO3 þ OH
3.6.1.2. Decrease of pH. The pHs of the leaching solution gradually
decrease after 24 h, as a result of the gradual acidification related
147
Rupture at the
shell surface
Rupture at the
aggregate surface
Rupture of the
5 mm cement paste
(b) Failure surface of the queen scallops concrete
-thaw cycles in drinking fresh water
to dissolution of CO2 in water. The pH of the leaching solution is
stabilized at a value of 8.5 (8.4–8.9) after one week. Theses pH val-
ues are consistent with the pH values of 8.6 to 9.2 of water after
immersion of pervious concretes, reported in the literature
ð3Þ [56,57]. It is of the same order of magnitude as the pH of the pore
solution of an ordinary concrete leached with pure water after
106 years [58].
From the point of view of the pH change, leaching of pervious
concretes, with or without shells, happens very quickly, at a com-
ð4Þ parable rate to that one of accelerated leaching test on ordinary
concrete. The quick change of pH in the case of pervious concrete
is due to, in the beginning, the open structure of the pervious con-
crete, which increases the cement paste surface area of the speci-
men exposed to the leaching solution and secondly, the thin
layer of the cement paste around the grains of aggregate and shells.
3.6.2. Elements concentrations monitoring
A chemical analysis was implemented for leaching solution by
the method described in Section 2.3.6 to quantify the concentra-
tion of dissolved elements probably emanated from the cement
paste, but also to some extent from the aggregate and crushed
shells. Fig. 20 shows the evolution of the soluble content of cal-
cium, sodium and potassium in relation to the dry mass of the per-
vious concrete specimen.
It should be noticed that the calcium content is very important
at the beginning of the leaching test but gradually decreases to sta-
bilize after about 100 h, around 10 mg.kg1 for all concretes, with
and without shells. The change in calcium content of the leaching
solution is explained by the following chemical evolution:

Firstly, the portlandite dissolves according to the Eq. (5) in sig-
nificantly increasing the calcium content. Indeed, the dissolving
process of portlandite is very rapid in the solution stirred [59].
This calcium can also be added by the dissolution of C-S-H
according to the Eq. (6). At the start of the test, the calcium con-
ð5Þ tent of shells concretes is more important (from 400 to 475 mg.
kg1) than from the control pervious concrete (approximate
185 mg.kg1), because of the dissociation of calcium carbonate
ð6Þ from the shells, as claimed in Eq. (7).

Then, the Ca2+ ions newly formed precipitate with carbonate
and bicarbonate ions from the dissolution of CO2 to form cal-
ð7Þ
cium carbonate CaCO3. This calcium carbonate is deposited in
the bottom and on the wall of the test containing or on the sur-
face of the pores of the pervious concrete so as to protect the
concrete from the leaching process.
148 D.H. Nguyen et al. / Construction and Building Materials 135 (2017) 137–150

14,0
CPC
13,0 CRPC
SCPC
12,0 QSPC
11,0
13,0
10,0
pH

9,0 12,0
8,0
11,0
7,0
10,0
6,0
0 4 8 12 16
5,0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
Duration of exposure (hours)

Fig. 19. Change in pH of concrete leaching solution.

600 600
Ca Control Ca Crepidula
500 K 500 K
Concentration (mg.kg-1)

Concentration (mg.kg-1)

Na Na
400 400

300 300

200 200

100 100

0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 0 50 100 150 200 250
Duration (hours) Duration (hours)

600 600
Ca Scallops Ca Queen scallops
500 K 500 K
Concentration (mg.kg-1)
Concentration (mg.kg-1)

Na Na
400 400

300 300

200 200

100 100

0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 0 50 100 150 200 250
Duration (hours) Duration (hours)

Fig. 20. Chemical analysis of the leaching solution.

With the portlandite content and the accessibility limited and
the abundance of CO2 in the air, the gradual precipitation of
CaCO3 occurs gradually until steady state of CaCO3-CO2-H2O
system. A pH value from 8.4 to 8.9 in the steady state of leach-
ing solution corresponds to a total consumption or inaccessibil-
ity of portlandite of the cement paste.
In contrast to the decrease in calcium content at the end of the
experiment, a potassium and sodium content growth throughout
these tests (for a duration about of 250 h). The leaching of these
ions is associated to the dissociation of alkaline bases NaOH and
KOH in concrete. Moreover, the potassium and sodium content of
the shells concretes are slightly higher than in the control pervious
 D.H. Nguyen et al. / Construction and Building Materials 135 (2017) 137–150
concrete. This difference probably comes from an additional of K+
and Na+ from a partial dissolution of shells [22]. Furthermore, a sig-
nificant greater leaching of potassium (up to 420 mg.kg1) relative
to the leached sodium (up to 260 mg.kg1) was observed. This is as
result of a higher initial content of K2O than Na2O in cement (see
Table 1).
4. Conclusion
In this study, seashells were used as an aggregate to make per-
vious concrete. The study concentrates on the durability of pervi-
ous concrete from the crushed shells (crepidula, scallops and
queen scallops).
As the conditions of this research, there will be some following
conclusions:

Pervious concretes made from the crushed shells have a lower
mechanical strength than the control pervious concrete without
shells. Moreover, the pervious concretes with shells are widely
utilizable for applications such as low-traffic parking areas.

The mixture of silty clay and sand causes a significant decrease
in permeability of pervious concrete. Sand grains enter the
pores at the first step; the silty clay grains filling the remaining
empty space for the high clogging of the pervious concrete.

The restoration of the permeability after washing depends on
the initial permeability value. The concretes based on scallops
and queen scallops have the most significant recovery while
the concrete based on crepidula has a faster blockade.

The freeze/thaw durability of concrete with shells is weaker
than the control pervious concrete. Among three shells, the
resistance to freeze/thaw of crepidula concrete is the lowest
due to its important organic and salt content. The chemical
characteristic of crushed shells have an influence remarkable
on the freeze/thaw durability of seashells pervious concrete.
Thereby, the shells usage in the concrete requires certain pre-
cautions regarding to the freeze/thaw phenomenon. In addition,
the road salt (sodium chloride) application to melt snow and ice
on the pervious concrete in cold climates which to be
prevented.

Leaching of pervious concretes quickly occurs after contacting
with the leaching solution. The presence of the shells appears
to influence the quantity of the leaching calcium. Indeed, the
calcium carbonate in the shells dissociates in demineralized
water to release calcium.
In spite of some unfavorable effects, experimental tests in labo-
ratory performed on pervious concrete based on crushed shells
confirm the feasibility of valorization of this waste as a replace-
ment in the composition of pervious concrete. It is necessary to
check the validity of conclusions from laboratory tests in the field
conditions, as permeable pavement pilot lot.
Acknowledgments
The work presented in this article is a part of the collaborative
project VECOP cofinanced by ERDF and the Regions of Normandy
and Brittany (France). The authors wish to thank the co-
financiers and all project partners for their supports.
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