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PRODUCTION OF MALEIC ANHYDRIDE FROM OXIDATION OF n-BUTANE
Technical Report · December 2015

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.4096.8569
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PRODUCTION OF MALEIC
ANHYDRIDE FROM OXIDATION
OF n-BUTANE
By
SAJJAD KHUDHUR ABBAS P81540
A design project submitted to the Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment

in partial fulfilment of the requirements for Design of Chemical Processes
computer aided Class KKKK6014
Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment

The National University of Malaysia
DECEMBER 2015
Supervisors
PROF. DATO' IR. DR. WAN RAMLI BIN WAN DAUD
DR. NOR YULIANA BINTI YUHANA

Dr. DARMAN BIN NORDIN
The National University of Malaysia
Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment
The undersigned certify that they have read, and recommend to the Faculty of
Chemical and Natural Resources Engineering for acceptance, a design project
entitled Production of 60,000 MTPA of Oleochemical Methyl Ester from RBD
Palm Kernel Oil submitted by
SAJJAD KHUDHUR ABBAS P81540
A design project submitted to the Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment

in partial fulfilment of the requirements for Design of Chemical Processes
computer aided Class KKKK6014
______________________________
DR. NOR YULIANA BINTI YUHANA

iv
ABSTRACT
The plant is designed to produce Maleic Anhydride by the reaction of butane with oxygen
using the vanadium phosphorus oxide as a heterogeneous catalyst (VPO) and also the by-
products are carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. The reaction carried out in the Packed
Bed Reactor (PBR) with condition at the range of 350 to 500oC at pressure is 275 kPa.
This report includes mass and energy balances, heat integration, control and
instrumentation, mechanical equipment and process design, waste treatment and safety
analysis. The location of this plant is in Phase 2, Gebeng, Pahang. The plant operates with
loading production of 200 000 tonnes per year and operating year in 2011 with one years
of construction. The design of each operation unit has been done based on the ASME
standard and presented in AutoCAD drawing. The plant will be operated for 25 years
with a payback period of 3 years. The plant’s site which considered the safety factors,
design for the treatment plant which ensure that the level of waste disposals meet the
requirements of the Environmental Quality Act 1974. For analysis profitability of the
plant showed that the NPV is RM 260,000,000 and DCFRR, the value of the interest rate
is 0.27. In addition, the analysis of the plant hazards with HAZOP also has been done
successfully. In conclusion, the production of Maleic Anhydride is to be expected to
fulfill the needs of local and world market especially in Malaysia and Asia.
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Pages
DECLARATION ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS iii
ABSTRACT iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS v
LIST OF ILUSTRATION xv
LIST OF TABLE xvii
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction to Maleic Anhydride 1
1.2 Product Usage 3
1.2.1 Unsaturated Polyester Resin (UPR) 4
1.2.2 Production of 1,4-butanediol 4
1.2.3 Lube Oil Additives 5
1.2.4 Copolymers 5
1.2.5 Agricultural Chemicals 5
1.2.6 Formation of Fumaric Acid and Malic Acid 6
1.2.7 Others Application 6
1.3 Sources of Raw Material and Product 9
1.3.1 n-butane 9
1.3.2 Oxygen 10
1.3.3 Water 11
1.3.4 Carbon Monoxide 12
1.3.5 Carbon Dioxide 13
1.4 Economic 13
1.4.1 Demand and Production of Maleic Anhydride 13
1.4.2 Consumption of Maleic Anhydride 17
1.4.3 Prices of Feed Material and Product 19
vi
1.4.4 Plant Production Capacity 20

1.4.5 Future Marketing Potential 21
CHAPTER II PLANT SITE ANALYSIS

2.1 Location (Gebeng Industrial Areas, Pahang) 22
2.2 Site Location 23
2.3 Logistic Consideration of Feed Material 23
2.4 Transportation of Product 24
2.5 Transport Facilities 25
2.6 Utilities 26
2.7 Geography, Climate and Environment 26
2.8 Incentive 27
CHAPTER III CONCEPT DESIGN PROCESS

3.1 Introduction 28
3.1.1 Reaction of Maleic Anhydride 28
3.1.2 Stoichiometric Equation 29
3.1.3 Kinetic of reaction 30
3.1.4 Mole Balance 31
3.1.5 Net rate of formation 31
3.1.6 Selectivity Vs Conversion 32
3.1.7 POLYMATH result 34
3.2 Catalyst 37
3.3 Design Constraint 38
3.4 Process Flow Diagram 39
3.4.1 Block Diagram of Maleic Anhydride production 39
3.4.2 Process descriptions production of Maleic 40
Anhydride
3.5 Manual Calculation For Mass And Heat Balance 41
3.5.1 Mass Balance 41
vii
3.5.2 Heat Balance 47

3.6 ICON And SUPERPRO Simulation 50
CHAPTER IV HEAT INTEGRATION

4.1 Heat Integration 55
4.2 PFD After Heat Integration 59
CHAPTER V CONTROL AND PIPING SYSTEM

5.1 Introduction for Control System 62
5.2 Control Configuration for Main Unit operation 62
5.2.1 Control configuration for a reactor 62
5.2.2 Control configuration for heat exchanger 65
5.2.3 Control configuration for absorber 66
5.2.4 Control configuration for a distillation column 67
5.3 Piping System Design 71
5.3.1 Liquid flow 71
5.3.2 Vapor flow 71
5.3.3 Sizing Criteria for Gas And Liquid Two-Phase 72
Lines
5.4 Relief System 76
5.4.1 Relief valve placement 76
CHAPTER VI DETAIL PROCESS DESIGN

6.1 Reactor Design 79
6.2 Absorber Design 81
6.2.1 Minimum liquid flow rate 82
6.2.2 Number of theoretical stages 83
6.2.3 Number of actual stages 83
6.2.4 Height of the column 84
6.2.5 Diameter of the column 85
viii
6.2.6 Plate Design 86

6.2.7 Perforated Area 86
6.2.8 Check Weeping 87
6.2.9 Plate Pressure Drop 87
6.3 Distillation Column Design 88
6.4.1 Introduction 88
6.3.2 Tray Specifications 88
6.3.3 Reflux Consideration 89
6.3.4 Relation between Reflux Ratio and Stages 90
6.3.5 Plates Efficiency 91
6.3.6 Number of Actual Plates 92
6.3.7 Feed Point Location 92
6.3.8 Plate Spacing 92
6.3.9 Flowrates and Calculation 92
6.3.10 Physical Properties 93
6.3.11 Column Diameter 94
6.3.12 Liquid Flow Pattern 96
6.3.13 Provisional Plate Design 96
6.3.14 Check Weeping 96
6.3.15 Plate Pressure Drop 97
6.3.16 Downcomer Liquid Backup 98
6.3.17 Check Froth Height 98
6.3.18 Check Residence Time 99
6.3.19 Check Entrainment 99
6.3.20 Trial Layout 99
6.3.21 Number Of Holes and Column Height 100
6.3.22 Summary 100
6.4 Condenser Design 102
6.4.1 Tube-side coefficient (Cooling water) 104
6.4.2 Shell-side coefficient (Organic vapor) 105
ix
6.4.3 Overall Coefficient 106

6.4.4 Shell-side Pressure Drop 106
6.4.5 Tube-side Pressure Drop 108
6.5 Heat Exchanger Design 108
6.5.1 Calculation 109
6.5.2 Tube-side coefficient 111
6.5.3 Shell-side coefficient 112
6.5.4 Overall coefficient 113
6.5.5 Pressure Drop 113
6.6 Reboiler Design 114
6.6.1 Reboiler Design 114
6.6.2 Boiling coefficient 116
6.6.3 Layout 117
CHAPTER VII MECHANICAL DESIGN

7.1 Mechanical Design Of Reactor 118
7.1.2 Material of Construction 118
7.1.3 Determination of Reactor’s Dimensions 119
7.1.4 Reactor Cooling System 120
7.1.5 Determination of Minimum Thickness and 121
MAWPvessel under Internal Pressure
7.1.6 Design of Pressure Vessels Subjected to 124
Combined Loading
7.1.7 Support Design 126
7.1.8 Base Ring and Anchor Bolts Design 127
7.1.9 Flange Design 129
Mechanical Design Of Absorber 132
7.2.1 Specification of Absorber 132
7.2.2 Internal Pressure 133
x
7.2.3 Determination of Minimum Wall Thickness, 134

tmin
7.2.4 Maximum Allowable Working Pressure for 135
Vessel (MAWPvessel)
7.2.5 Design of Pressure Vessels subjected to 136
Combined Loading
7.2.6 Design of Vessel Supports 141
7.2.7 Base ring and anchor bolt design 143
7.2.8 Design of Flanged Joints 145
Mechanical Design Of Distillation Column 148
7.3.2 Mechanical Design of Distillation Column 148
7.3.3 Design of The Covers To The Column 149
7.3.4 Minimum Thickness of The Shell 149
7.3.5 Stress Analysis of The Vessel 150
7.3.6 Wind Loading 151
7.3.7 Analysis of Stresses 152
7.3.8 Principal Stresses 153
7.3.9 Elastic Stability 154
7.3.10 Vessel Support Design 155
7.3.11 Base Ring and Anchor Bolt Design 157
7.3.12 Shell Manholes 159
7.3.13 Selection Of Flanges 159
7.3.14 Selection of Gaskets 161
Mechanical Design Of Condenser 164
7.4.1 Wall Thickness 164
7.4.2 Maximum Allowance Working Pressure 167
7.4.3 Combined Load 167
7.4.4 Design of Saddle Support 173
xi
Mechanical Design Of Heat Exchanger 178

7.5.1 Minimum Wall Thickness 178
7.5.3 Analysis of Combined Loading 182
7.5.4 Stress Analysis 186
7.5.5 Design of Saddle Support 189
Mechanical Design Of Reboiler 193
7.6.1 Minimum Wall Thickness 193
7.6.3 Stress Analysis 196
7.6.4 Total Load 196
7.6.5 Bending momen and stress determination 198
7.6.6 Specification of the Saddle Support 199
CHAPTER VIII WASTE TREATMENT

8.1 Introduction 203
8.2 Regulatory Analysis For Waste Gas 204
8.3 Waste Gas Treatment 206
8.3.1 Wet Scrubber 206
8.3.2 Design of Flue Gas Stack 209
8.4 Wastewater Treatment 211
8.4.2 Regulatory Analysis for Wastewater 211
8.4.3 Wastewater Treatment Process 212
8.4.4 Detailed Design of Wastewater Treatment Unit 217
Operation
xii
8.5 Summary On Cod, Bod Removal Efficiency In Each Unit 220

8.5.1 COD Removal 220
8.5.2 BOD Removal 220
CHAPTER IX UTILITY DESIGN

9.1 Cooling System 222
9.1.1 Cooling Water Usage 222
9.1.2 Design Considerations 227
9.1.3 Water Make-up 229
9.2 Steam System 231
9.2.1 Steam usage to generate power by steam turbine 232
9.2.2 Steam Supply from Boiler to Maleic Anhydride 232
Plant
9.2.3 Fuel Supply to Boiler 233
9.2.4 Boiler Design in Steam System 234
9.2.5 Condenser Design in Steam System 236
CHAPTER X ECONOMIC ANALYSIS

10.1 Profitable Analysis 242
10.2 Market and Recommendation Production Capacity 242
10.3 The Prices of Product 243
10.4 Plant Specification 243
10.5 Cost Estimation 243
10.5.1 Total Capital Investment 243
10.5.2 Fixed Capital Investment, CFC 244
10.5.3 Working Capital, CWC 272
10.5.4 Capital to purchase land for the plant, CL 272
10.6 Total Product Cost 273
10.6.1 Operating Labour Cost, COL 274
10.6.2 Utilities Cost, CUT 276
xiii
10.6.3 Waste Treatment Cost, CWT 280

10.6.4 Raw material cost, CRM 281
10.7 Analysis of Profitability 284
10.7.1 Methods that do not consider time value of money 284
10.7.2 Methods that consider the time value of money 286
10.8 Economy Potential Function 291
10.8.1 Economic Potential for Maleic Anhydride, FPE2 291
10.8.2 Economic Potential for Maleic Anhydride, FPE3 292
and FPE4
CHAPTER XI SAFETY ANALYSIS

11.1 Environmental Effects 296
11.2 Plant Risk Analysis 296
11.2.1 Concept Hazard Analysis Initial Review (CHAIR) 298
11.2.2 Detailed Concept Hazard Analysis Initial Review 231
(CHA)
11.3 Regulative Laws Guidelines 307
11.4 Hazard and Operability Study (HAZOP) 308
11.4.1 Hazards and Operability Review (HAZOP) 308
before P&ID
11.4.2 Hazards and Operability Review (HAZOP) after 343
P&ID
CHAPTER XII PLANT SITE LAYOUT

12.1 Introduction 375
12.2 Site Layout 375
12.3 Plant Layout 377
12.3.1 Costs 377
12.3.2 Process Requirement 377
12.3.3 Operation 379
xiv
12.3.4 Maintenance 379

12.3.5 Safety 379
REFERENCES 381
APPENDIX 385
xv
LIST OF ILUSTRATION
No. Figure Pages

1.1 Structure of Maleic Anhydride 1
1.2 Maleic Anhydride Derivatives 8
1.3 Global demand and production capacity of MA 15
1.4 World Consumption of Maleic Anhydride by end use 18
1.5 World Consumption of Maleic Anhydride 19
1.6 Price of MA 20
2.1 n-butane from Petronas Gas Berhad at Kerteh 24
3.1 Graph Selectivity of MA vs Conversion 33
3.2 Reaction of producing Maleic Anhydride 41
3.3 PFD for Maleic Anhydride Production Plant in iCON 50
3.4 PFD for Maleic Anhydride Production Plant in SuperPro 50
4.1 Relationship between Interval Temperature with Hot and Cold 57
streams
4.2 Determination of pinch point by heat cascade 57
4.3 Grid Representations ( above and below the pinch point ) 58
4.4 Heat exchanger network designs above and below the pinch 58
4.5 PFD after heat integration (ICON) 60
4.6 PFD after heat integration (VISIO) 61
5.1 Control Configuration of Reactor 63
5.2 Control Configuration of Heat exchanger 65
5.3 Control Configuration of Absorber 66
5.4 Control Configuration of Distillation Column 68
5.5 Piping and Instrumentation Diagram before HAZOP 70
6.1 Absorber in maleic anhydride production 82
6.2 Column efficiency for absorber 84
6.3 Product specification 88
6.4 Flow diagram for liquid and vapour 93
xvi
6.5 Condenser 102

6.6 Shell and Tube Exchanger 108
6.7 Kettle Reboiler 114
7.1 Drawing of mechanical design by using AutoCAD for reactor 131
7.2 Schematic diagram of absorber 132
7.3 Drawing of mechanical design by using AutoCAD for absorber 147
7.4 Drawing of mechanical design by using AutoCAD for Distillation 163
Column
7.5 Standard steel saddles for vessel up to 1.2m 174
7.6 Welding neck flanges 175
7.7 Drawing of mechanical design by using AutoCAD for condenser 177
7.8 Steel welding neck flanges 191
7.9 Drawing of mechanical design by using AutoCAD for heat 192
exchanger
7.10 Welding neck flanges 200
7.11 Drawing of mechanical design by using AutoCAD for reboiler 202
8.1 Wet Scrubber 206
8.2 Flue gas stack 209
8.3 Process Flow Diagram for Wastewater Treatment Plant 216
9.1 Mechanical Draft Counterflow Tower 223
9.2 Closed Loop Cooling Tower System 223
9.3 Sizing chart for a counterflow induced-draft cooling tower 228
9.4 Overall Steam System 231
10.1 Graph of Cumulative Discounted Cash Flow against year 290
10.2 Graph of FPE2 for Maleic Anhydride versus conversion,X 292
10.3 Graph of FPE3 for Maleic Anhydride versus conversion, X 293
10.4 Graph of FPE4 for Maleic Anhydride versus conversion,X 293
12.1 Site layout for Maleic Anhydride production plant 378
12.2 Plant layout for Maleic Anhydride production plant 380
xvii
LIST OF TABLE
No. Table Pages

1.1 Properties of Maleic Anhydride 2
1.2 Properties of n-Butane 9
1.3 Properties of Oxygen 10
1.4 Properties of Water 11
1.5 Properties of Carbon Monoxide 12
1.6 Properties of Carbon Dioxide 13
1.7 Demand and production capacity of MA 14
1.8 Maleic Anhyride Buyers 15
1.9 Maleic Anhydride Producer 16
3.1 Kinetic of reaction 30
3.2 Selectivity of MA at difference conversion 32
3.3 Mass Balance from manual calculation for the overall process 42
3.4 Manual mass balance calculation for each stream 43
3.4 Heat capacity of liquid 47
3.6 Heat capacity of gas 48
3.7 Enthalpy of vaporization 48
3.8 Enthalpy of formation of gas 49
3.9 Manual heat balance calculation 49
3.10 Result for iCON simulation 51
3.11 Result for SuperPro Simulation 54
4.1 Process data for heat integration 56
o
4.2 Interval temperature for ΔTmin=10 C 56
4.3 Heat balance for intermediate temperature 57
5.1 Reactor control summary 64
5.2 Control summary for Heat Exchanger 65
5.3 Control summary for absorber 67
5.4 Distillation column control summary 69
xviii
5.5 Optimum Pipe Sizing for Liquid Flow 74

5.6 Optimum Pipe Sizing for Gas Flow 75
5.7 Location, type and application for relief valve 77
6.1 K-value for light and heavy component 90
6.2 Parameter for shell and tube side 109
6.3 Physical properties of Dibutylphthalate 115
7.1 Typical Design Stresses for Plate 119
7.2 Calculation of Dnominal for Reactor’s Opening 129
7.3 Standard Welded Neck Flange Design (All dimensions mm) 130
7.4 Standard Blind Flange Design (All dimensions mm) 131

7.5 Design Parameters absorber 133
7.6 Design pressure for each part of Absorber 133
7.7 Minimum wall thickness for each part of absorber 134
7.8 MAWPvessel for each part of absorber 135
7.9 Opening pipe size calculations for absorber 148
7.10 Dimension of Flange Design and Size of Bolt 148
7.11 Parameters for openings of distillation column 160

7.12 Standard steel flanges dimension for nominal pressure of 6 bar 160
(600 kPa)
7.13 Standard steel flanges dimension for nominal pressure of 6 bar 161
(600 kPa)
7.14 Dimension of Saddle Support 174
7.15 Calculation of Dnominal for Condenser 175
7.16 Typical Standard Flange Design for Shell Sides (Organic 176
Vapour)
7.17 Typical Standard Flange Design for Tube Sides (Cooling Water) 176
7.18 Maximum Allowance Working Pressure Result 182
7.19 Standard of Dimension for Saddle Support for vessel up to 1.2m 189
7.20 Diameter Size for Each Opening 190
xix
7.21 Typical Standard Flange Design for Shell Sides (Organic 191
Vapour)
7.22 Typical Standard Flange Design for Tube Sides (Heating 191
medium)
7.23 Minimum Wall Thickness for shell and head 194
7.24 Modification of Dimension of Saddle Support 200
7.25 Pipe diameter inlet an outlet of reboiler 200
7.26 Selected standard flange design 201
7.27 Flange bolting 201
8.1 Component flow rate of waste gases. 203
8.2 Component flow rate of waste water 211
8.3 Environment Parameters for Standard B 212
8.4 COD and BOD Value for Effluent Content and Standard B 217
8.5 COD Removal Efficiency in Each Processing Unit 220
8.6 BOD Removal Efficiency in Each Processing Unit 220
9.1 Summary of Cooling Water Flow Rate for each Plant Heat 227
exchanger
9.2 General Rules Used to Determine Tower Heights 229
9.3 Summary of power required for each component 231
9.4 Calculation of Steam Supply Flow Rate 233
10.1 Plant specification 243
10.2 Cost estimated for equipments 262
10.3 Summary of Instrumentation and Controls Cost 267
10.4 Cost estimated for piping 268
10.5 Cost estimated for building cost 269
10.6 Total fixed capital investment 271
10.7 Summary total capital investment 273
10.8 Total operator per shift for equipment 275
10.9 Summary of utilities cost 279
10.10 Chemical Cost for waste treatment plant 281
xx
10.11 Raw material cost 281

10.12 Cost estimated for each type of product cost 282
10.13 Summary of total product cost 282
10.14 Economic data for ROI, PBP and Net return 287
10.15 Economic data for NPV (Net Present Value) 288
10.16 Economic data for DCFRR ( Discounted Cash Flow Rate of 288
Return)
10.17 NPV depending on the interest rate, i 290
10.18 Data that required for the calculation FPE2 291
10.19 Data that required in the calculation FPE3 and FPE4 294
11.1 CHAIR for MA production plant 297
11.2 First phase of CHA (base on ICON process flow diagram 300
drawing)
11.3 The result of the second phase of CHA. 305
11.4 Hazards and Operability Review (HAZOP) Based On Process 307
Flow Diagram
11.5 Hazards and Operability Review (HAZOP) Based On Process 341
And Instrumentation Diagram.
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO MALEIC ANHYDRIDE
Maleic anhydride is multifunctional chemical intermediates that find applications in

nearly every field of industrial chemistry. Maleic anhydride occurs as colourless or white
crystalline flakes with strong acrid (pungent) odour. MA is toxic and an irritant to the skin
and mucous membranes leading to burning and ulceration. Other names for maleic
anhydride are 2,5-furandione, dihydro-2,5-dioxofuran, toxilic anhydride, or cis-
butenedioic anhydride. The structural formula for maleic anhydride is given below.
Figure 1.1 Structure of Maleic Anhydride
Maleic anhydride is used as a chemical intermediate in the synthesis of fumaric

and tartaric acid, certain agricultural chemicals, resins in numerous products, dye
intermediates, and pharmaceuticals (HSDB, 1995).
2
Table 1.1 Properties of Maleic Anhydride

Properties
Molecular formula C4H2O3
Molar Mass 98.06 g/mol
Appearance White crystals
Density 1.48 g/cm3
Melting point 52.850C
Boiling point 2020C
Solubility React in water
Heat of combustion -1391.2 kJ/mol
Heat evaporation 54.8 kJ/mol
Heat fusion 13.66 kJ/mol
EU classification Corrosive (C )
Vapor Pressure 0.41 mm Hg at 25 oC
Specific Heat 0.285 cal/g.oC (solid)
0.396 cal/g.oC (liquid)
(Wikipedia 2009)
Maleic anhydride was first synthesized in the 1830’s, but was not manufactured
commercially until about 1930. Prior to 1930, MA was formed only in small quantities as
a by-product of the phthalic anhydride process. This can be converted to maleic
anhydride. The use of benzene as a feedstock for the production of maleic anhydride was
dominant in the world market well into the 1980s. Several processes have been used for
the production of maleic anhydride from benzene with the most common one from
Scientific Design. The advent of patents for the catalytic oxidation of benzene coupled
with improvements in the vanadium oxide catalysts was integral to the creation of a
commercially viable process for MA. (Amanda Lee 1991)
3
Initially, maleic anhydride was produced by the partial oxidation of benzene using
a vanadium oxide catalyst. Rapid increases in the price of benzene and the recognition of
benzene as a hazardous material strictly regulated by the EPA and OSHA, efforts to find a
suitable replacement have been pursued. These factors led to the first commercial
production of maleic anhydride from butane at Monsanto's J. F. Queeny plant in 1974.
In 1983, Monsanto started up the world's first butane to maleic anhydride plant,
incorporating an energy efficient solvent-based product collection and refining system.
This plant was the world's largest maleic anhydride production facility in 1983 at
59,000t/yr capacity. Advances in catalyst technology, increased regulatory pressures, and
continuing cost advantages of butane over benzene have led to a rapid conversion of
benzene to butane based plants. By the mid-1980s in the United States 100% of maleic
anhydride production used butane as the feedstock. Over the years, n-butane has been
utilized with increasingly successful results and is gradually overtaking benzene as the
reactant of choice. (Timothy et al. 2001)
Below is the reaction of n-butane to produce maleic anhydride:

C 4 H 10  3.5O2  C 4 H 2 O3  4 H 2 O
Butane + Oxygen → Maleic Anhydride + Water
1.2 PRODUCT USAGE
Maleic anhydride is truly a remarkable molecule in that it possesses two types of

chemical functionality making it uniquely useful in chemical synthesis and applications.
Maleic anhydride itself has few, if any, consumer uses but in derivatized form it is
extremely versatile in the consumer uses in which it is found.
4
1.2.1 Unsaturated Polyester Resin (UPR)
More than 42% of world maleic anhydride output is used in the manufacture of
unsaturated polyester resins (UPR). Chopped glass fibres are added to UPR to produce
fibreglass reinforced plastics which are used in a wide range of applications such as
pleasure boats, bathroom fixtures, automobiles, tanks and pipes. However, the UPR
market is affected by general economic conditions being tied to the construction,
automobile and marine industries.
There are many unsaturated polyester resin formulations. A typical unsaturated

polyester resin formulation consists of an aromatic dibasic acid (or anhydride) such as
phthalic anhydride, an unsaturated dibasic acid (or anhydride) such as maleic anhydride
and a glycol such a propylene glycol. The polyester chains are then cross-linked through
the double bond with vinyl cross linking agents such as styrene. Reinforcement in the
form of glass fibers or other reinforcement fibers may be added to provide the strength
requirements of the end product. The exact unsaturated polyester formulation, its cross
linking agent, and reinforcement fiber, if any, are selected to optimize the performance of
the end product.
1.2.2 Production of 1,4-butanediol
An important developing use for maleic anhydride is the production of products in the
1,4-butanediol (BDO). BDO is one of the world’s fastest growing chemicals used in the
production of thermoplastic polyurethanes, elastane/Spandex fibres, polybutylene
terephthalate (PBT) resins and many other products. In organic chemistry, 1,4-butanediol
is used for the synthesis of γ-butyrolactone (GBL). The production of 1,4-butandiol is
also having an impact on the MA market. However, BDO is made from a crude MA
which is not traded and only used for this application.
5
1.2.3 Lube Oil Additives
Lube oil additives represent another important market segment for maleic anhydride
derivatives, the molecular structure of importance being adducts of polyalkenyl succinic
anhydrides. These additives are used in gasoline and diesel engine crankcase oils as
dispersants and corrosion inhibitors. One particularly important polyalkenyl succinic
anhydride molecule in this market is polyisobutylene succinic anhydride (PIBSA) where
the polyisobutylene group has a molecular weight of 900 to 1500. Other polyalkenes are
also used. Polyalkenyl succinic anhydride is further derivatized with various amines to
produce both dispersants and corrosion inhibitors. Another type of dispersant is a
polyester produced from a polyalkenyl succinic anhydride and pentaerythritol.
1.2.4 Copolymers
Maleic anhydride is used in a multitude of applications in which a vinyl copolymer is

produced by the copolymerization of maleic anhydride with other molecules having a
vinyl functionality. Typical copolymers are styrene maleic anhydride (SMA). SMA
polymers with a high molecular weight are widely used in engineering thermoplastic
applications, paper treatment chemical, floor polishes, emulsifiers, protective colloids,
antisoil agents, dispersants, stabilizing agent, adhesives, detergents, cosmetics, and
toiletries. Diisobutylene maleic is use as dispersing agent, acrylic acid maleic as detergent
ingredient, butadiene-maleic as sizing agent, and C18 alpha olefin-maleic as
emulsification agent and paper coating. (Timothy et al. 2001)
1.2.5 Agricultural Chemicals
The use of maleic anhydride in the manufacture of agricultural chemicals has declined in
the United States over the last decade. Malathion (S-[1,2-dicarbethoxyethyl]O,O-
dimethyldithiophosphate) and Difolatan (cis-N-[1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethylthio]-4
6
cyclohexene-1,2-dicarboximide) are no longer produced in the United States and Alar (N-
dimethylaminosuccinamic acid) volumes have been significantly reduced by intense
environmental scrutiny. Maleic hydrazide, Captan(cis-N-[trichloromethylthio]-4-
cyclohexene-1,2-dicarboximide), Endothall(7-oxabicyclo[2,2,1]-heptane-2,3-dicarboxylic
acid , disodium salt), and several other maleic derivatives continue use in a number
ofagricultural functions: plant growth regulation, fungicides, insecticides, and herbicides.
1.2.6 Formation of Fumaric Acid and Malic Acid
Fumaric acid and malic acid are produced from maleic anhydride. The primary use for
fumaric acid is in the manufacture of paper sizing products, unsaturated polyester, alkyd
resins and printing inks. Fumaric acid is also used as a food acidulant, as is malic acid.
Fumaric acid is the strongest organic food acid in titratable acidity and in sourness. Malic
acid is a particularly desirable acidulant in certain beverage selections, specifically those
sweetened with the artificial sweetener aspartame. Malic acid's synergism with certain
food ingredients and flavours makes it a versatile and flexible acid of choice to create
new taste sensations and to add new twists to existing products. (Icis.com 2007)
1.2.7 Others Application
There are numerous further applications for which maleic anhydride serves as a raw
material. These applications prove the versatility of this molecule. The popular artificial
sweetener aspartame is a dipeptide with one amino acid(L-aspartic acid) which is
produced from maleic anhydride as the starting material. Processes have been reported for
production of poly(aspartic acid) with applications for this biodegradable polymer aimed
at detergent builders, water treatment, and poly(acrylic acid) replacement.
7
Alkenylsuccinic anhydrides made from several linear alpha olefins are used in
paper sizing, detergents, and other uses. Sulfosuccinic acid esters serve as surface active
agents. Alkyd resins are used as surface coatings. Chlorendric anhydride is used as a
flame resistant component. Tetrahydrophthalic acid and hexahydrophthalic anhydride
have specialty resin applications. Gas barrier films made by grafting maleic anhydride to
polypropylene film are used in food packaging. Poly(maleic anhydride) is used as a scale
preventer and corrosion inhibitor. Maleic anhydride forms copolymers with mono-O-
methyl-oligoethylene glycol vinyl ethers that are partially esterified for biomedical and
pharmaceutical uses.
8
Figure 1.2 Maleic Anhydride Derivatives (Chemsystem 2009)

9
1.3 SOURCES OF RAW MATERIAL AND PRODUCT
Raw material: n-butane and oxygen

Product: Maleic Anhydride and water
By-product: Carbon Monoxide and Carbon Dioxide
1.3.1 n-butane
Butane also called n-butane, is the unbranched alkane with four carbon atoms,
CH3CH2CH2CH3. Butane is also used as a collective term for n-butane together with its
only other isomer, isobutene (also called methylpropane), CH(CH3)3. Butanes are highly
flammable, colorless, odorless, easily liquefied gases. The name butane comes from the
roots but (from butyric acid) and ane. Below are the physical and chemical properties of
butane.
Table 1.2: Properties of n-Butane

Properties
Name Butane
CAS No 106-97-8
Molecular formula C4H10
Appearance Colorless gas
Density 2.48 kg/m3, gas (15°C, 1 atm)
600 kg/m3, liquid (0°C, 1 atm)

Boiling point -0.5 °C (272.6 K)
Melting point −138.4 °C (135.4 K)
EU Clasification Highly flammable
Critical temperature 152oC
10
Critical pressure 37.96 bar

Latent heat of vaporization 385.6 kJ/kg (1.013 bar at boiling point)
Latent heat of fusion 80.165 kJ/kg (1,013 bar, at triple point)
Heat capacity 0.096 kJ/(mol.K) at constant pressure
0.088 kJ/(mol.K) at constant volume
Thermal conductivity 13.6 mW/(m.K) at 1.013 bar and 0°C
1.3.2 Oxygen
Oxygen is a colorless at standard temperature and pressure and odorless gas with the
molecular formula, O2. Oxygen is more soluble in water than nitrogen which water
contain approximately 1 molecule of O2 for every 2 molecule of N2. Then compared to an
atmospheric ratio of approximately 1:4. It is condensed at 90.20K and freezes at 54.36K.
Both liquid and gas O2 are clear substances with a light sky blue color caused by
absorption in the red. High purity liquid O2 is usually obtained by the fractional
distillation of liquefied air. Liquid oxygen may also be produced by condensation out of
air, using liquid nitrogen as a coolant. It is a highly reactive substance and must
segregated from combustible materials. Below are the physical and chemical properties of
oxygen.
Table 1.3: Properties of Oxygen

Properties
Name Oxygen
CAS No 7782-44-7
Molecular Formula O2
Molar Mass 15.9994(3) g·mol−1
Appearance liquid oxygen with bubbles of oxygen gas
Density (0°C, 101.325 kPa)
11
1.429 g/L
Boiling point 90.20 K, -182.95 °C, -297.31 °F
Melting Point 54.36 K, -218.79 °C, -361.82 °F
Phase Gas
Critical point 154.59 K, 5.043 MPa
Heat of fusion 0.22259 kJ·mol−1
Heat of vaporization 3.4099 kJ·mol−1
Specific heat capcity 920 J/(kg.K)
Thermal conductivity 0.03 J/m.s.K
1.3.3 Water
Water has a very simple atomic structure. This structure consists of two hydrogen atoms
bonded to one oxygen atom. Water molecules exist in liquid form over an important
range of temperature from 0 - 100° Celsius. Below are the physical properties of water.
Table 1.4: Properties of Water

Properties
Molecular Formula H2O
Molar Mass 18.015 g·mol−1
Density 1 g/cc
Boiling point 100 °C at 1 atm
Freezing point 0 °C at 1 atm
Phase Liquid
Triple point 273.16 K at 4.6 torr
Heat of fusion 6.013 kJ·mol−1
Heat of vaporization 40.63 kJ·mol−1
Specific heat capcity 4180 J·kg−1·K−1
12
Heat conductivity 0.60 W.m-1.K-1

Critical Temperature 647 K
Critical Pressure 22.1 x 106 Pa
1.3.4 Carbon Monoxide
Carbon monoxide, with the chemical formula CO, is a colorless, odorless and tasteless,
yet highly toxic gas. Its molecules consist of one carbon atom and one oxygen atom,
connected by a covalent double bond and a dative covalent bond. Carbon monoxide has
significant fuel value, burning in air with a characteristic blue flame, producing carbon
dioxide. Carbon monoxide still plays a major role in modern technology, in industrial
processes such as iron smelting and as a precursor to myriad products. Below are the
physical properties of Carbon Monoxide.
Table 1.5: Properties of Carbon Monoxide

Properties
Name Carbonic Oxide
CAS No 630-08-0
Molecular formula CO
Appearance Colourless, odorless gas
Density 0.789 g/mL, liquid
Melting point -205 0C
Boiling point -191.5 0C
Solubility very slightly soluble in water
13
1.3.5 Carbon Dioxide
Carbon dioxide (chemical formula CO2) is a chemical compound composed of two

oxygen atoms covalently bonded to a single carbon atom. It is a gas at standard
temperature and pressure and exists in Earth's atmosphere in this state. CO2 is a trace gas
being only 0.0383% of the atmosphere. Below are the physical properties of Carbon
Dioxide.
Table 1.6: Properties of Carbon Dioxide

Properties
Name Carbonic acid gas
CAS No 124-38-9
Molecular formula CO2
Appearance colorless, odorless gas
Density 1.977 g/L, gas at 1 atm
Melting point -78 0C
Boiling point -57 0C
Solubility in water 1.45 g/L at 100 kpa
Heat of combustion -1391.2 kJ/mol
Heat evaporation 54.8 kJ/mol
Heat fusion 13.66 kJ/mol
1.4 ECONOMIC
1.4.1 Demand and Production of Maleic Anhydride
Maleic anhydride has become the third biggest acid anhydride only next to phthalic
anhydride and acetic anhydride and its application sector is constantly expanding. Since
14
the construction of the first maleic anhydride unit using the fluidized bed n-butane
process by BP in 1988, the process has made a rapid development due to its great
advantage and development potential and become the main trend in the development of
maleic anhydride production processes. Maleic anhydride world demand primarily
depends on unsaturated polyester resins (UPR) production, lube oil adhesives synthesis
and maleic and fumaric acids formation. (Nexant ChemSystems 2005)
Global demand of maleic anhydride in 2008 approximately 1.7 million metric tons
while production capacity is about 1359000 tone/year. Maleic anhydride demand is
expected to grow an average 5.7% per year from 2008 to 2013, then slow to around 2.5%
per year from 2013 to 2016. The constant demand increase in 1, 4-butanediol and
tetrahydrofuran in recent years has led to a stable demand increase of maleic anhydride in
the world. European MA demand is typically lower than the U.S., at 2.5%-3%/year.
European and North American market conditions are balanced, while Asia is long. (Sri
Consulting 2009). The graph below show global demand and production capacity of MA.
Table 1.7:Demand and production capacity of MA

Year Capacity (Ton/yr) Demand (ton/yr)
2004 1063000 1295000
2006 1142000 1440000
2008 1359000 1700000
2009 1435000 1749000
2010 1511000 1796900
2012 1587000 1893800
2014 1663000 2040000
2016 1740000 2140000
15
Global Demand and Production Capacity of Maleic Anhydride
2200000
Demand
Tonnes/year
2000000
1800000
1600000
Production Capacity
1400000
1200000
1000000
2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016
Year
Figure 1.3: Global demand and production capacity of MA (Sri Consulting 2009 &
Cortelli 2006)
Table below show the MA buyers:
Table 1.8: Maleic Anhyride Buyers

Name of Company Product Location
1) QTQ International Phthalic anhydride China, Hong
Group Limited kong, India, Iran
2) Texplustrading Air Oxidation of Ortho-Xylene, Benzene Holland, Pakistan
3) Badr Fiberglass Factory Faucet, Shower and Sink Saudi Arabia
4) Alkhair HMD Industries Polyester Button Pakistan
5) ALLIED IMPEX Pharmaceutical, paints, printing inks, textil United States
Corporation Ltd.
6) Pacific International Pharmaceuticals, Chemicals, Intermediates, Hong Kong
Traders Petrochemicals,API, Dyes
7) Tokyo Kasei Kogyo Pharmaceutics, agricultural, surfactant, Japan
Co.Ltd additive of plastics, etc.
16
8) Minacle Pvt. Ltd. Resin manfucturing United States

9) Pliogrip Resins & Pliogrip Resins & Chemicals manufactures India, United
Chemical P Ltd adhesives, acylic, aerosol and epoxy States
(TradeTuber.com 2009)
Table 1.9: Maleic Anhydride Producer
Producer (company) Location

Aekyung Petrochemical Ulsan, South Korea
Ashland Neal, West Virginia, Neville Island, & PA, US
Bartek Chemical Stoney Creek, Ontario, Canada
BASF Feluy, Belgium & Ludwigshafen, Germany
Bayer Baytown, TX, US
BP-Amoco Joliet, IL, US
Condea-Huntsman Moers, Germany
Cray Valley Drocourt, France
Derivados Maleicos Puebla, Mexico
DSM Linz, Austria
Grand Union Lin Yuan, Taiwan
Huntsman Pensacola, Florida, US
KBK Lukavac, Bosnia
Korea PTG Ulsan, South Korea
Lonza Ravenna & Bergamo Italy
MOL Szazhalombatta, Hungary
Orgachim JSC Ruse, Bulgaria
Pankang Industrial Panjin, China
Petrobrazi Brazi, Romania
Polioli, Italy Vercelli, Italy
PT Justus Sakti Raya Jakarta, Indonesia
17
PT Petrowidada Gresik, Indonesia

Repsol YPF Ensenada, Argentina
Shandong Shengli Oilfield Petrochemical Dongying, China
Tasco Chemical Lin Yuan, Taiwan
TCL Industries Teluk Kalung, Malaysia
Yongsan Chemicals Ulsan, South Korea
Zaklady Azotowe Kedzierzyn Kedzierzyn-Kozle, Poland
(Icis.com 2002)
1.4.2 Consumption of Maleic Anhydride
An estimated 51% of global maleic anhydride consumption in 2008 was for the
production of unsaturated polyester resins (UPR), followed by 1,4-butanediol with around
13% of total consumption. Other applications for maleic anhydride include agricultural
chemicals, malic acid, fumaric acid, lube oil additives, maleic anhydride-based
copolymers, alkenyl succinic anhydrides, reactive plasticizers, sulfosuccinic acid esters,
and a number of other specialty chemicals and organic intermediates. The pie chart below
show world consumption of Maleic Anhydride by end use in year 2008.
18
Lube Oil
Additives Agricultural
3% Chemicals
Fumaric Acid 1.8%
4%
Unsaturated
Polyester resin
1,4-butanediol
51%
13%
Other
27.2%
Figure 1.4: World Consumption of Maleic Anhydride by end use in 2008

(Sri Consulting 2009)
Unsaturated polyester resins will continue to have the largest market share and
will drive refined maleic anhydride consumption on a global scale. The developing
regions will experience the highest growth in maleic anhydride for UPR production since
a considerable amount of UPR goes into infrastructure. Overall economic health will
affect the UPR market as it is tied to the construction, automotive and marine industries.
Maleic anhydride consumption for butanediol will grow primarily in Asia and the Middle
East. A plant in the Republic of Korea uses refined maleic anhydride for butanediol
production. In Asia, China is the most important MA market. The following pie chart
shows world consumption of maleic anhydride in year 2008.
19
Figure 1.5: World Consumption of Maleic Anhydride in 2008

(Sri Consulting 2009)
World MA consumption is forecast to grow at around 3%/year up to 2010.

Growth will be slower in western Europe and the US but higher in central and eastern
Europe, Latin America and Asia, in particular China. Growth in central and south
America is expected to be higher than North America at around 4%/year. In western
Europe, the MA market is mature with growth predicted around 1.5-2.0%/year, while in
central and eastern Europe growth is much stronger at 4%/year. In Asia, China is the most
important MA market. (ICB Chemical 2007)
1.4.3 Prices of Feed Material and Product
North American prices have been stable after peaking during shortages in 2004-05. The
North American market is balanced, with imports down by 25% in 2006 from 2005.
European prices posted "all-time highs" in third-quarter 2006, because of planned and
unplanned shutdowns at a time of growing demand from the key UPR sector, but have
weakened in line with an improved supply-demand balance during first-quarter 2007.
20
Asia is posting the lowest prices because of a capacity surplus. (www.britannica.com

2007)
Figure 1.6: Price of MA
i) Global market price of MA (as of Aug’09) = RM 450 / kmol

ii) Global market price of MTBE (as of Aug’09)= RM 230 / kmol
iii) Global market price of n-butane (as of Aug’09) = RM 231 / kmol
From an economic point of view, the price of MA is much higher than MTBE. Therefore
MA is a very good choice of alternative product to be considered. Besides that, low costs
of n-butane as a raw material have its own market value in production of MA and this
will lower the maleic anhydride production cost.
1.4.4 Plant Production Capacity
Global demand of Maleic Anhydride (MA) (as of 2009) = 17 49000 tonnes / yr

Global production capacity of MA (as of 2009) = 14 35000 tonnes / yr
21
Taking 60% from the difference between demand and production capacity,
Therefore, our plant production capacity is = 0.6 x (1749000 – 1435000)
= 204600 tonnes/ yr
= 200 kt /yr (rounded up)
1.4.5 Future Marketing Potential
The fast increasing capacity of Chinese MA industry, together with the China’s endeavor
to improve the production technology, has shown the world that China will play an
important role in the world market in the future, even to become a global MA
manufacturing base. Consumption of maleic anhydride in the production of butanediol is
one of the world’s fastest growing chemicals used is expected to gather momentum in the
upcoming years, given butanediol's widespread and growing use in the production of
thermoplastic polyurethanes, elastic fibers, pharmaceuticals, solvents, plant protection,
coatings and electronic chemicals. (Reportlinker.com 2009)
Regionally, smaller end use applications will experience higher than average
growth, such as maleic copolymers in the United States. New product development driven
by increasing the use of renewables or replacing one petroleum based chemical with a
more environmentally friendly one will drive maleic anhydride consumption in this
application. The use of maleic anhydride and maleic anhydride copolymers will stand to
gain from the increasing importance of recyclability, biodegradability and the use of more
sustainable chemicals. (Sri Consulting 2009)
CHAPTER II
PLANT SITE ANALYSIS
2.1 LOCATION (Gebeng Industrial Areas, Pahang)
Gebeng industrial area is one of the main place located of chemical and petrochemical
industry that broadly 9600 acres. Currently, there are three phases of industrial area
developed since the 80's. Phase one is near the main trunk road Kuantan-Gebeng by-pass
and consisting of small and medium scale industries such as wood processing industries,
metal works factories and concrete ducting company. Phase two was developed in the
early 90's and the majority of industries here are petrochemical companies such as
Petronas MTBE-Polypropylene, BP Chemicals, WR Grace, EASTMAN, Kaneka and
Cryovac. The third phase currently occupied by Polyplastics Asia Pacific, BASF-
Petronas, Petronas CUF, Petronas Centralized Emergency Facilities and PDH Plant.
Gebeng industrial area is located at north region of Kuantan and near the state of
Terengganu. The distance between Gebeng and Kuantan Port is 4 kilometer and 25
kilometer to Kuantan.
23
2.2 SITE LOCATION
Plant: Methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE)

Capacity: 300,000 TPA MTBE, 80,000 TPA Propylene
Company: MTBE Malaysia Sdn Bhd
Partners: PETRONAS
Onstream: December 1992
.
Plant: Polypropylene
Capacity: 80,000 TPA Polypropylene
Company: Polypropylene Malaysia Sdn Bhd
Partners: PETRONAS
Onstream: November 1992
.
Plant: Propane Dehydrogenation
Capacity: 300,000 TPA Propylene
Company: MTBE Malaysia Sdn Bhd
Partners: PETRONAS
Onstream: May 2001
2.3 LOGISTIC CONSIDERATION OF FEED MATERIAL
Raw material that use in maleic anhydride plant is n-butane that in liquefied petroleum
gas (LPG). N- Butane stock is get from 2 company that is from Petronas Gas Berhad at
Kerteh and Malaysia LNG Tiga Sdn Bhd, Bintulu. The main source of raw material for
our plant is from Petronas Gas Berhad located at Kerteh with production capacity of
1,332,000 mt per year. Delivery of n-butane from Kerteh is by using PGU (Peninsular
Gas Utilisation) piping project that provided by Petronas. If there anything happen with
source of raw material from Kerteh, we can get source of raw material from Malaysia
24
LNG Tiga Sdn Bhd, Bintulu that can produced capacity of n-butane with the amount of
273,000 mt per year using sea transportation. Therefore, in terms of logistic consideration
of our feed material, it will be beneficial for us since the feed material we used, i.e. n-
butane can be obtained directly from Petronas Gas Berhad at Kerteh and Malaysia LNG
Tiga Sdn Bhd, Bintulu.
Figure 2.1: n-butane from Petronas Gas Berhad at Kerteh
2.4 TRANSPORTATION OF PRODUCT
Final product from our company is maleic anhydride which is in solid form. Every year,
our company can produce 200 kt of maleic anhydride. The product is firstly packing
before being transport to the buyer. Container is used for the transportation of our product
and being transported by the lorry to the port and other plant that demanding our product.
We are concern about the safety issues to transports our chemical, so were put some
safety features to protecting our customer products. Our vehicle safety features include
such technologies as:
25
 Temperature control
 Emergency spill containment equipment
 Vapor vents and skylights
 Rigid door frames and air ride suspension
 Double E-track load locks
 Sealed floors
 Secondary containment dams
Additionally our over-the-road (OTR) refrigerated trailers and dry van trailers are
equipped with GPS technology and our OTR trucks are equipped with both on-board
computers and GPS, which allow for real time reporting of shipment status.
2.5 TRANSPORT FACILITIES
There are 3 highways that connected to the Gebeng Industrial Area. There are:
i. Karak – Kuantan Highway (274 KM)
ii. Kuantan – Terengganu Highway (205 KM)
iii. Kuantan – Segamat Highway (189 KM)
Besides that, there are 2 railways that connected to the Gebeng Industrial Area. There are:
i. Kuantan Port to Kerteh
ii. Gebeng Industrial Area to Kuantan Port
There are also general piping system that done in 1999 to connecting Gebeng
Industrial Area with Kuantan Port. These piping systems have a distance of 9 km and 5 m
width. It enables product delivery or raw material directly between plant and port.
Kuantan Port situated about 25 KM to the north of Kuantan city and facing South
China Sea, Kuantan Port (Latitude 3°58'N, Longitude 103° 26'E) is a multipurpose port in
26
the East Coast Region of Peninsular Malaysia. Kuantan port is a deep water port and
functioned in any weather. The distance between Kuantan Port and Gebeng Industrial
Area is 4 km. This port can run 9 million tons per year, and this port is suitable for any
ship including sea ship. Besides that, it has 80 hectare port basin and also had 11 streams,
including 2 streams for transportation of liquid chemical 4 stream for general uses.
Facilities for air transportation at Gebeng Industrial Area are Kuantan Airport that
located 12 km from Kuantan city and 42 km from Gebeng Industrial Area. Mainly, there
are 5 daily flights a days from KLIA to Kuantan. Kuantan Airport that has an area of
2000 m × 46 m can accommodate Boeing 737, Airbus and Air Asia. As conclusion,
transport facilities are no longer be a problem for this area.
2.6 UTILITIES
Electricity supply fall into 2 categories namely 11kV power supply and 132 kV. 11kV
power supply supplied to promontory substation ring in capacity 30 MW. 132kV power
supply on the other hand supported further of grid line transmission 132 kV. Apart from
Tnjung Gelang promontory, there were 3 again substation located nearby namely Kuantan
Sustation (60 MW), Semambu promontory (30 MW) and Bandar Indera Mahkota
substation (60MW).
Utility that likes integration shaped (central utility facilities, CUF) were supplied
by Petronas Gas Bhd intend to equip all type of utility of necessity.
2.7 GEOGRAPHY, CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENT
Climate at this area is just like the climate in Malaysia namely humid year round. Climate
study on Gebeng Industrial Area is depending on Malaysian Meteorological Services
(MMS) that located on Kuantan airport. Climate overall condition in this area may be said
27
is modest and had high moisture. This area also influenced by north-east monsoon wind
in month November to Mac and south-west monsoon in month May to September. This
area encompassed by southern east monsoon winds in month November to Mac and May
to September. The average wind speed daily is 3.1 m/s and maximum wind speed is 41.7
m/s.
Temperature is in the range of 24.70C – 27.00 C with month April to June is

warmest and month December to January is coldest. Average temperature is 260C. Range
of dampness for this area is 57% - 100% with humidity mean relative daily is 98.3% and
93%. Lowest humidity is 56.5% in month August and highest is in month October and
November with 99.3%.
Topographical condition in the Gebeng Industrial Area is swamp forest and flat
ground area. Highland region where height less than 100m is surrounding the small west-
south divison area of Gebeng. The land gradient is in radius 1-30% and more than 98%
Gebeng Industrial Area having land gradient 5% or less from it.
2.8 INCENTIVE
Pahang State government offered many attractive incentive especially to companies just
started step in petrochemical industry. Gebeng Industrial Area is situated in range of east
coast corridor (eastern corridor) which offers income tax exemption as much as 85% of to
the company having total income which holds pioneer level. Pahang state government
also provides a few other incentives such as general incentive, incentive to export,
incentive for development and research, incentive for training and incentive for storage,
ill treatment and toxic waste disposal.
28
CHAPTER III
CONCEPT DESIGN
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.1.1 Reaction of Maleic Anhydride
Maleic anhydride is produced by the reaction of n-butane with molecular oxygen at an

elevated temperature in the presence of a catalyst as shown below. The main product is
Maleic anhydride and by-products are carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide.
Main reaction: C 4 H 10  3.5O2  C 4 H 2 O3  4 H 2 O

C 4 H 10  5.5O2  2CO 2  2CO  5H 2 O
Butane + Oxygen → Carbon Dioxide + Carbon Monoxide + Water
Catalyst: vanadium phosphorus oxide heterogeneous catalyst (VPO)
Operating Temperature: In the range 350 to 500oC
Operating Pressure: In the range 40 to 280 kPa
Phase of Reaction: Vapor phase
29
3.1.2 Stoichiometric Equation
Stoichiometries for the reactions are as follows.
a) Relative rates:
C 4 H 10  3.5O2  C 4 H 2 O3  4 H 2 O
r 1A r 1B r 1c r 1D
Reaction 1 : = = =
−1 −3.5 1 4
C 4 H 10  5.5O2  2CO 2  2CO  5H 2 O

r 2A r 2B r 2E r 2F r 2D
Reaction 2 : = = = =
−1 −5.5 2 2 5
b) Concentration:
F
Species A : CA = FA CT0
T
F
Species B : CB = FB CT0
T
F
Species C : CC = F C CT0
T
FD
Species D : CD = CT0
FT
F
Species E : CE = F E CT0
T
FF
Species F : CF = CT0
FT
30
3.1.3 Kinetic of reaction
C4 H10 g + 3.5 O2 g → C4 H2 O3 g + 4H2 O (g)

C4 H10 g + 5.5O2 g → 2CO(g) + 2CO2 (g) + 5H2 O(g)
Let, A:C4H10, B:O2, C:C4H2O3, D:H2O, E:CO, F:CO2
A  3.5B  C  4D        (1)
A  5.5B  2E  2F  5D    (2)
Kinetic of reaction: r1A  k10 e  E1 / RT CA /[1  ( K1C A / C B )  ( K 2 CC / C B )
r2 A  k 20 e  E2 / RT CA /[1  ( K1C A / C B )  ( K 2 CC / C B )
cm 3 1000gcat 1m 3 3600s
k10  1.96  1010   
s.gcat 1kgcat 1  10 cm
6 3
h
m3
 7.056  1010
h.kgcat
cm 3 1000gcat 1m 3 3600s
k 20  3.40  1011   
s.gcat 1kgcat 1  10 cm
6 3
h
m3
 1.224  1012
h.kgcat
With r1A and r2A in mol/(h.kg cat), R = 8.3144J/mol.K and T = 688K.
Table 3.1: Kinetic of reaction

Reaction k (m3/h.kg cat) E (J/mol) K
1A 7.056 x 1010 125000 59
2A 1.224 x 1012 145000 26
31
3.1.4 Mole Balance
dF A
Species A : = rA
dW
dF B
Species B : = rB
dW
dF C
Species C : = rC
dW
dF D
Species D : = rD
dW
dF E
Species E : = rE
dW
dF F
Species F : = rF
dW
Total ∶ FT = FA + FB + FC + FD + FE + FF
FA0 = 302800mol/hr
FB0 = 17330000mol/hr
3.1.5 Net rate of formation
Species A : rA = r1A + r2A
Species B : rB = r1B + r2B = 3.5r1A + 5.5r2A
Species C : rC = r1C = −r1A
Species D : rD = r1D + r2D = −4r1A −5r2A
Species E : rE = r2E = −2r2A
Species F : rF = r2F = −2r2A
FA
X = 1−
FA0
32
Bulk density of catalyst = 900 kg/m3
W Fc
V= , S=
900 FA0 X
P0 275 mol 103 dm3 mol

CA0 = yA0 = 0.1x = 4.8x10−3 3
x 3
= 4.8 3
RT0 8.314x688 dm 1m m
P0 275 mol 103 dm3 mol

CB0 = yB0 = 0.896x = 43.1x10−3 3
x 3
= 43.1 3
RT0 8.314x688 dm 1m m
mol
CT0 = CA0 + CB0 = 48
m3
3.1.6 Selectivity Vs Conversion
FC
Selectivity, S  with FAo = 34500 mol/hr
FAo X
Table 3.2: Selectivity of MA at difference conversion

X S
0.1 0.751014
0.2 0.717101
0.3 0.681546
0.4 0.679275
0.5 0.66029
0.6 0.664734
0.7 0.659627
0.8 0.657971
0.9 0.657327
0.95 0.656598
0.99 0.655834
33
Selectivity of MA vs Conversion X
0.76
0.74
0.72
S
0.7
Selectivity
0.68
0.66
0.64
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
X
Figure 3.1: Graph Selectivity of MA vs Conversion

34
3.1.7 POLYMATH result

35
36
Graph V versus X
Graph W versus X
37
3.2 CATALYST
Maleic anhydride is produced by reaction of butane with oxygen using the vanadium
phosphorus oxide heterogeneous catalyst (VPO). Several routes may be used to prepare
the catalyst, but the route favored by industry involves the reaction of vanadium (V)
oxide and phosphoric acid to form vanadyl hydrogen phosphate, VOHPO4.0.5H2O. This
material is then heated to eliminate water from the structure and irreversibly form vanadyl
pyrophosphate, (VO)2P2O7. Vanadyl pyrophosphate is believed to be the catalytically
active phase required for the conversion of butane to maleic anhydride. The reaction of
V2O5 with H3PO4 to form VOHPO4.0.5H2O can be carried out in either an aqueous or
organic medium such as isobutyl alcohol. Two possible routes are as follows:
The product is dried and calcined to yield the catalyst precursor, which is then
pelletized or formed into spheres. Finally, the catalyst is loaded into the reactor where it is
activated under carefully controlled conditions.
Promoters are sometimes added to the vanadium phosphorus oxide (VPO) catalyst
during synthesis to increase its overall activity and/or selectivity. Promoters may be
added during formation of the catalyst precursor (VOHPO4.0.5H2O), or impregnated onto
the surface of the precursor before transformation into its activated phase. (Felthouse et
al. 2001)
38
3.3 DESIGN CONSTRAINT
Butane concentrations are often limited to less than 1.7 mol % to stay below the lower
flammable limit of butane. Operation of the reactor at butane concentrations below the
flammable limit does not eliminate the requirement for combustion venting, and
consequently most processes use rupture disks on both the inlet and exit reactor heads.
Vanadium phosphorus oxide-based catalysts are unstable in that they tend to lose
phosphorus over time at reaction temperatures. Hot spots in fixed-bed reactors tend to
accelerate this loss of phosphorus. This loss of phosphorus also produces a decrease in
selectivity. Many steps have been taken, however, to alleviate these problems and create
an environment where the catalyst can operate at lower temperatures.
Maleic anhydride reacts exothermically with moisture producing Acid Maleic,

which is corrosive to iron, carbon steel and other metals (except stainless steel). MA does
not present polymerization risk, but it can happen uncontrolled co-polymerization when
mixed with olefines and catalysts. A decomposition “explosive polymerization” can occur
when in presence of alkalys, alkaline metals and earthy-alkaline, ammoniac or amines,
when heated above 150ºC. The concentration of these impurities necessary to initiate the
decomposition is below than 200 ppm. The exothermic reaction will occur quickly and
the released gas can cause equipment rupture, unless it is provided with relief device.
39
3.4 PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
3.4.1 Block Diagram of Maleic Anhydride production
Organic
Off gas
solvent
Butane
Maleic
Reactor Absorber anhydrid
wee
Distillation
Heat Heat column
Air
exchanger exchanger
Recycle
absorber
40
3.4.2 Process descriptions production of Maleic Anhydride.
n-butane from deisobutanizer Reaction being carried out in

and air is mixed before fed Packed Bed Reactor (PBR)
into a reactor. at T=3500C and P =275 kPa
with V2P2O9 as catalyst
The product of absorber is fed The cooled product stream is

for burning and bottom product being fed to absorber at
(Maleic Anhydride and dibutyl T= 1320C P= 200 kPa
Phthalate) is fed to distillation Dibutyl phthalate solvent acts
column for separation as absorber to absorb Maleic
Anhydride
Bottom product from absorber  Top vapor product is sent to fuel

is heated and being fed to
gas line
distillation column to be
separated at T= 3000C  Top liquid which is Maleic
P=140 kPa
Anhydride is sent to storage
 Bottom liquid product for example
dibutyl phthalate is sent back to
absorber.
41
3.5 MANUAL CALCULATION FOR MASS AND HEAT BALANCE
3.5.1 Mass Balance
For the mass balance of a utility or equipment that doesn’t involve reaction, the total inlet
mass flow rate is equal to the total outlet flow rate.
∑ F in = ∑ F out
For the mass balance of equipment which involves reactions, the mass flow rate must be
converted into mole flow rate.
Mass flow rate(kg / hr)
Mole flow rate(kmol / hr) 
JMR(kg / kmol)
Outlet of each component coming out from reactor is calculated using the following
formula.
Fin  Fout  r
where α is the stoichiometry coefficient and r is the conversion flow rate of a reaction.
a) Mass Balance for Overall Process
Below is the block diagram for the overall process;
Figure 3.2: Reaction of producing Maleic Anhydride

42
The following reactions occur during the reaction of butane with oxygen:
C 4 H 10  3.5O2  C 4 H 2 O3  4 H 2 O
C 4 H 10  5.5O2  2CO 2  2CO  5H 2 O
Maleic Anhydride : PMA = n1

Butane : FB = n1 + n2 + YPBPG= PMA/SMAX = YFBFG
CO : PCO = 2n2
CO2 : PCO2 = 2n2
Pw = 4n1+5n2
FN = YFN (FG-FB)
Fo = FG-FB-FN
From the calculation, we get the value as show below:
Table 3.3: Mass Balance from manual calculation for the overall process
Component Mass In (kg/h) Mass Out (kg/h)

Maleic Anhydride 0 23835.41
n-butane 15925.48 1590.42
CO 0 767.49
CO2 0 1205.85
Water 0 18003.62
N2 95161.79 95161.79
O2 28894.92 417.65
SUM: 139982.19 139982.23
43
b) Mass Balance for each Stream
Table 3.4: Manual mass balance calculation for each stream

Stream S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7
Components: (kg/h)
n-butane 15925.5 0 15925.5 15925.5 15925.48 0 15925.5
Oxygen 0 28894.9 0 0 0 28894.9 28894.9
Nitrogen 0 95161.8 0 0 0 95161.8 95161.8
Maleic Anhydride 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
CO 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
CO2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Water 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Dibutylphthalate 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Total 15925.5 124057 15925.5 15925.5 15925.48 124057 139982
44
Stream S7-1 S8 S9 S10 S10(Recycle) S10-1 S11

Components: (kg/h)
n-butane 15925.5 1590.42 1590.42 0 0 0 1580
Oxygen 28894.9 417.65 417.65 0 0 0 410
Nitrogen 95161.8 95161.8 95161.8 0 0 0 95161.8
Maleic Anhydride 0 22835.4 22835.4 0 0 0 0
CO 0 767.49 767.49 0 0 0 767.49
CO2 0 1205.85 1205.85 0 0 0 1205.85
Water 0 18003.6 18003.6 0 0 0 17500
Total 139982 139982 139982 1480 91520 93000 116625
45
Stream S12 S13 S14 S15 S16 S17 S18

Components: (kg/h)
n-butane 10.42 10.42 10.42 0 0 1590.42 0
Oxygen 7.65 7.65 7.65 0 0 417.65 0
Nitrogen 0 0 0 0 0 95161.8 0
Maleic Anhydride 22835.4 22835.4 0 22835.4 0 0 0
CO 0 0 0 0 0 767.49 0
CO2 0 0 0 0 0 1205.85 0
Water 503.62 503.62 300 203.62 0 17800 0
Total 116357 116357 318.07 23039 93000 116943 93000
46
3.5.2 Heat Balance
T2
At constant pressure, H   C p dT
T1
At constant temperature, H  v P
If there is a phase change during the heating or cooling of a stream, enthalpy of

vaporization or sublimation should be included to find the overall enthalpy.
For reactor, the following formula is used to find the enthalpy.

H overall   H inlet   H outlet  H r  H phase
For heater, the following formula is used to find the heat.

Q  mcT
Tables below show the coefficients for the heat capacity calculation for each component.
Table 3.5: Heat capacity of liquid

Component A B C D
C4H10 62.873 5.8913E-01 -2.3588E-03 4.2257E-06
O2 46.432 3.9506E-01 -7.0522E-03 3.9897E-05
N2 76.452 -3.5226E-01 -2.6690E-03 5.0057E-05
C4H2O3 -12.662 1.0564E+00 -2.3244E-03 2.0518E-06
CO 125.595 -1.7022E+00 1.0707E-02 4.1854E-06
CO2 -3981.02 5.2511E+01 -2.2708E-01 3.2866E-04
H20 92.053 -3.9953E-02 -2.1100E-04 5.3500E-07
Dibutyl Phthalate 230.175 1.5996E+00 -3.4574E-03 3.4963E-06
Cp=A + BT + CT2 + DT3 [ J/(mol.K)]
47
Table 3.6: Heat capacity of gas

Component A B C D E
C4H10 20.056 2.8153E-01 -1.3143E-05 -9.4571E-08 3.4149E-11
O2 29.526 -8.8999E-03 3.8083E-05 -3.2629E-08 8.8607E-12
N2 29.342 -3.5395E-03 1.0076E-05 -4.3116E-09 2.5935E-13
C4H2O3 -72.015 1.0423E+00 -1.8716E-03 1.6527E-06 -5.5647E-10
CO 29.556 -6.5807E-03 2.0130E-05 -1.2227E-08 2.2617E-12
CO2 27.437 4.2315E-02 -1.9555E-05 3.9968E-09 -2.9872E-13
H20 33.933 -8.4190E-03 2.9906E-05 -1.7800E-08 3.6900E-12
Dibutyl Phthalate 148.647 -3.1458E-01 4.5159E-03 -6.5996E-06 3.0370E-09
Cp = A + BT + CT2 + DT3 + ET4 [ J/(mol.K)]
Table 3.7: Enthalpy of vaporization

Component Boiling point ( oC ) Hvap ( kJ/mole )
C4H10 272.60 22.44
O2 90.20 6.74
N2 77.36 5.68
C4H2O3 475.00 -
CO 82.00 7.79
CO2 216.60 13.54
H20 67.00 116.87
Dibutyl Phthalate 272.60 22.44
48
Table 3.8: Enthalpy of formation of gas

Component Hf@298K ( kJ/mole )
C4H10 -126.5
O2 0
N2 0
C4H2O3 -398.40
CO 0
CO2 0
H20 0
Dibutyl Phthalate -751.03
Table 3.9: Manual heat balance calculation

Equipment Heat Flow (kJ/hr)
Boiler E -1 5.346 E+6
Cooler E-2 -1.543E+6
Air Compressor CP-1 1.630 E+7
Heater E-6 3.733 E+7
Packed Bed Reactor R-1 3.816 E+6
Cooler E-3 -3.906 E+7
Absorber C-1 -1.103E+7
Boiler E -4 5.152 E+7
Distillation Column C-2 -1.009 E+7
Cooler E-5 5.879 E+7
Pump P-1 -6.613 E+3
49
3.6 ICON AND SUPERPRO SIMULATION
Figure 3.3: PFD for Maleic Anhydride Production Plant in iCON
Figure 3.4: PFD for Maleic Anhydride Production Plant in SuperPro

50
Table 3.10: Result for iCON simulation

Name S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7
VapFrac 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
T [C] 72 25 90 90 39 154 131.1
P [bar] 9.25 1.01325 8.95 3.00 2.85 2.85 2.85
Energy [kW] 438.0385 10366.9777 1923.2719 1923.2719 1494.7319 14895.9115 16390.6434
H [Kj/kmol] 5755.3 8679.3 25269.3 25269.3 19638.8 12471.0 12900.4
Mass Flow [kg/hr] 15925.48 124056.71 15925.48 15925.48 15925.48 124056.71 139982.19
Mole Fraction:
n-butane 1.00 0 1.00 1.00 1.00 0 0.06
Oxygen 0 0.21 0 0 0 0.21 0.20
Nitrogen 0 0.79 0 0 0 0.79 0.74
Maleic Anhydride 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Carbon Monoxide 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Carbon Dioxide 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Water 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Dibutyl Phthalate 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
51
Name S7-1 S8 S9 S10 S10(recycle) S10-1 S11

VapFrac 1 1 1 0 0 0 1
T [C] 350 350 132 30 30.1 30.1 98.2
P [bar] 2.75 2.50 2.00 1.70 1.70 1.70 1.50
Energy [kW] 26765.1078 27824.7059 16977.3699 -47.6945 -2947.8711 -2995.56 13911.9436
H [Kj/kmol] 21065.7 21201.1 12936.0 -32291.7 -32273.4 -32273.7 11261.3
Mass Flow [kg/h] 139982.19 139982.19 139982.19 1480.00 91520.60 93000.43 116357.71
Mole Fraction:
n-butane 0.06 0.01 0.01 0 0 0 0.10
Oxygen 0.20 0 0 0 0 0 0
Nitrogen 0.74 0.72 0.72 0 0 0 0.76
Maleic Anhydride 0 0.05 0.05 0 0 0 0
Carbon Monoxide 0. 0.01 0.01 0 0 0 0.01
Carbon Dioxide 0 0.01 0.01 0 0 0 0.01
Water 0 0.21 0.21 0 0 0 0.02
Dibutyl Phthalate 0 0 0 1 1 1 0
52
Name S12 S13 S14 S15 S16 S17 S18

VapFrac 0 0.47672 1 0 0 1 0
T [C] 151.4 300 149.3 149.3 351.4 98.6 30
P [bar] 1.60 1.40 1.10 1.10 1.30 1.10 1.10
Energy [kW] 69.8665 14382.1772 102.8077 -1909.0222 13383.3278 14014.7513 -2949.708
H [Kj/kmol] 411.3 84669.8 16320.5 -26432.6 146521.3 11287.0 -32293.5
Mass Flow [kg/h] 116624.91 116624.91 738.46 24365.84 91520.60 117096.17 91520.60
Mole Fraction :
n-butane 0 0 0.01 0 0 0.01 0
Oxygen 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Nitrogen 0 0 0.08 0 0 0.76 0
Maleic Anhydride 0.38 0.38 0.17 0.88 0 0 0
Carbon Monoxide 0 0 0 0 0 0.01 0
Carbon Dioxide 0 0 0 0 0 0.01 0
Water 0.07 0.07 0.74 0.10 0 0.22 0
Dibutyl Phthalate 0.55 0.55 0 0.02 1 0 1
53
Table 3.11: Result for SuperPro Simulation
S19 S25
S20 S21 S22 S23 S24-1 S24
Stream (MA (MA to
(Vapour) (Crystal) (Filtrate) (Concentrate) (Air In) (Air Out)
from DC) storage)
T [C] 149.3 100 95 85.13 85 100 70 70

P [Bar] 1.01 1.01 1.01 1.01 1.01 1.01 1.01 1.01
Mass Flow [kg/h] 2.428E+4 1.613E+3 2.266E+4 3412 1.925E+4 200 316.25 23133.43
Mass Fraction Maleic Anhydride 0.91 0 0.05 0.33 0 0 0 0
Mass Fraction Oxygen 0 0 0 0 0 0.21 0.13 0
Mass Fraction Nitrogen 0 0 0 0 0 0.79 0.50 0
Mass Fraction Water 0.03 1 0.01 0.25 0.01 0 0.37 0.01
Mass Fraction Dibutyl Phthalate 0.06 0 0.06 0.42 0.04 0 0 0.01
Mass Fraction Maleic Anhydride
(crystal) 0 0 0.88 0 0.95 0 0 0.98
55
CHAPTER IV
HEAT INTEGRATION
4.1 HEAT INTEGRATION
Most industrial processes involve transfer of heat either from one process stream to
another process stream (interchanging) or from a utility stream to a process stream. The
target in any industrial process design is to maximize the process to process heat recovery
and to minimize the utility (energy) requirements. To meet the goal of maximum energy
recovery or minimum energy requirement an appropriate heat exchanger network (HEN)
is required. Pinch analysis is used to identify energy cost and heat exchanger network
(HEN) capital cost targets for a process and recognizing the pinch point. The objective of
pinch analysis is to achieve financial savings by better process heat integration
(maximizing process to process heat recovery and reducing the external utility loads).
In the production of Maleic Anhydride, the streams that we need to consider are
the feed and the outlet stream of reactor. A hot stream which is stream 8 (from reactor
outlet) gives off heat to another stream while cold stream which is stream 7 (reactor feed)
absorbs heat from another streams. The process data for the streams is set out in table
4.10. Each stream starts from source temperature, Ts and is to be heated or cooled to a
target temperature, Tt.
56
The heat capacity of each stream, CP  mC p
where, m = flow rate, kmol/h

Cp = average specific heat capacity between Ts and Tt, kJ/kmol. oC
The heat load, Q  mC p T
where, m = flow rate, kmol/h

Cp = Specific heat capacity, kJ/kmoloC
∆T = temperature difference between Ts and Tt, oC
Table 4.1: Process data for heat integration
Stream Type Heat capacity, Flow rate, Heat capacity, Source Target Heat Load
0 0 0 0
Number Cp,(kJ/kmol. C) (kmol/h) CP,(kW/ C) temp,( C) temp, ( C) (kW)
8 hot 32.2 4724.7 42.2599 350 132 9212.08
7 cold 32.52 4574 41.3185 131.1 350 9044.62
The interval temperatures for, Tmin  10 0 C ,
Tmin
For hot stream: Tint  Tact 
2
Tmin
For cold stream: Tint  Tact 
2
Table 4.2: Interval temperature for ΔTmin=10oC

Stream Type Tact (0C) T int (0C)
Number Source Target Source Target
8 Hot 350 132 345 127
7 Cold 131.1 350 136.1 355
57
From data of table above, we can generate a pich figure.
Figure 4.1: Relationship between Interval Temperature with Hot and Cold streams
Table 4.3: Heat balance for intermediate temperature

Interval Temp, oC Interval ΔT, oC Cpi=∑CPc-∑CPH ΔH (kW) Surplus or Deficit
355
345 1 10 41.3185 413.1850 Deficit
136.1 2 208.9 -0.9414 -196.6585 Surplus
127 3 9.1 -42.2599 -384.5651 Surplus
Figure 4.2: Determination of pinch point by heat cascade

58
Pinch temperature = 345oC

Pinch temperature for hot stream = 350 oC
Pinch temperature for cold stream = 340 oC
Figure 4.3: Grid Representations ( above and below the pinch point )
Above pinch, CPhot  CPcold
Stream 7, H  41.32(350  340)  413.2kW
Below pinch, CPhot  CPcold
Stream 7, H  42.26(350  132)  9212.68kW
Stream 8, H  41.32(350  131.1)  8631.75kW
Figure 4.4: Heat exchanger network designs above and below the pinch
59
Cooler at stream 8  9212.68  8631.75  580.93kW

Temperature, 8631.75 = 42.26 (350 - X1)
X1 = 145.75oC
Heater at stream 7  413.2kW

Temperature, 8631.75 = 41.32 (X2- 131.1)
X2 = 340oC
Total energy requirement, Before = 18257.63 kW

After = 994.13 kW
Total energy recover (%) = 94.55%
4.2 PFD AFTER HEAT INTERGRATION

60
Figure 4.5: PFD after heat integration (ICON)

CHAPTER V
CONTROL AND PIPING SYSTEM
5.1 INTRODUCTION FOR CONTROL SYSTEM
The objective of the design control system for a chemical plant is to maximize profits
by transforming raw materials into useful products while satisfying product
specification, safety and operational constraints, and environment regulations. All
these constraints require special consideration, for example the product specification
has been the driving force for the implementation of on-line, optimal process control
in chemical industry.
When designing a plantwide control system, it is common to view the process

in terms of its input and output variable. These variables include flow rates of streams
entering and leaving process equipment, and temperature, pressures, and compositions
in entering and leaving streams or within equipment. Process output variables are
those that give information about the state of the process, usually referred to as
controlled variables in designing a control system. Process input variables are
independent variables that affect the output variables of a process, also subdivided
into two groups: manipulated variables and disturbance variables.
5.2 CONTROL CONFIGURATION FOR MAIN UNIT OPERATION
5.2.1 Control configuration for a reactor
There are two important control objectives for reactor which are to make sure the
plant are safety and control quality of product and operate at desired conversion. The
63
reactor temperature is selected as controlled variable because it must be regulated

properly to avoid safety problem and because it interacts with the reaction.
A reactor temperature which at excessively high temperatures the reactor will

experience a temperature runaway and explode. Thus, the reactor temperature is
controlled by the flow rate of molten salt. While reactor pressure is controlled by the
opening of valve in the fuel gas line. The reactor control system must maintain the reactor
pressure at the safe level in order to prevent explosion of the reactor. So, in the design of
reactor in piping and instrumentation diagram should include a pressure controller and
pressure relief valve. The feed flow rate of reactor should be controlled by flow controller
in order to keep good conversion of reactant and prevent overflow.
Figure 5.1: Control Configuration of Reactor

64
Table 5.1: Reactor control summary

Controlled Manipulated Control objective Control action
variable variable
Reactor Flow rate of To control the Temperature Transmitter will
temperature molten salt temperature in the detect the temperature in reactor
reactor to prevent and send signal to Temperature
reaction runaway and Controller. The molten salt inlet
explosion. valve will open if temperature is
higher than 350oC.
Reactor Opening of Keep the reactor Pressure Transmitter will detect

pressure pressure relief operates in safety the pressure in reactor and send
valve condition by releases signal to Pressure Controller.
pressure to atmosphere The pressure relief valve will
when pressure of open if pressure is extremely
reactor exceeds the high.
unsafe level.
5.2.2 Control configuration for heat exchanger
The objective is to control the temperature of the reactant before feed into reactor. It is
also for the reason to avoid the equipment overheat, and make sure the temperature of the
streams are under desired specification. The controlled variable is temperature of the
process stream, and the manipulated variable is the flow rate of heating medium which
control by the degree of opening of control valve. The controller used normally is
feedback controller.
65
Figure 5.2: Control Configuration of Heat exchanger
Table 5.2: Control summary for Heat Exchanger

variable variable
Stream Flow rate of To control the The temperature changes in heat
Temperature heating stream temperature exchanger will detect and send
medium so that in desired signal to TIC that will be
condition for ordering valve to control the
reaction. flow rate of the heating medium
that used.
66
5.2.3 Control configuration for absorber
The objectives of the need of control on a absorber is make sure the flow rate of organic
solvent which enter to absorber is under specification, and to control the flow rate of
product that fed to absorber, and the flow rate of the vapour product.
Figure 5.3: Control Configuration of Absorber

67
Table 5.3: Control summary for absorber

variable variable
Flow Flow rate of To control the flow The flow rate change will detect
organic solvent rate of organic and send signal to FC that will
(dibutyl solvent that enters to be ordering valve to control the
phthalate) absorber. flow rate of absorbent stream.
Flow rate of To control the flow The flow rate change will detect
product fed to rate of the product and send signal to FC that will
absorber that will enter the be ordering valve to control the
absorber. flow rate of product stream.
Liquid Outlet liquid flow To control the liquid LT will take the reading of
level rate level in absorber and liquid level and send
to prevent overflow. information to LIC and will be
ordering valve to control the
outflow if there is interference
in set point
5.2.4 Control configuration for a distillation column
The control objectives for distillation column are also to make sure the plant are safety
and control quality of product and operate at desired efficiency too. The distillation
column pressure is selected as controlled variable because it must be regulated properly to
avoid safety problem and keep good separation efficiency of Maleic Anhydride from
Dibutyl Phatalate solvent. Distillation column pressure is control by the opening of valve
in the fuel gas line.
The control system must maintain the distillation pressure at the safe level in order
to prevent explosion of the column. So, in the design of reactor in piping and
68
instrumentation diagram should include a pressure controller and pressure relief valve.
The feed flow rate of distillation column should be controlled by flow controller in order
to keep good product quality and prevent overflow. While the level transmitter and level
controller must be added to the control system to prevent overflow.
Figure 5.4: Control Configuration of Distillation Column

69
Table 5.4: Distillation column control summary

variable variable
Column Flow rate of the To control the Pressure Transmitter will detect
Pressure fuel gas from pressure in the the pressure in distillation
column distillation column to column and send signal to
keep pressure in Pressure Controller. The valve
optimum condition. in the fuel gas line will open if
pressure is higher than optimum
condition.
Opening of Keep the distillation Pressure Transmitter will detect

pressure relief column operates in the pressure in distillation
valve safety condition by column and send signal to
releases pressure to Pressure Controller. The
atmosphere when pressure relief valve will open if
pressure of distillation pressure is extremely high.
column exceeds the
unsafe level.
Liquid level Flow rate of To control the liquid Level Transmitter will detect
bottom stream level in the column the liquid level in the column
to cooler E-107 and prevent overflow. and send signal to Level
Controller. The valve at the
bottom stream will open or
close to keep the liquid level in
desired set point.
70
E-1-04 C-1-01 C-1-02 E-1-09 PRV – Pressure Relieve Valve

E-1-01 E-1-02 Heat Exchanger E-1-05 Absorber Distillation Column Condenser V-1-01 F-1-01
Boiler Cooler ID/TT : 856/5285 (mm) Cooler ID/TT : 2750/10990 (mm) ID/TT : 2400/10818 (mm) ID/TT : 860/860 (mm) Accumulator Ultrafiltration PSV – Pressure Safety Valve
MOC : CS MOC : CS MOC : Carbon Manganese steel MOC : Carbon Manganese steel
OP/OT : 2.8 bar/350 oC OP/OT : 2 bar/132 oC OP/OT : 1.43 bar/351.4 oC OP/OT : 1.1 bar/234.9 oC mss - molten salt source
Tubes : 720 Trays/Type : 16/Sieve Tray/Type : 14/Sieve Tubes : 606
msr - molten salt recycle
R-1-01 E-1-08 P-1-01 cws - cooling water source

K-1-01
E-1-03 Packed Bed Reactor E-1-06 E-1-07 Kettle Reboiler Recycle Pump CR-1-01 DR-1-01
Air Compressor
Heat Integrator ID/TT : 2799/14820 (mm) Heater Boiler ID/TT : 650/2568 (mm) Crystallizer Tray Dryer cwr - cooling water recycle
MOC : SS316 MOC : SS 321
OP/OT : 2.75 bar/350 oC OP/OT : 1.3 bar/351.4 oC s - steam
Tubes : 2772 Tubes/type : 24/U-tube
Catalyst : V2P2O9 c - condensate
NATIONAL
STEAM/
CONDENSATE
UNIVERSITY OF
MALAYSIA
S10 S10-1 S11 S17
DIBUTYL
OFF GAS
PHTHALATE
VAPOUR
S14 DEPARTMENT OF
PIC
CHEMICAL AND PROCESS
PRV-E-1-01 C-1-02
PT
PIC ENGINEERING
C-1-02
PT
S1 S3
cws
S20
TIC
N-BUTANE E-1-09
S4
E-1-01 PRV-C-1-01
TT S8 TT GROUP 3
cwr cws
E-1-09 CR-1-01
PRV-V-1-01
TIC
E-1-01 E-1-02 TIC FIC
FT C100
E-1-02
TIC
E-1-03
PRV-C-1-01 S21 TITLE:
TT cwr V-1-01
TT S15 Piping and Instrumentation
Diagram for Maleic Anhydride
S7
S5 S22
Production Plant before
PIC
C-1-01
HAZOP
FIC
C-1-01
PRV-R-1-01 FT C100
FILTRATE
FIC
E-1-03 S7-1 PT S19
E-1-03 FIC
C-1-02
FT F-1-01
GROUP MEMBERS
FT E-1-04
LT
TIC
E-1-04
mss 1. Ong Siong Hoe (A114059)
PIC
PT C-1-02
PRV-K-1-01
K-1-01
TT 2. Tan Soo Chin (A113467)
TIC PRV-E-1-07
S2 S6 S7-2 R-1-01
LIC 3. Chia Siew Kian (A114265)
C-1-01
TT
AIR S12 S13 LT
4. Nurul Ainie Bte Arifin
msr (A114866)
K-1-01 R-1-01 TT
PRV-E-1-08
5. Sharifah Noor Munirah Bte
cws
S8-1
E-1-07 TT S23 Syed Mohd Yunus (A113755)
LIC
TIC TIC
C-1-02
E-1-05 E-1-07
6. Mohd Shahrin Bin Rahami
(A114859)
TT E-1-08
TIC
S9 E-1-08
DR-1-01
E-1-05 DRAWN BY:
S24
TIC Mohd Shahrin Bin Rahami
cwr E-1-06
Air in Air out

TT
CHECKED BY:
S18 S16
E-1-06
P-1-01 S25
MA to
STEAM
STORAGE
DATE:
20 APRIL 2010
Figure 5.5: Piping and Instrumentation Diagram before HAZOP

71
5.3 PIPING SYSTEM DESIGN
5.3.1 Liquid flow
Pipe sizing is use to determine the pipe size in a system and was sized so that the
substances will flow through optimally. To estimate the optimum pipe diameter, we use
the equation 5.14 in chemical engineering design book (Sinnot 2005). Carbon steel pipe
will be used. Calculation of liquid flow pipe diameter influenced by the flow type
whether is laminar or turbulence which refer to Reynolds number. Because the exponent
of the viscosity term is small, its value will change very little over a wide range of
viscosity and give the equation for optimum diameter for turbulent flow:
For carbon steel pipe: d , optimum  293G 0.53  0.37
where: G = flow rate (kg/s)

ρ = flow density (kg/m3)
The calculated optimum diameter is then compared with standard value based on
ASME/ANSI B 36.10/19 to get the value of pipe diameter and thickness.
5.3.2 Vapor flow
For the long size pipe, the vapor velocity is near with sonic velocity (Crowl and Louvar
1990). Sonic velocity is the maximum velocity that a gas or gas-liquid mixture can attain
in a conduit at a given upstream pressure, no matter how low the discharge pressure is.
For gases this maximum velocity is equal to the speed of sound at the local conditions.
72
By assume an ideal vapor stream:

1/ 2
 g R T 
Sonic velocity, a   c g 
 M 
where: γ = 1.32 for gas triatom
gc = 32.174 ft.lbm/s2.lbf
Rg = 1545 ft.lbf/lb-mol. oR
T(oR) = (T (oC) x 1.8) +32 +460
The flow rate of feed gas: Qm = ρUA
where: U = a = sonic velocity (m/s)

A = cross sectional area (m2)
4G
Thus, the diameter of pipe is: D 
a
The calculated diameter is then compared with standard value based on

ASME/ANSI B 36.10/19 to get the value of pipe diameter and thickness.
5.3.3 Sizing Criteria for Gas And Liquid Two-Phase Lines
The sizing of pipelines for multiphase flow is significantly more complex than for single-
phase flow because the resultant erosional conditions are totally dependent on the specific
flow regimes. In general, when considering erosion criteria, the flow velocity must be
limited to the following carbon steel conditions:
c
Ve 
m
where: Ve = fluid erosional velocity, feet/second
c = empirical constant = 150 to 200
 m = gas/liquid mixture density at flowing pressure and temperature, lbs/ft3
73
The minimum cross-sectional are required to avoid fluid erosion may be determined from
the following derived equation:
ZRT
9.35 
A 21.25P
Ve
where: A = minimum pipe cross-sectional flow area required, in2 /1000 barrels
liquid/day.
74
Table 5.5: Optimum Pipe Sizing for Liquid Flow

ρ Nominal size Nominal size Do Wall thickness Schedule
Stream no. G (kg/s) Dopt(mm) Dopt(in)
(kg/m3) (in) (mm) (mm) (mm) no.
S1 4.424 511.373 64.107 2.524 3 80 88.90 5.49 STD40
S10 0.411 1037.987 14.005 0.551 1 25 33.40 3.30 STD40
S10(recycle) 25.422 1037.947 124.637 4.907 5 125 141.30 6.55 STD40
S10-1 25.833 1037.948 125.701 4.949 5 125 141.30 6.55 STD40
S12 32.396 962.901 145.714 5.737 6 150 168.28 7.11 STD40
S15 6.768 1165.940 59.204 2.331 2.5 65 73.03 5.16 STD40
S16 25.422 701.326 144.093 5.673 6 150 168.28 7.11 STD40
S18 25.422 1037.971 124.636 4.907 5 125 141.30 6.55 STD40

75
Table 5.6: Optimum Pipe Sizing for Gas Flow

Stream G ρ A D Nominal Nominal Do Wall thickness Schedule
T(oC) a(m/s)
no (kg/s) (kg/m3) (m2) (m) size (in) size (mm) (mm) (mm) no.
S2 25.0 1105.13 34.460 1.1792 2.64E-02 0.18 8 200 219.08 8.18 30XS10S
S3 90.0 859.25 4.424 17.2285 2.99E-04 0.07 3 80 88.90 5.49 STD40
S4 90.0 859.25 4.424 5.7749 8.92E-04 0.06 3 80 88.90 5.59 STD40
S5 39.0 796.67 4.424 6.3825 8.70E-04 0.07 3 80 88.90 5.59 STD40
S6 154.0 1322.66 34.460 2.3152 1.13E-02 0.12 5 125 141.30 6.55 STD40
S7 131.1 1249.40 38.884 2.5949 1.20E-02 0.12 5 125 141.30 6.55 STD40
S7-1 350.0 1551.00 38.884 1.6244 1.54E-02 0.14 6 150 168.28 7.11 STD40
S8 350.0 1576.28 38.884 1.4296 1.73E-02 0.15 6 150 168.28 7.11 STD40
S9 132.0 1271.10 38.884 1.7591 1.74E-02 0.15 6 150 168.28 7.11 STD40
S11 98.2 1295.06 32.322 1.2711 1.96E-02 0.16 8 200 219.08 8.18 40XS10S
S14 149.3 1238.16 0.205 1.0197 1.62E-04 0.01 1 25 33.40 3.38 STD40
S17 98.6 1294.86 32.527 0.9322 2.69E-02 0.19 8 200 219.08 8.18 30XS10S
76
5.4 RELIEF SYSTEM
Relief devices are used to help prevent a catastrophic failure of equipment or minimize
the effects of any unanticipated or uncontrolled events. Relief devices are used for
individualized equipment as well as equipment assembled as part of a chemical process.
Relief devices are designed to protect a vessel or system from excess pressure by
removing or relieving fluid from that vessel or system.
There are two main types of mechanical relief devices, the bursting disc or rupture
disc and spring-loaded valve. A rupture disc or bursting disc is a non-reclosing pressure
relief device that protects a vessel, equipment or system from overpressurization or
potentially damaging vacuum conditions. Rupture discs provide instantaneous response
(within milliseconds) to an increase or decrease in system pressure, but once the disc has
ruptured it will not reseal. Major advantages of the application of rupture discs compared
to using pressure relief valves include leak-tightness and cost.
On spring-operated valves the adjustable spring tension offsets the inlet pressure.
For a conventional spring-operated relief, the valve opens based on the pressure drop
across the valve seat; that is, the set pressure is proportional to the pressure drop across
the seat. For the balanced-bellows design the bellows on the backside of the valve seat
ensures that the pressure on that side of the seat is always atmospheric. Thus the
balanced-bellows valve will always open at the desired set pressure.
5.4.1 Relief valve placement

77
Table 5.7: Location, type and application for relief valve

Location Types of valves Symbol Application
Boiler Spring Loaded Pressure Relief Valve PSV-E-1-01 To avoid damage of boiler because of
(E-1-01) high temperature and pressure.
Air Compressor Spring Loaded Pressure Relief Valve PSV-K-1-01 To avoid the damage and explosion of
(K-1-01) compreesor due to overpressure.
Reactor Spring Loaded Pressure Relief Valve PSV-R-1-01 To avoid the damage and explosion of
(R-1-01) reactor due to overpressure.
Absorber Spring Loaded Pressure Relief Valve PSV-C-1-01 To avoid the damage and explosion of
(C-1-01) absorber due to overpressure.
Boiler Spring Loaded Pressure Relief Valve PSV-E-1-07 To avoid damage of boiler because of
(E-1-07) high temperature and pressure.
78
Distillation Column Spring Loaded Pressure Relief Valve PSV-C-1-01 To avoid the damage and explosion of
(C-1-02) column due to overpressure.
Accumulator Spring Loaded Pressure Relief Valve PSV-V-1-01 To avoid the damage and explosion of
(V-1-01) column due to overpressure.
Kettle Reboiler Spring Loaded Pressure Relief Valve PSV-E-1-08 To avoid damage of reboiler because
(E-1-08) of high temperature and pressure.
CHAPTER VI
DETAIL PROCESS DESIGN
6.1 REACTOR
Type of reactor: Packed Bed Reactor

Isothermal with pressure drop
Temperature: 688 K
Pressure: 150-275 kPa
Void Fraction: 0.44
Below is the information:

Weight of catalyst at 0.9 conversion = 45 000 kgcat
Bulk Density of catalyst = 900 kg cat/m3
Particle diameter = 5 mm
Length of tubes = 14.35 m
Thickness of tube = 4 mm
Diameter of tubes = 8 x 5 = 40 mm (Sources from Perry Handbook)
Volume of tubes = 𝜋𝑟2𝐿

= π (0.02)2 (14.35)
= 0.018035 m3
Volume of bulk catalyst = 45 000/ 900 = 50 m3

Tubes required = 50 / 0.018035 = 2772 tubes
80
For calculation, assuming triangular pitch with 1 pass:

K1 = 0.319, n1= 2.142
Bundle diameter, Db= do (Nt/K1)1/n1

= 40 (2772/ 0.319) 1/1 2.142
= 2761 mm
From figure 12.10 (Sources from Chemical Engineering Design), for outside packed bed,
Shell inside diameter – bundle diameter = 38 mm
So, shell inside diameter = 38 + 2761 = 2799 mm
Thus, L/D = 14.35/ 2.8 = 5, which is between 3 and 6. (Acceptable)
Reactor Cooling System
The molten salt used as a cooling medium is a mixture of 60 percent sodium nitrate and
40 percent potassium-nitrate, commonly called saltpeter. The heat generated from the
reaction is 1050 kW. The required mass flow rate of molten salt is calculated as below:
Information required, Cp (molten salt) = 1230 J/K.kg

Tin = 200ºC
Tout = 280ºC
Δ T = 280ºC - 200ºC = 80ºC
From, Q  mCT
J
1050000J / s  m  41230  80K
kg.K
m  10.67kg / s
81
6.2 ABSORBER DESIGN
Absorption is used to separate gas mixtures, remove impurities, contaminants, or catalyst

poisons from a gas or recover valuable chemicals. Absorber is installed after reactor to
absorb the maleic anhydride from the gaseous mixture by transfer it into a organic
solvent, dibutyl phthalate.
A trayed column or plate column is selected for absorption column in production

of maleic anhydride. The advantage of trayed absorption column it can be scaled to large
diameters more than 0.6m, wide range of liquid and gas flow rates without flooding, man
holes will be provided for cleaning, it is easier to make provision for cooling in a trayed
column, moderate to high pressure drop per tray, low cost, and easier to withdrawal of
side-streams from trayed column.
A trayed column is a vertical, cylindrical pressure vessel in which vapor and

liquid, which flow counter currently, are connected on a series of metal or trays or plates.
Liquid flows across each tray, over an outlet weir, and into a downcomer, which takes the
liquid by gravity to the tray below. Gas flows upward through openings in each tray,
bubbling through the liquid on the tray. Sieve trays are selected for suitable plates in the
trayed column because of their high efficiency, wide operating range, ease of
maintenance and lower installed cost. Sieve trays are flat metal plates with holes in them
which vapour passes straight upward through the liquid on the plate. (Harry Silla 2003)
82
11
T = 98.2oC
P = 150kpa
Organic solvent Q = 1.17E+04 kg/h
(Dibutyl phtalate)
T = 30.1oC 10-1
P = 170 kpa
Q = 9.3E+04 kg/h
T = 132oC
T = 151.4oC
P = 200kPa
P = 160kpa
Q = 1.4E+05kg/h
Q = 1.17E+05kg/h
n-butane = 1592.55 kg/h
n-butane = 10.01 kg/h
O2 = 399.99 kg/h
O2 = 0.13 kg/h
N2 = 95161.79 kg/h 9
N2 = 53.86 kg/h
MA = 22837.45 kg/h
MA = 22811.91 kg/h
CO = 767.48 kg/h
CO = 0.75 kg/h
CO2 = 7.35E+03kg/h
CO2 = 0.71 kg/h
H2O = 4.80E+04kg/h 12
H2O = 768.87 kg/h
Dbp = 92978.66 kg/h
Figure 6.1: Absorber in maleic anhydride production
6.2.1 Minimum liquid flow rate
It is the flow rate of liquid at which separation cannot occur:

m Lm y 2 k  y1k

mv y 2k
 x1k
Kk
0.0493  0
m Lm  (4.7  103 )
0.0493
 0.3804
0.11
mLm  3418.5kmol / h
83
where, m Lm = minimum liquid flow rate

3
mv = vapor flow rate = 4.7 x 10 kmol/h
K k = equilibrium value of key component (k value) = 0.11
y1k = vapor fraction of key component in top of column = 0
y 2 k = vapor fraction of key component at bottom of column = 0.0493
x1k = fraction of key component in the top liquid = 0.3804
6.2.2 Number of theoretical stages
L
Absorption factor: Ai   1.5
KV
Generally, the design that minimizes the combination of operating costs (i.e., the
consumption of separating agent) and the capital costs (i.e., the number of plates) occurs
when KV/L is chosen to be between 1.5 and 3 for an absorber.
N 1
( Ai  Ai )
Using Kremser equation for calculation of number of stages: N 1

( Ai  1)
( Ai   )
Simplifiying above equation: N  1log( Ai )  log
(1   )
N  7.70  8 trays
where, Ai = absorption factor = 1.5
 = solute fraction absorbed = 0.987
6.2.3 Number of actual stages
Using graph for the efficiency of the column for gas absorption, E o = 51%
(For absorbers, the volatility is taken as ten times Kk for the key component)
84
Figure 6.2: Column efficiency for absorber (Harry Silla 2003)
N 8
Number of actual stages, N a    15.7  16 trays
E o 0.51
6.2.4 Height of the column
Height of column is determined by: H c  ( N a  1) H s  H

H c  (16  1)0.57  2.6
H c  11.15 m
where, Hs = tray spacing = 0.57

ΔH = disengagement region = 2.6m
Na = no.of actual stages = 16 trays
85
6.2.5 Diameter of the column
1/ 2 1/ 2
L  v  9.3  10 4  1.7591 
Liquid- vapor flow factor, FLV  w       0.027
Vw  L  1.4  105  1037.9 
where, Lw = liquid mass flow rate = 9.3x104 kg/h

Vw = vapour mass flow rate = 1.4x105 kg/h
ρv = density of vapors = 1.7591 kg/m3
ρL = density of liquid = 1037.9 kg/m3
Using graph 11.27 (vol.6 Coulson & Richidson), for FLV = 0.027 and tray spacing=0.57m,
K1 = 0.09
As surface tension of liquid is 0.05 N/m,
0.2
 0.05 
Corrected, K 1  0.09   0.11
 0.02 
 L  v
Flooding velocity, u f  K1  2.67m / s
v
Actual flooding velocity is 80-85% of this. So, u n  0.8  2.516  2.013m / s
m v 10c.5
Net column area, An    5.22m 2
u n 2.013
where, mv = volumetric flow rate of vapor = 10.5 m3/sec

un = actual flooding velocity = 2.013 m/s
Assuming downcomer occupies 12% of across sectional area so,

Ac  An  Ad
Ac  An  0.12 Ac
Ac  5.93m 2
86
0.5
 4A 
Diameter of column, Dc   c   2.75m
  
Ratio L/D ≌ 4 (Therefore, the calculated value of DT and H is acceptable.)
6.2.6 Plate Design
Column diameter = 2.75m

Column area, Ac = 5.93m2
Downcomer area, Ad = 0.12Ac = 0.12 x 5.93 = 0.712m2
Active area, Aa  Ac  2 Ad  5.93  2(0.712)  4.5m 2
Holes area, Ah = 10% of active area = 0.45m2

Hole size or diameter (Typically 5mm hole size is used), Dh = 0.005m
Plate thickness for carbon steel material is 0.005m
Weir height, hw= 0.05m
Weir length, lw=77% x Dc = 2.118m
 2
Area of one hole = ( Dh )  1.96  105 m 2
4
Number of holes = area of holes/ area of 1 hole = 22959.18 = 22960 holes
6.2.7 Perforated Area
lw 2.118
From figure 11.32(reference 1), at   0.77 , θ = 100o
Dc 2.75
Angle subtended by the edge of the plate  1800  1000  800

80
Mean length, unperforated edge strips  (2.75  0.05)   3.77m
180
area of unperforeted edge strips = 0.05x3.77 = 0.189m
mean length of calming zone = lw +0.05=2.118+0.05 = 2.168m
total area of perforation, Ap = 4.5 - 0.189 - 0.217 = 4.094m2
87
Ah 0.45 lp
From figure 11.33 (reference 1), when   0.1 ,  2.9 (acceptable)
Ap 4.094 dh
6.2.8 Check Weeping
Maximum liquid rate = 9.3x104 kg/h = 25.83 kg/s

Minimum liquid rate, at 70 per cent turn-down = 0.7x 25.83 = 18.08 kg/s
2/3 2/3
 L   18.08 
Weir crest how  750 w   750   30.56mm liquid
  Llw   1037.9  2.118 
At minimum rate, hw  how  50  30.56  80.56mm liquid
From figure 11.30 (reference 1), K2 = 30.9

Minimum design vapor velocity,
K 2  0.9025.4  d h  30.9  0.90(25.4  5)
U h (min)    9.45m / s
v 1/ 2
1.75911 / 2
Actual minimum vapour velocity = minimum vapour rate/ Ah = 9.45/0.45 = 21m/s
So, minimum operating rate will be well above weep point.
6.2.9 Plate Pressure Drop
From figure 11.34 (referece 1), for plate thickness/ hole diameter = 1, and A h/Ap=0.1,
C0=0.84.
2 2
u  v  21  1.7591
Dry plate drop, hd  51 h   51   54.024mm liquid
 CO  L  0.84  1037.9
12.5  103 12.5  103

Residual head, hr    12.044mm liquid
L 1037.9
Total plate pressure drop,
ht  hd  (hw  how )  hr  54.024  50  30.56  12.044  146.63mm liquid
Plate pressure drop,

Pt  9.81 103 ht  L  9.81 103  146.63  1037.9  1492N / m 2  1.5kPa
88
6.3 DISTILLATION COLUMN DESIGN
6.3.1 Introduction
Distillation is a process in which a liquid or vapour mixture of two or more substances is

separated into its component fractions of desired purity, by the application and removal of
heat. Distillation columns are designed to achieve this separation efficiently. The best
way to reduce operating costs of existing units is to improve their efficiency and
operation via process optimisation and control. To achieve this improvement, a thorough
understanding of distillation principles and how distillation systems are designed is
essential.
The detailed process design of the maleic anhydride distillation column is given
below and can be divided into few following steps. The feed to the column is a mixture of
Maleic Anhydride (MA), N-Butane, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Carbon Monoxide, Carbon
Dioxide, Water and Dibutyl phthalate (DP). The distillate is the required product
consisting of mainly MA. While the top vapor product is sent to fuel gas line. The bottom
liquid product for example dibutyl phthalate is sent back to absorber.
6.3.2 Tray Specifications
A schematic flowchart of distillation column is shown in figure 3.4:
Top product, D
Feed
Bottom product, B
Figure 6.3: Product specification

89
In this design, a continuous distillation process with sieve plate column type was adopted.
Sieve trays are the most widely used mass transfer devices due to their simplicity,
versatility, capacity and cost effectiveness. Besides that, there is lower pressure drop also
experience compare to bubble-cap trays.
6.3.3 Reflux Consideration
The reflux ration, R, is normally defined as:

Flow return as reflux
R=
Flow top product taken off
For a given separation (i.e. constant xD and xB) from a given feed condition (xF and q),
using a higher reflux ratio (R) will results in lesser number of theoretical trays (N)
required, and vice versa. In other words, there are many possible combination of reflux
ratio R and number of theoretical trays, N. For a new design, of course the reflux ratio
and number of theoretical stages can both be varied to achieve an optimum balance.
Since the feed is partialy vaporize, so 0<q<1.

q = L F /F ( 1 - v F ) = 0.5233
From ICON result, F= 611.50 kmole/hr and D= 260.0 kmole/hr.

L = (1- v F ) F = 319.99 kmole/hr
The minimum reflux ratio: R m = L/D = 1.23
From the specification, the optimum reflux ratio: R = 1.25Rm = 1.5375
This will give the lowest annual operating cost.

90
6.3.4 Relation between Reflux Ratio and Stages
The number of minimum theoretical plates required for the desired separation under
conditions of total reflux can be found by applying Fenske equation to the two key
components, thus:
 d  b j 
log i  
 d j  bi
 
N min 
log( m )
where; Nmin - minimum number of stages

di - mole flow rate of light key component in distillate
dj - mole flow rate of heavy key component in distillate
bi - mole flow rate of light key component in bottom
bj - mole flow rate of heavy key component in bottom
αm - mean relative volatility – [(αi,j)N(αi,j)1]1/2
Comparing with the quantities of the maleic anhydride and dibutyl phthalate present in
the system, the amount of others are negligible. So it is considered as a binary system.
Thus:
Table 6.1: K-value for light and heavy component

Components K-values for rectifying section K-values for stripping section
MA (LK) 0.1772 0.8287
DP (HK) 0.8227 0.1213
MA: Maleic Anhydride

DP : Dibutyl Phthalate
91
K LK
 rectifying   0.2154
K HK
K LK
 stripping   6.8318
K HK
 m  [( rectifying )( stripping )]1 / 2
= 1.2131
Nm  7
Thus, the minimum number of theoretical plates is 7.
The estimation of the actual number of theoretical plates can be obtained by using the
Nm
equation below: N= = 12
0.6
Thus, the number of theoretical plates is 12.
6.3.5 Plates Efficiency
(Ttop + Tbottom )
Average column temperature, Tav = = 250.35℃
2
From ICON results, molar average viscosity of the feed, μav = 8.9581 x 10 -5 Pa.s.
The overall column efficiency can be obtained from the correlation given by O’Connell
correlation as; E o = 51- 32.5 log(av . m )  79.82 %
Thus, the plate efficiency is 79.82%.

92
6.3.6 Number of Actual Plates
Plate efficiency is defined as;

Taking reboiler as 1 stage, so, the number of ideal stages is 12-1 =11
Number of actual stages:

11
Nact = ≅14
0.7982
6.3.7 Feed Point Location
The feed point location can be determined by using empirical equation given by
Kirkbride (1994):
Nr W xMA xDP,b
log =0.206 log
Ns B xDP xMA,d
Nr
= 1.0268
Ns
Number of actual stages, excluding the reboiler is 14.

So, Nr + Ns =14
Solving for both equation simultaneously, gives: Nr = 6, Ns = 7
Thus, the feed point location is at plate 7 from the bottom.
6.3.8 Plate Spacing
In this design, the initial estimate of plate spacing is taken as 0.6m.
6.3.9 Flowrates and Calculation
As the liquid and vapour flowrates and compositions vary up the column, plate design
should be made above and below the feed point. A flow diagram
D for liquid and vapour is
shown in figure 3.5 below:
93
𝑉𝑛 𝐿𝑛
𝑉𝑚 𝐿𝑚
Figure 6.4: Flow diagram for liquid and vapour
F = 611.50 kmole/hr, D= 260.00 kmole/hr, B= 328.83 kmole/hr
Reflux ratio, R= 1.5375

So, Ln =RD=399.75 kmole/hr
Material balance: Vn = Ln + D=659.75 kmole/hr

Lm = Ln + F=1011.25 kmole/hr
Vm = Lm - B=682.42 kmole/hr
6.3.10 Physical Properties
The operating pressure for this column is at 140kPa.

Assume 100mm water, pressure drop per plate.
Thus, column pressure drop= 100 x 10-3 x 1000 x 9.81 x 14 = 14kPa.
Top pressure = 110.0kPa
Therefore, the estimated bottom pressure = 124 kPa ≅ 130 kPa (from ICON result).
Top temperature = 149.3 C
ρv =1165. 9398 kg/m3
ρl = 1.0197 kg/m3
94
Bottom temperature = 259.5 C

ρv = 701.3260 kg/m3
ρl = 0.6932 kg/m3
6.3.11 Column Diameter
Liquid-vapour flow factor:

Ln ρV
Top: FLV = = 0.01792
Vn ρL
Lm ρV
Bottom: FLV = = 0.04659
Vm ρL
Take tray spacing as 0.6m.
From reference (1), Fig. 11.27: Top: K1 = 0.047

Bottom: K1 = 0.06
Correction for surface tension:

σ 0.2
Top: K1C = K1 = 0.2177
0.02
Bottom: K1C =0.2779
Flooding vapour velocity, based on the net column cross sectional A n,

ρL -ρV
Top: Uf = KIC =2.1760 m/s
ρL
Bottom: Uf =2.7760 m/s
Design for 70% flooding at maximum flowrate:

Top: Uv =0.70Uf =1.5232 m/s
Bottom: Uv = 1.9432 m/s
95
Average molecular weight:

Top: Mv = 107.34 kg/kmole
Bottom: Ms = 278.33 kg/kmole
Maximum volumetric flowrate:

Vn Mv
Top: Q= =1.9292 m3 /s
ρv 3600
Bottom: Q=7.6112 m/s
Net area required:

Q
Top: An = =1..2667 m2
UV
Bottom: An =3.9132 m2
As first trial take downcomer area as 12% of total area, column cross-sectional area:
A
Top: n
As = 0.88 =1.4394 m2
Bottom: As =4.4468 m2
Column diameter;
4As
Top: Dc = =1.3538m
π
Bottom: Dc=2.3795 m
Use same diameter above and below the feed for ease of fabrication and to reduce the
perforated are for plate above the feed. Therefore, in this design, the column diameter is
that is 2.40 m.
96
6.3.12 Liquid Flow Pattern
Lm Mw
Maximum volumetric liquid flow: QL = =0.0072
ρL 3600
From Fig. 11.28 in reference (1), it is clear that a single pass plate can be used.
6.3.13 Provisional Plate Design
Column diameter, Dc = 2.40m

Column area, Ac = 4.5239 m2
Downcomer area (12%) Ad = 0.12 x 4.5239 = 0.5429 m2
Next area, An = Ac – Ad = 3.9810 m2
Active area, Aa = Ac – 2Ad = 3.4381 m2
Hole area, take 10% Aa, Ah = 0.3438 m2
Ratio, Ad/Ac = 0.12

From reference (1), Fig 11.31, lw/Dc = 0.76
Weir length, lw = 1.824 m
Take Weir height hw = 40mm
Hole diameter dh = 6mm
Plate thickness t p = 3mm
6.3.14 Check Weeping
Lm Mw
Maximum liquid rate, Lw = =78.18 kmol/s
3600
Minimum liquid rate at 70% turn down, Lw = 0.7 x 78.18 = 54.726 kmol/s
97
Using Francis weir formula:

Lw 2/3
Maximum weir liquid crest: how =750 ( ) = 11.34 mm
ρL lw
Minimum weir liquid crest: how = 8.9427mm

At minimum rate, hw + how = 48.9427 mm
From Fig. 11.30, reference (1), K2 = 30

K2 - 0.9 (25.4-dh)
Minimum design vapour velocity: Uh = =7.0751 m/s
ρ1/2
v
0.7 x Q m
Actual minimum vapour velocity: Uac= =10.39 s > Uh
Ah
So, minimum operating rate will be well above weep point.
6.3.15 Plate Pressure Drop
Dry plate drop, hd:

Q
Maximum vapour velocity thru holes: Um = =14.8149 m/s
Ah
From Fig. 11.34 in reference (1), for tp/dh =0.6, Ah/Ap=Ah/Aa =0.1, Co = 0.74
2
Um ρv
hd =51 ≅17.8772mm
Co ρL
Residual Head: Taking as a fixed value of 12.5 mm of water.

12.5 x 103
hr = =10.7210mm
ρL
Total plate pressure drop:

ht = hd + (hw + how) + hr = 79.9412 mm liquid ≌ 80 mm liquid
In pressure unit:
pt = 10 x 10-3 x 1000 x 9.81 x 14 = 10987.2 Pa ≌ 11kPa
98
100mm was assumed to calculate the bottom pressure. The calcualtion could be repeated
with a revised estimate but the small change in physical properties will have little effect
on the plate design, so 80 mm per plate is considered acceptable.
6.3.16 Downcomer Liquid Backup
Downcomer pressure loss;

Take hap = hw – 5 = 35 mm
= height of the bottom edge of the apron above plate.
Area under apron: Aap = hap x lw = 0.035 x 1.14 = 0.04m2 < Ad

As Aap is less than Ad, use Aap in the following equation.
2
Lw
Head loss in downcomer: hdc =166 = 46.647mm
ρL Aap
Back-up in downcomer: hb = (hw + how) + ht + hdc

= 59.7813mm
= 0.0598 m
6.3.17 Check Froth Height
For safe design, the clear liquid back-up, hb, should not exceed height:
hb <0.5 (plate spacing + weir length) = 0.87 mm.
Since, hb < 0.87 mm. Thus, the tray spacing 0.6m is acceptable to avoid any flooding in
the column.
99
6.3.18 Check Residence Time
A time of at least 3 seconds is recommended. Downcomer residence time is given by;

Ad hb ρL
tr = =4.84
Lw
>3s, satisfactory.
6.3.19 Check Entrainment
Q
Actual percentage flooding design area; Uaf = =1.9119 m/s
An
Uaf
Percent flooding, Pf % = x 100%=68.87 %
Uf
From Fig. 11.29, reference (1),

The fractional entrainment φ=0.09, which is well below o.1, satisfactory.
6.3.20 Trial Layout
Use catridge-type construction. Allow 50mm unperforated strip round plate edge; 50mm
wide calming zones. Perforated area,
From Fig. 11.32, reference (1),

lw
At =0.76
Dc
θ=88°
Angle subtended at plate edge by unperforated strip, θ=180°- 88°= 22°
94
Mean length, unperforated edge strip: Ls = Dc - 0.05 π x =3.8554 m
180
Area of unperforated edge strip: Au =0.05 Ls =0.1928m2

100
Area of calming zones: Ac =2 x 0.05 lw - 2 x 0.05 =0.1040
Total area available for perforations:

Ap = Aa - Au + Ac = 3.1413 m2
Ah
=0.1094
Ap
lp
From Fin 11.33, reference (1), =2.9, satisfactory, within 2.5 to 4.0.
dh
6.3.21 Number Of Holes and Column Height
πd2
Area of one hole, an = =2.8274 x 10-5 m2
4
Ah
Number of hole, Nh = =12160
ah
Column height: 14 plates at 0.60 m spacing = 8.4 m

Tower skirt height = 2.0 m
Total = 10.4 m
6.3.22 Summary
Flowrate:
Feed, F 611.50 kmole/hr
Top Product, D 260.00 kmole/hr
Bottom Product, B 328.83 kmole/hr
Column:
Minimum Reflux Ratio, Rm 1.23
Optimun Reflux Ratio, R 1.5375
Plate Efficiency, Eo 79.82%
101
No. of Plates, Nact 14

Feed Point Location, Ns 7
Plate Spacing, lt 0.6m
Temperature, T 149.3 C
Presure, P 140kPa
Diameter, Dc 2.4m
Area, Ac 4.5239 m2
Height (including tower skirt) 10.4m
Turn down 70%
Flow pattern Single Pass
Pressure Drop, Pt 11kPa
% flooding, Pf 70%
Plate:
Net Area, An 3.9810 m2
Active Area, Aa 3.4381 m2
Downcomer Area, Ad 0.5429 m2
Hole Area, Ah 0.3438 m2
Hole Area (one), ah 2.8274 x 10-4 m2
Hole Pitch,lp 17.4mm
Hole Diameter, dh 6mm
No. of Holes, Nh 12160
Plate Thickness, t p 3mm
Weir Height, hw 40mm
Weir Length, lw 1.824m
102
6.4 CONDENSER DESIGN
There are many different condenser designs. In this process, the design is horizontal with
condensation in the shell and the cooling medium in the tubes. This condenser design
provides cooling water flow through straight tubes from the inlet water box on one end, to
the outlet water box on the other end. In our case, we use condenser to condense the
organic vapor from distillation column to liquid maleic anhydride. The cooling medium
used is cooling water. The condenser design is one shell pass, two tube passes, pull-
through floating head with each tubes dimension of 20 mm o.d., 16.8 mm i.d., 4.88 m
long of steel and square pitch arrangement.
Figure 6.5: Condenser
Mass flow of organic vapor, mv = 45683.97 kg/hr = 12.70 kg/s

Enthalpy at stream 1 = -351954.0 J/mol
Enthalpy at stream 2 = -410746.3 J/mol
Heat of vaporization = 1.108 x 105 J/mol
Molecular weight = 88.81 g/mol
Heat transferred from vapour, Qv

12.77kg 1kmol
= x 88.81 kg x [(−410746.3) − (−351954.0) − 1.108 x 105 ] J/mol
s
= 24252 𝑘𝑊
103
(25  55)o C
Cooling water mean temperature =  40o C
2
Cooling water capacity at 40oC = 4.181kJ/kg.K
24252
Cooling water flow, mcw   193.35kg/s
(55  25)4.181
T1 = 232°C
t2= 55°C T2 = 149.3 °C
t1 = 25°C
(234.9  55)  (149.3  25)

Log mean temperature, ∆Tlm   150.4 oC
(234.9  55)
ln
(149.3  25)
(234.9  149.3)
R  2.85
(55  25)
(55  25)
S  0.14
(234.9  25)
Use a horizontal exchanger, condensation in the shell, four tube passes. For one shell
pass, four tube passes, from figure 12.19, Ft = 0.97.
∆Tm = 0.97 x 150.4 = 145.9 oC
From Table 12.1, Overall coefficient, U = 900 W/m2oC

Q = UAΔT
24252 x103
Total Area required, A   184.69m 2
900x145.9
104
Select tubes of 20 mm o.d., 16.8 mm i.d., 4.88 m long of steel, square pitch.
Surface area of one tube = 20 x 10-3 x  x 4.88 = 0.305 m2
184.69
Number of tubes   606
0.305
Use square pitch, Pt  1.25x20mm  25mm
1
606 2.263
Tube bundle diameter, Db  20( )  766.8 mm
0.158
Db 767
Number of tubes in centre row, Nr    31
Pt 25
Take as pull-through floating head, select baffle spacing = shell diameter, 45 per cent cut
From figure 12.10, the shell-bundle clearance = 93 mm
Shell diameter, Ds = 1134 mm + 97 mm = 860 mm
6.4.1 Tube-side coefficient (Cooling water)
 606
Tube cross-sectional area  x(16.8 x103 ) 2 x  0.0672m 2
4 2
55  25
At mean temperature, t   40 o C
2
Density of water, ρL  992.26 kg / m 3
193.35 1
Water linear velocity, ut 992.26 0.0672  2.90 m / s
 x
4200(1.35  0.02x40)2.900.8
hi  0.2
 12038 W / m 2o C
16.8
105
6.4.2 Shell-side coefficient (Organic vapor)
234.9  149.3
Mean temp, Shell-side   192.1 o C
2
55  25
Tube-side   40 o C
2
Assume that the condensing coefficient, ho = 1500 W/m2oC
(192.1 – Tw) 1500 = (192.1 – 40) (1000)

Tw = 90.7oC
192.1  90.7
Mean Temperature Condensate   141.4 oC
2
Physical properties at 141.4 oC, μL = 0.00057 Pa.s

ρL  1164 kg / m3
kL  0.1616 W / moC
Vapor density at mean vapor temperature:

88.81 273 1.1
Density of vapor, ρv  x x  2.56 kg / m 3
22.4 (273  192.1) 1
Wc
Horizontal tube loading, Ґh 
LN t
1
 12.70kg / s x
4.88m x 606
 0.0043kg / s m
2
Average no. of tube in vertical tube row, Nr  x31  21
3
106
𝜌 𝐿 𝜌 𝐿 −𝜌 𝑉 𝑔 1/3
Heat transfer coefficient, hc = 0.95 𝑥 𝑘𝐿 𝑁𝑟 −1/6
𝜇 𝐿 𝛤𝑕
1164 1164 −2.56 9.81 1/3

= 0.95 𝑥 0.1616 21−1/6
0.00057 𝑥 0.0043
= 1623 W/𝑚2 𝑜 𝐶
Close enough to assume value of 1500 W/m2oC, so no correction to Tw needed.
6.4.3 Overall Coefficient
Using the fouling factors as 5000W/m2oC for each side,

Wall thermal conductivity, k w = 50 W/m2oC
do
d o ln
1 1 1 di do 1 d 1
   ( x )( o x
U o ho hod 2k w d i hid d i hi )
20
20 x103 ln( )
1 1 1 16.8 )  20 x 1  20 x 1
  (
U 1623 5000 2 x50 16.8 5000 16.8 12038
U  866W / m2oC
Close to estimate.
6.4.4 Shell-side Pressure Drop
Shell diameter, Ds = 767 mm + 93 mm = 860 mm

107
Baffle spacing, lb = shell diameter, Ds

= 860 mm
( PT  do ) Ds  B (25  20)
Cross-flow area, As   x 860x860 x 10 6  0.1479m2
PT 25
Ws 1
Mass velocity, G s  A  12.7 x 0.1479  85.86 kg / sm
2
Gs 85.86
Velocity, us   2.56  33.54 m / s

v
1.27
2 2
Equivalent diameter, d e  d ( PT  0.785d o )
o
1.27
 (252  0.785x20 2 )
20
 19.8 mm
vapor viscosity = 1.193 x 10-2 mNs/m2
udi (85.86)(19.8 x103 )

Re    142500.25
 1.193x105
From figure 12.30, 45% cut, jf = 2.2 x 10-2
Take pressure drop as 50 per cent of that calculated using the inlet flow; neglect viscosity
correction.
1 D L  u s 2  1   2 860 4.88 2.56x33.54 2 

Ps  8 j f ( s )( )( ) 0.14   8 2.2 10 ( )( )
2  2  
x x
2  de  B w 19.8 0.860 2 
= 31230 N / m2
= 31.23 kPa
108
6.4.5 Tube-side Pressure Drop
Viscosity of cooling water at 40oC = 6.6 x10-4 Pa.s
3
ud i 992.26 x 2.90x16.8 x10
Reynolds number, Re    6.6 x104
 73246.83
From figure 12.24, jf = 3.0 x10-3
Neglect viscosity correction.
L  x ut 2
Pressure drop, ∆Pt  N p [8 x j f x ( di

)  2.5]
2
4.88 992.26 x 2.902

 2[8 x 3.0 x103 x ( )  2.5]
16.8x103 2
 79038.19N / m2
 79.0 kPa
Acceptable.
6.5 HEAT EXCHANGER DESIGN
T2= 145.75 0C
t1= 131.1 0C t2 =340 0C
T1 =350 0C
Figure 6.6: Shell and Tube Exchanger

109
The transfer of heat to and from process fluids is an essential part of most chemical
process. The n-butane from mixer at stream 7 needs to be heated before entering the
reactor. A shell and tube exchanger is used to heat the component from 131.1 0C to about
3400C. The outlet flow from the reactor is used as a heating medium and operates in the
tube side while the n-butane stream in shell side. Kern method is used to calculate the
overall heat transfer coefficient and pressure drop. Table below shows the parameter that
required in the calculation.
Table 6.2: Parameter for shell and tube side

Parameter Shell side Tube side
Heat Capacity (J/kg oC) 1075 3000
Mass Flow (kg/hr) 139982.19 51300
o
Temperature inlet ( C) 131.1 350
Temperature oulet (oC) 340 145.75
Density, ρ ( kg/m3) 2310 3567
6.5.1 Calculation
Heat load, Q
Q = 𝑚1 Cp∆T
139982.19 𝑘𝑔 J 1kW
= x 1075 ℃ x (340 − 131.1)℃ x
3600 𝑠 kg 1000W
= 8732.06 𝑘𝑊
Heating medium, 𝑚2
𝑄 8732060
𝑚2 = =
𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇 3000 × 350 − 145.75
= 14.25 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
110
T1 − T2 𝑡2 − 𝑡1
𝑅= = 1.00 𝑆= = 0.95
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 𝑇1 − 𝑡1
Take as 2 shell passes and 4 tube passes.

Tubes of 20mm o.d, 18mm i.d, and 5 m long of cupper nickel alloy./ carbon steel
From figure 12.20 (Sinnott.R.K 2005), Ft = 4.4
Log mean temperature difference, ∆𝑇lm
𝑇1 − 𝑡2 − 𝑇2 − 𝑡1 350 − 340 − 145.75 − 131.1

∆Tlm = =
𝑇1 − 𝑡2 𝑙𝑛(350 − 340)/(145.75 − 131.1)
ln 𝑇2 − 𝑡1
= 12.18℃
True mean temperature difference, ∆𝑇m

∆𝑇𝑚 = 𝐹𝑡 × ∆𝑇 = 4.4 × 12.18
= 53.59℃
From table 12.1(Sinnott.R.K 2005), overall coefficient, U = 600 W/m² °C

𝑄 8732.06 × 103
Total area, A = =
𝑈∆Tm 600 × 53.59
= 271.56 𝑚2
Area of one tube = πdoL

= π x 20x10-³ x 5
= 0.377m²
271.56
Number of tubes, Nt =
0.377
= 720
111
Using triangular pitch, Pt = 1.25 x do

= 1.25 x 20
= 25 mm
Nt 1 n1
720 1 2.285
Tube bundle diametar, Db = do ( ) = 20 ( ) = 763 mm
K1 0.175
Take as pull-through floating head.

From Figure 12.10(Sinnott.R.K 2005), clearance = 93mm
Shell diameter, Ds = Db + clearance
= 763 + 93
= 856 mm
6.5.2 Tube-side coefficient
𝜋𝑑𝑖² 𝜋 × (18 × 10−3 )²

Tube cross sectional area = = = 2.545 × 10−4 𝑚2
4 4
720
Tube per pass = = 180
4
Total flow area = 2.545 x 10-4 x 180 = 0.04581 m²

𝑚2 51300 1
Mass velocity, Gs = = × 0.04581 = 311.07 kg/ s.m²
As 3600
Gs 311.07
Velocity, ut = = = 0.0872 𝑚/𝑠
𝜌 3567
𝜌ut 𝑑𝑖 3567 × 0.0872 × 18 𝑥 10−3
Reynolds number, Re = = = 25322
𝜇 0.2211 × 10−3
3000 (0.2211 ×10 −3 )

Prandlt number, Pr = =5.289
0.1254
𝐿
= 277.78
𝑑𝑖
112
From figure 12.23(Sinnott.R.K 2005) , jh = 0.0038
𝑘𝑓
Heat transfer coefficient, hi = 𝑗 Re𝑃𝑟 0.33
𝑑𝑖 𝑕
0.1254
= (0.0038) (25322)(5.289)1 3
18 × 10−3
= 1161.05 W/m² °C
6.5.3 Shell-side coefficient
𝐷𝑠
Baffle spacing, ℓB = = 171.2 mm
5
𝑃𝑡 − 𝑑𝑜
Cross sectional area, As = ( 𝐷𝑆 ℓb )
𝑃𝑡
25 − 20
=( × 856 × 10−3 × 171.2 × 10−3 )
25
= 0.0293 m²
𝑚1 139982.19 1
Mass velocity, Gs = = ×
As 3600 0.0293
= 1327.09 kg/ s.m²
Gs 1327.09
Velocity, us = = = 0.5745 𝑚/𝑠
𝜌 2310
1.1
For triangular pitch, equivalent diameter, de = (P ² − 0.917do ²)
𝑑𝑜 t
= 0.000213 m
𝐺𝑠 𝑑𝑒 1327.09 × 0.000213
Reynolds number, Re = = = 11782.83
𝜇 0.02399 × 10−3
1075 (0.02399 ×10 −3 )

Prandlt number, Pr = = 0.76
0.03411
113
From figure 12.29 (Sinnott.R.K 2005), 25% baffle cut, jh = 0.0048
𝑘𝑓
Heat transfer coefficient, hs = 𝑗 Re𝑃𝑟 1 3
𝑑𝑒 𝑕
0.03411
= (0.0048) (11782.83)(0.76)1 3
0.000213
= 8265.41 W/m² °C
6.5.4 Overall coefficient
Using fouling factor, 5000 W/m² K and wall thermal conductivity, k W = 45W/m² K.
𝑑
1 1 1 𝑑𝑜 ln⁡𝑑𝑜 𝑑 1 1
𝑖 𝑜
= + + + ( + )
𝑈 𝑕𝑜 𝑕𝑜𝑑 2𝑘𝑤 𝑑𝑖 𝑕𝑖 𝑕𝑖𝑑
20
1 1 20 × 10−3 ln⁡18 20 1 1
= + + + ( + )
8265.41 5000 2 × 45 18 1161.05 5000
U = 656.42 W/m² °C
Well above assume value of 600W/m²°C
6.5.5 Pressure Drop
i) For tube-side pressure drop,
𝑢𝑡 𝜌𝑑𝑖
Reynolds Number, Re =
𝜇
0.0872 × 3567 × 18 × 10−3
=
0.2211 × 10−3
= 25322
From figure 12.24(Sinnott.R.K 2005), jf = 5.9 x 10-1

114
𝐿 𝜇 𝜌𝑢𝑡 2
Pressure drop , ∆Pt = Np [8 jf ( )( )−𝑚 + 2.5]
𝑑𝑖 𝜇𝑤 2
5 3567 × 0.08722
= 4 [8 x 5.9 × 10−1 × + 2.5][ ]
18 × 10−3 2
= 71257 N/m²
= 0.712 bar
ii) For shell-side pressure drop,
From figure 12.30(Sinnott.R.K 2005), 25% baffle cut, jf = 0.0068

With a divided shell, the path length = 2 x (L / ℓB )
𝐷𝑠 2𝐿 𝜌𝑢𝑠 2 𝜇 −0.14
Pressure drop , ∆Ps = 8 jf ( )( )( )( )
𝑑𝑒 ℓ𝐵 2 𝜇𝑤
856 2(5) 2310(0.5745)2
= 8 × 0.0068 × ]
0.000213 171.2 2
= 4 688 008 N/m²
= 46.8 bar
6.6 REBOILER DESIGN
6.6.1 Reboiler Design

To C-1-02
Steam outlet
E-1-06
From C-1-02
S16
Steam inlet
T = 351.4 C
P = 130 kPa
F = 91520.60 kg/h
Figure 6.7: Kettle Reboiler

115
Kettle reboilers are essentially pool boiling devices and their design is based on data for
nucleate boiling. Kettle reboilers are very simple and reliable. In this reboiler type, steam
flow through the tube bundle and exits as condensate. The liquid from the bottom of the
tower flows through the shell side. The liquid circulation through the exchanger is
maintained by the difference in density between the two phase mixture of vapour and
liquid in the exchanger and the single phase liquid in the base of the column. The
component enters the reboiler at a pressure of 130 kPa and vaporisation rate of 91520.60
kg/h is required.
Table 6.3: Physical properties of Dibutylphthalate

Boiling point at 130kPa 355.8 °C
Molecular weight 278.34 kg/kmol
Cp 46.6 kJ/kg°C
Latent heat 526.4 kJ/kmol
Superheated steam temperature 410 °C
Mean overall ∆T = 410-355.8 = 54.2°C
Heat loads:
Sensible heat (maximum) = (355.8 – 0)46.6 = 16580.28 kJ/kg
91520 .60
Total heat load = (16580 + 526.4) × = 434885.6 W
3600
Add 5 per cent for heat losses:

Maximum heat load (duty) = 1.05× 434885.6
= 456629.8 W
From figure 12.1 assume U = 800 W/m°C

Mean temperature difference; both sides isothermal, superheated steam temperature
= 410°C
456629 .8
Area (outside) require= = 10.53 m2
800 ×54.2
116
Use 25mm i.d, 30mm o.d, plain U-tubes,

Nominal length 4.8m (one U-tube)
10.53
Number of U tubes = (0.03×𝜋×4.8) = 24 tubes
Approximate diameter of bundle, for 1.25 square pitch (1 pass),

𝑁𝑡 1 𝑛1 24 1 2.207
𝐷𝑜 = 𝑑𝑜 = 30 = 324.86 𝑚𝑚
𝑘1 0.125
From fig. 12.10, use the split-ring floating head, shell diameter clearance = 78mm
Shell inside diameter = 324.86 + 78 = 402.86 mm
Outlet pipe diameter, take area are equal to total tube cross-sectional area,
𝜋𝑑 2 𝜋
Area = Nt = 24 x (25x10-3)2 x ( 4 ) = 0.01178 m2
4
0.01178 ×4
Pipe diameter = = 0.1225 m
𝜋
6.6.2 Boiling coefficient
Use Mostinski’s equation:

456629 .8
Heat flux, based on estimated area, 𝑞 = 10.53
= 43.36 kW/m2
hnb = 0.104(17.23)0.69(43.36×103)0.7[1.8(1.3/17.23)0.17 + 4(1.3/17.23)1.2 + 10(1.3/17.23)10]

= 1750 W/m2 oC
Take steam condensing coefficient as 8000 W/m2 oC, fouling coefficient 5000 W/m2 oC;
dibutyl phthalate fouling coefficient, essentially clean, 5000 W/m2 oC.
Tube material will be normal carbon steel, kw = 36 W/m2 oC
Then, 1/UO = 1.21115×10-3 m2 oC/W
UO = 825.66 W/m2 oC
117
Close enough to original estimate of 800 W/m2 oC

Check maximum allowable heat flux. Use modified Zuber equation.
Surface tension (estimated) = 3.34×10-3 N/m
Liquid density , ρL = 1050 kg/m3
Vapour density, ρv = 9.58 kg/m3
Nt =80
Latent heat = 526.41 kJ/kg
For square arrangement, Kb = 0.44
526.41 × 103
𝑞𝑐 = 0.44 × 1.5 × 3.34 × 10−3 × 9.81 1050 − 9.58 9.582 0.25
80
2
= 290510 W/m
= 290 kW/m2
Applying a factor of 0.7, maximum flux should not exceed 290 × 0.7 = 203 kW/m2.
Actual flux is 43.36 kW/m2 is well below maximum allowable.
6.6.3 Layout
From tube sheet layout, Db = 324.86 mm

Take shell diameter as twice bundle diameter, 𝐷𝑠 = 2 × 324.86 = 650 𝑚𝑚
Take liquid level as 387 mm from base,
Freeboard = 650 – 387 = 263 mm. satisfactory
From sketch, width at liquid level = 0.62 m.
Surface area of liquid = 0.62 × 2.4 = 1.488 m2
91520 .60 1 1 𝑚
Vapour velocity at surface = × 9.58 × 1.488 = 1.78
3600 𝑠
1050 −9.58 1/2

Maximum allowable velocity, ûv= 0.2 = 2.08 𝑚/𝑠
9.58
So, actual velocity is well below maximum allowable velocity. This design is safe.
CHAPTER VII
MECHANICAL DESIGN
7.1 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF REACTOR
7.1.1 Introduction
The type of reactor used for the production of maleic anhydride is packed bed reactor
(PBR). The basic process consists of mixing a stream of vaporized n-butane with
compressed air and then feeding this stream into the catalytic reactor. The reactor
operates in the temperature range of 300 to 400°C and in the pressure range of 1 to
3bar. The reaction is highly exothermic and the reacting gas stream must be cooled in
the reactor to avoid excessive temperatures and a runaway reaction. This cooling can
be achieved by placing the catalyst in tubes and passing a cooling medium (molten
salt) on the outside of the tubes with the reacting gases passing on the inside of the
tubes over the catalyst. This configuration is similar to a shell and tube heat
exchanger.
7.1.2 Material of Construction
The material selection for reactor was based on six factors:

i. Resistance to maleic anhydride vapor (corrosive).
ii. Resistance to the heat transfer medium.
iii. Operating temperature
iv. Mechanical strength
v. Ease of fabrication
vi. Cost
119
According to Martyn & Martin (1998), the preferred construction material for the
reactor is stainless steel type 316 (18%Cr, 8%Ni, 2.5%Mo). This is due to the facts
that:
i. Maleic anhydride vapors are corrosive.

ii. The cooling salt is strongly oxidizing at high temperature and significant
chromium content is required to provide adequate resistance.
iii. The addition of chromium also improves the mechanical properties at high
temperature.
Tensile strength and stresses according to Sinnott (2005) are shown in the
following table:
Table 7.1: Typical Design Stresses for Plate
Tensile Design stress at temperature oC (N/mm2)

Material strength 0 to
(N/mm2) 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
50
Stainless
520 175 150 135 120 115 110 105 105 100 95
steel (316)
7.1.3 Determination of Reactor’s Dimensions
Type of reactor: Packed Bed Reactor

Isothermal with pressure drop
Temperature: 688 K
Pressure: 150-275 kPa
Void Fraction: 0.44
Below are the information:

Weight of catalyst at 0.9 conversion = 45 000 kgcat
Bulk Density of catalyst = 900 kg cat/m3
Particle diameter = 5 mm
Length of tubes = 14.35 m
120
Thickness of tube = 4 mm
Diameter of tubes = 8 x 5 = 40 mm (Sources from Perry Handbook)
Volume of tubes = 𝜋𝑟2𝐿

= π (0.02)2 (14.35)
= 0.018035 m3
Volume of bulk catalyst = 45 000/ 900 = 50 m3

Tubes required = 50 / 0.018035 = 2772 tubes
For calculation, assuming triangular pitch with 1 pass:

K1 = 0.319, n1= 2.142
Bundle diameter, Db= do (Nt/K1)1/n1

= 40 (2772/ 0.319) 1/1 2.142
= 2761 mm
From figure 12.10 (Sources from Chemical Engineering Design), for outside packed
bed,
Shell inside diameter – bundle diameter = 38 mm
So, shell inside diameter = 38 + 2761 = 2799 mm
Thus, L/D = 14.35/ 2.8 = 5, which is between 3 and 6 (acceptable).
7.1.4 Reactor Cooling System
The molten salt used as a cooling medium is a mixture of 60 percent sodium nitrate
and 40 percent potassium-nitrate, commonly called saltpeter. The heat generated from
the reaction is 1050 kW. The required mass flow rate of molten salt is calculated as
below:
121
Information required, Cp (molten salt) = 1230 J/K.kg

Tin = 200ºC
Tout = 280ºC
Δ T = 280ºC - 200ºC = 80ºC
From, Q = mCpΔT
1050000 J/s = m x 1230 J/K.kg x 80 K
m = 10.67 kg/s
7.1.5 Determination of Minimum Thickness and MAWPvessel under Internal

Pressure
The reactor is divided into 3 parts consists of top and bottom head and shell.
Cylindrical shell is used while torispherical head is chosen as the top and bottom head
since it is the most common used heads as ends of cylindrical vessels operating up to
15bar.
a) Torispherical head (Top)
Design stress for stainless steel 316 at 450ºC = 100 N/mm2 = 14503.77 psi
Joint efficiency, E= 1.0
Take Klopper head type for torispherical head,

Where, L= inside crown radius = diameter of cylinder = 2799mm = 110.2 in
r = inside knuckle radius = 0.1 x diameter of cylinder = 279.9mm = 11.02 in
From Table 1-4.2 of ASME Code, At L/r = 10, M =1.54
Operating pressure, Po = 275kPa = 40 psi

To calculate height of torispherical head,
h = L - √[(r + c –L)(r – c – L)] where c = L/2 = 55.1 in
= 110.2 - √[(11.02 + 55.1 – 110.2)(11.02 – 55.1 – 110.2)]
= 27.2 in = 2.31 ft
122
PD = Po + PH = 40 + 0.433(2.31) = 41 psi
Take 10% safety factor,
Design Pressure, PJ = 1.1 x 41 = 45.1 psi
𝑃𝐿𝑀 (45.1) 110 .2 (1.54)

From minimum thickness, t = 2𝑆𝐸−0.2𝑃 = 2 14503 .77 1.0 −(0.20)(45.1)
= 0.264 in = 6.71mm
b) Cylindrical shell
R = D/2 = 2799/2 = 1399.5mm = 55.1 in

PD = Po + PH = 40 + 0.433(47.08 + 2.31) = 61.4 psi
Design Pressure, PJ = 1.1 x 61.4 = 67.5 psi
𝑃𝑅 67.5 (55.1)
Circumferential stress: t = =
𝑆𝐸−0.6𝑃 14503 .77 1.0 − (0.6)(67.5)
= 0.257 in = 6.53mm
𝑃𝑅 67.5 (55.1)
Longitudinal stress: t = 2𝑆𝐸+0.4𝑃 = 2 14503 .77 1.0 + (0.4)(67.5)
= 0.128 in = 3.25mm
c) Torispherical head (Bottom)
PD = Po + PH = 40 + 0.433(2.31+ 47.08 + 2.31) = 62.39 psi

Design Pressure, PJ = 1.1 x 62.39 = 68.63 psi
𝑃𝐿𝑀 (68.63) 110 .2 (1.54)

From minimum thickness, t = 2𝑆𝐸−0.2𝑃 = 2 14503 .77 1.0 −(0.20)(68.63)
= 0.4 in = 10.16mm
For the uniformity of thickness, we choose the largest value of the minimum
thickness. Thus, the largest value of minimum thickness is 0.4 in (10.16mm).
123
Choose corrosion allowance, CA = 4mm

tnew = 10.16 + 4 = 14.16mm
Therefore, tnominal = 15mm
tmin = tnominal – CA = 15 – 4 = 11mm = 0.433 in
According to Sinnott (2005), for vessel diameter between 2.5 to 3.0m, the minimum
thickness including CA is 10mm. Since the calculated minimum thickness is 14.16mm
including CA = 4mm, therefore, the calculated value of tmin = 14.16mm is acceptable.
Calculation for MAWP part :
(i) Torispherical head (Top):
2𝑆𝐸𝑡 2 14503 .77 1.0 (0.433 )

P = 𝐿𝑀+0.2𝑡 = = 73.97 psi
110 .2 1.54 + (0.2)(0.433 )
MAWPpart = 73.97 – 0.433(2.31) = 72.97 psi = 503.11kPa
(ii) Cylindrical shell:
𝑆𝐸𝑡 14503 .77 1.0 (0.433 )

Circumferential stress, P = 𝑅+0.6𝑡 = = 113.44 psi
55 .1+ 0.6 (0.433 )
MAWPpart = 113.44 – 0.433(47.08 + 2.31) = 92.05 psi = 634.66kPa
2𝑆𝐸𝑡 2 14503 .77 1.0 (0.433 )

Longitudinal stress, P = 𝑅−0.4𝑡 = = 228.67 psi
55 .1− 0.4 (0.433 )
MAWPpart = 228.67 – 0.433(47.08 + 2.31) = 207.28 psi = 1429.15kPa
(iii) Torispherical head (Bottom):
2𝑆𝐸𝑡 2 14503 .77 1.0 (0.433 )

P= = = 73.97 psi
𝐿𝑀+0.2𝑡 110 .2 1.54 + (0.2)(0.433 )
MAWPpart = 73.97 – 0.433(2.31 + 47.08 + 2.31) = 51.58 psi = 355.63kPa
Therefore, MAWPvessel = smallest of MAWP part

= 355.63kPa
124
Since MAWPvessel (355.63kPa) is bigger than Design Pressure (275kPa), hence we can
say that the calculated value fulfilled the requirement of ASME Code.
7.1.6 Design of Pressure Vessels Subjected to Combined Loading
Pressure vessels are subjected to other loads (major and subsidiary loads) in addition
to pressure. Hence, it must be designed to withstand the worst combination of loading
without failure.
Height between tangent lines = 14.35 + 2(0.7041/3) = 14.82 m

Diameter = 2.8 m
Material of construction, stainless steel, S = 100 N/mm2 at T = 450ºC
Dead weight of vessel:

From Wv = 240CvDm(Hv + 0.8Dm)t
Where Cv = 1.15
Dm = 2.8 + (15 x 10-3) = 2.815m
Hv = 14.82m, t = 15mm
Wv = 240(1.15)(2.815)[14.82 + 0.8(2.815)](15)
= 198958.8 N
= 198.96 kN
Weight of tubes:
Volume of stainless steel tube = πr02L – πri2L
= π(0.024)2(14.35) – 0.018035
= 7.93 x 10-3 m3
Density of stainless steel = 7700 kg/m3

Weight of one tube = 7700 x 7.93 x 10-3 = 61 kg
Total weight of tubes & catalysts = (2772 x 61) + 45000
= 214092 kg
= 2102.35 kN
125
Total weight = 198.96 + 2102.35 = 2301.31 kN
Wind loading:
Take dynamic wind pressure as 1280 N/m2
Mean diameter = 2.8 + 2(15) x 10-3 = 2.83m
Loading (per linear meter) Fw = 1280 x 2.83 = 3622.4 N/m
Bending moment at bottom tangent line:
Mx = (wx2)/2 = [3622.4(14.82)2]/2 = 397798.2 Nm
Analysis of stresses:
σL = PDi/4t = (0.275)(2.8 x 10-3)/(4)(15) = 12.83 N/mm2
σh = PDi/2t = (0.275)(2.8 x 10-3)/(2)(15) = 25.67 N/mm2
Dead weight stress:

σw = Wv/ π(Di + t)t = 2301.31 x 103/ π(2800 + 15)(15)
= 17.35 N/mm2 (compressive)
Bending stresses:
D0 = 2800 + 2 x 15 = 2830mm
Iv = π(D04 – Di4)/64 = π(28304 – 28004)/64 = 1.314 x 1011 mm4
σb = ± M/Iv(Di/2 +t) = ±397798.2 x 103/1.314 x 1011(2800/2 + 15)
= ±4.28 N/mm2
The resultant longitudinal stress is:

σz = σ L + σ w ± σ b
σw is compressive and therefore negative.
σz (upwind) = 12.83 – 17.35 + 4.28 = -0.24 N/mm2
σz (downwind) = 12.83 – 17.35 - 4.28 = -8.8 N/mm2
As there is no torsional shear stress, the principal stresses will be σ z and σh.
The greatest difference between the principal stresses will be on the downwind side:
[25.67 – (-8.8)] = 34.47 N/mm2
well below the maximum allowable design stress.
126
Check elastic stability (buckling):

Critical buckling stress: σc = 2 x 104(t/D0) = 2 x 104(15/2830) = 106 N/mm2
Σσcompressive = 17.35 + 4.28 = 21.63 N/mm2
Therefore, the design is safe since Σσ compressive < σc.
7.1.7 Support Design
For reactor, the support used for the design is skirt type since the reactor is a vertical
vessel.
Try a straight cylindrical skirt (θs = 90º) of plain carbon steel, design stress 135N/mm2
and Young’s modulus 200,000N/mm2 at ambient temperature.
Skirt support, height = 1m

Vessel to be fully radiographed (joint factor 1)
The maximum dead weight load on the skirt will occur when the vessel is full of
water.
Approximate weight = (π/4) Di2 Hv ρg = (π/4)(2.8)2(14.82)(1000)(9.81)

= 895206.35N = 895.21kN
Weight of vessel = 2301.31kN
Total weight = 895.21 + 2301.31 = 3196.52kN
Wind loading = 3.62kN/m
Bending moment at base of skirt = 3.62 x (14.82 + 1) 2 /2 = 453kNm
As the first trial, take the skirt thickness as the same as that of the bottom section of
the vessel, 15mm.
4Ms
Bending stress in the skirt: σbs = π Ds +ts ts Ds
= 4(453 x 106)/(π)(2800+15)(15)(2800)
= 4.88N/mm2
127
𝑊𝑠
Dead weight stress in the skirt: σws (test) = π Ds +ts ts
= (895.21 x 103)/(π)(2800+15)(15)
= 6.75N/mm2
𝑊
σws (operating) = π Ds +ts ts
= (2301.31 x 103)/(π)(2800+15)(15)
= 17.35N/mm2
Note: The test condition is with the vessel full of water for the hydraulic test.
Maximum σs (compressive) = σbs + σws(test) = 4.88 + 6.75 = 11.63N/mm2

Maximum σs (tensile) = σbs – σws(operating) = 4.88 – 17.35 = -12.47N/mm2
Criteria for design:

σs (tensile) < fs J sinθ
< 1.0 x 135sin90º
< 135
σs (compressive) < 0.125 E (ts/Ds) sinθ
< 0.125 x 200000(15/2800)sin90º
< 133.93
Both criteria are satisfied, add 2mm for corrosion, gives a design skirt thickness of
17mm.
7.1.8 Base Ring and Anchor Bolts Design
Single plate with gusset is used in the design.
Approximate pitch circle diameter, Db = 3m

Circumference of bolt circle = 3000π
Number of bolts required, at minimum recommended bolt spacing:
Nb = 3000π/600 = 15.7
Closest multiple of 4 = 16 bolts
Take bolt design stress = 125N/mm2
128
Ms = 453kNm
Take W = 895.21kN
1 4𝑀𝑠 1 4 453 𝑋 10 3
Bolt area, 𝐴𝑏 = [ − 𝑊 ] = 16 𝑋 125 [ − 895.21 𝑋 10 3 ]
𝑁𝑏 𝑓 𝑏 𝐷𝑏 3
= 805mm2
4𝐴𝑏 4 𝑋 805
Bolt root diameter = Db = = = 32mm
𝜋 𝜋
Use M36 bolts with root area = 817mm2
Total compressive load on the base ring per unit length, Fb

4𝑀 𝑊
Fb = [ 𝜋 𝐷𝑠2 + ]
𝑠 𝜋 𝐷𝑠
4 𝑋 453 𝑋 10 3 895.21 𝑋 10 3
=[ + ]
𝜋𝑋 2.82 𝜋 𝑋 2.8
= 175.34kN/m
Take bearing pressure as 5N/mm2

Minimum width of the base ring:
𝐹𝑏 1 175 .34 𝑋 10 3
Lb = 𝑋 = = 35mm
𝑓𝑐 10 3 5 𝑋 10 3
From figure 13.30 (Sinnot 2005), Lr = 102mm

Actual width required, Ls = Lr + ts + 50mm
= 102 + 17 + 50 = 169mm
Actual bearing pressure on concrete foundation:

𝐹𝑏 175 .34
𝑓𝑐′ = = = 1.04N/mm2
𝐿𝑠 169
3 𝑓𝑐′ 3 𝑋 1.04
Base ring thickness, tb = 𝐿𝑟 = 102 = 15.23mm
𝑓𝑟 140
= round off to 16mm

Where fr = allowable stress in the ring material, typically 140 N/mm2
Hence, the thickness of the base ring is 16 mm with 16 M36 bolts.

129
7.1.9 Flange Design
Flanged joints are used for connecting pipes and instruments to vessels, for manholes
covers, and for removable vessels head when ease of access is required. Flanges may
also be used on the vessel body, when it is necessary to divide the vessel into sections
for transport and maintenance. In the reactor design, the welding-neck flanges which
made from stainless steel are selected. Its gradual transition of the section reduces the
discontinuity stresses between flange and branch, and increase the strength of the
flange assembly. Welding-neck flanges are also suitable for extreme service condition
where it is likely to be subjected to temperature, shear and vibration loads.
Flanged joints specification:

Type of joint = Welding-neck flanges
Material of construction = Stainless steel
The optimum diameter size for each opening is calculated by the following equation:
For liquid flow: d , optimum  293G 0.53  0.37
where: G = flow rate (kg/s)

ρ = flow density (kg/m3)
4G
For vapor flow: D
a
where: a = sonic velocity (m/s)
Table 7.2: Calculation of Dnominal for Reactor’s Opening
Opening G (kg/s) ρ (kg/m3) Dopt (in) Dnominal (in) Do (mm)

S7-1 38.884 1.6244 5.52 6 168.28
S8 38.884 1.4296 5.84 6 168.28
Molten salt inlet 10.67 1650 2.61 3 88.9
Molten salt outlet 10.67 1650 2.61 3 88.9
130
Table 7.3: Standard Welded Neck Flange Design (All dimensions mm)
Pipe Nom. Raised

Flange Bolting Drilling Neck
o.d. d1 Size Face
D b h1 d4 f No. d2 k d3 h2 r
S7-1 168 150 265 18 48 202 3 M16 8 18 225 184 12 10
S8 168 150 265 18 48 202 3 M16 8 18 225 184 12 10
Molt.
Salt(in) 89 80 190 16 42 128 3 M16 4 18 150 102 10 8
Molt.
Salt(out) 89 80 190 16 42 128 3 M16 4 18 150 102 10 8
Table 7.4: Standard Blind Flange Design (All dimensions mm)

Raised
Nominal
Flange Face Bolt Drilling Boss
Size
D b h d4 f No. d2 k d3
Manhole 500 715 34 90 610 4 M30 20 33 650 548
Flanges used for feed inlets, molten salt inlet and outlets and product outlet are steel
welding neck flanges while for manhole covers is blind flange is used.
131
Figure 7.1: Drawing of mechanical design by using AutoCAD for reactor

132
7.2 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF ABSORBER
7.2.1 Specification of Absorber
Absorber must be designed to withstand the maximum pressure to which it is likely to be

subjected in operation. Absorber is installed after reactor to absorb the maleic anhydride
from the gaseous mixture by transfer it into a organic solvent, dibutyl phthalate. A
toripherical heads are chosen for the ends of a cylindrical vessel of absorber because it is
the most commonly used end closure for vessel up to operating pressure of 15 bar and
more economical in the aspects of fabrication costs.
Figure 7.2: Schematic diagram of absorber
Carbon steel (plate) SA-516 type 56 is selected as construction material because of its
availability, low cost and ease of fabrication, steel is often used in services with corrosion
rates of 0.005-0.02 in./yr, with added thickness to provide a corrosion allowance.
133
Table 7.5: Design Parameters absorber

Parameter Value (SI unit) Value (English Unit)
Operating Pressure,Po 200 kPa 29 psig
Operating Temperature, T 132 oC 270 oF
Diameter of vessel, Di 2.75 m 108.27 in
Radius,R 1.38 m 54.14 in
Height of Vessel, Hs 11.15 m 438.98 in
Height of Cylindrical shell, Hc 10.68 m 420.64 in
Height of Torispherical heads, Ht 0.47 m 18.33 in
Radius, r 0.165 m 6.50 in
Design Stress, S 1.28E+5 kPa 18600 psi
Corrosion Allowance, CA 4 mm 0.16 in
Efficiency 1
7.2.2 Internal Pressure
Since the operating pressure is greater than atmospheric pressure Po  Patm  , the design
of pressure vessel is under internal pressure. Design pressure for each part of the vessel is
calculated by using the equation PD  Po  0.433h where h is the height of each part from
top shell. In order to prevent anything happen to pressure vessel, the safety factor about
10% can be added to design pressure. So, the new design pressure is PJ  1.1PD
Table 7.6: Design pressure for each part of Absorber
Type of Part PD (psi) PJ (psi)

Torispherical Top 29.809 32.790
Cyilindrical shell 44.840 49.324
Torispherical bottom 45.649 50.214
134
7.2.3 Determination of Minimum Wall Thickness, tmin
i) Torispherical top:
0.885PL 0.885  32.790108.27
t   0.169in  4.291mm
SE  0.1P 186001  0.132.790
ii) Cylindrical shell:
a) Circumferential stress
t
PR

49.32454.13  0.144in  3.652mm
SE  0.6P 186001  0.649.324
b) Longitudinal stress
t
PR

49.32454.13  0.072in  1.822mm
2SE  0.4P 2186001  0.449.324
iii) Torispherical bottom:

0.885PL 0.885  50.214108.27
t   0.259in  6.572mm
SE  0.1P 186001  0.150.214
Table 7.7: Minimum wall thickness for each part of absorber
Type of parts tmin (in) tmin (mm) tmin + CA (mm)

Torispherical Top: 0.169 4.291 8.291
Cylindrical shell :- a) Circumferential: 0.144 3.652 7.652
b) Longitudinal: 0.072 1.822 5.822
Torispherical bottom: 0.259 6.572 10.572
Highest tmin = 10.572 mm

tnominal = 12.5 mm (Brown McFarlane “Boiler & Pressure Vessel Steel Plate”)
tmin = tnominal – CA = 8.5 mm = 0.335 in
135
7.2.4 Maximum Allowable Working Pressure for Vessel (MAWPvessel)
i) Torispherical top:
P
SEt

1860010.335  64.939 psi
0.885L  0.1t (0.885)108.268  0.10.335
ii) Cylindrical shell:
a) Circumferential stress:
P
SEt

1860010.335  114.557 psi
R  0.6t 54.134  0.60.335
b) Longitudinal stress:
P
SEt

1860010.335  230.534 psi
R  0.4t 54.134  0.40.335
iii) Torispherical bottom:
P
SEt

1860010.335  64.939 psi
0.885L  0.1t (0.885)108.268  0.10.335
To choose the MAWP vessel, the design pressure must be minus with hydrostatic pressure.
Table 7.8: MAWPvessel for each part of absorber

MAWPpart MAWPpart-
Type of parts ρgh (psi)
(psi) ρgh (psi)
Ellipsoidal 2:1 top: 64.939 0.662 64.277
Cylindrical shell :- a)Circumferential: 114.557 15.178 99.379
b) Longitudinal: 230.534 15.178 215.356
Ellipsoidal 2:1 bottom: 64.939 0.662 64.277
136
From the calculation, the Maximum Allowable Working Pressure Vessel, MAWPvessel for
absorber is 64.277 psi (443.174 kPa). The design thickness of the absorber is 12.5 mm
after considering the corrosion allowance of 4 mm.
7.2.5 Design of Pressure Vessels subjected to Combined Loading
Pressure vessels are subjected to other loads in addition to pressure and must be designed
to withstand the worst combination of loading without failure.
a) Weight Loads
i. Determination of Dead Weight Loading
For preliminary calculations the approximate weight of a cylindrical vessel with domed
ends, and uniform wall thickness, can be estimated from the following equation :
Wv  240CV Dm HV  0.8Dm t  2401.152.76310.960  0.82.75512.5  29.442kN
Where: WV = total weight of shell, excluding internal fittings, such as plates, N

CV = 1.15 for vessel with several manways, and with plate support rings,
equivalent fittings
HV = Vessel height (between tangent line)
 1 / 3H t  H c  1 / 3H t  1 / 30.570  10.580  1 / 30.570  10.960m
Dm = mean diameter of vessel

 Di  t  2.75  12.5 103   2.763m
t = wall thickness = 12.5 mm

137
ii. Internal Fittings
Weight of plates is calculate based on total trays that are using in absorber which is 16
trays. The area of plate where the diameter of plate is 2.75m is,
   
Area     d 2     2.75  5.94m2
2
4 4
Weight of 16 Trays, WF  1.2  5.94  16  114.055kN
iii. Weight of Liquid
Weight of liquid in absorber during operating condition is calculated in following section

by first assuming the allowable liquid level is 50% of vessel height.
Volume of liquid during operation, V

V  0.5Vcylinder  Vtorispherical
 1 ( Di  ht ) 
 (0.5  R 2 Hc) 
2
2ht Di  (2r  c  2rDi )(Di  ht )  3r c  sin
2 2 2

3 ( Di  r ) 
 33.373m3
Liquid mass, m  V
 1037.09kg / m 3  33.373m 3
 3.46  10 4 kg
Liquid weight, Wliquid  mg
 (3.46  10 4 kg )  9.81
 339.532kN
138
iv. Weight of insulation
Process equipment that do not need to be insulated to conserve energy but have a surface
temperature greater than 60°C (140°F) and can be touched by personnel must be insulated
to prevent personal injury. The economic thickness of insulation is that thickness of
insulation which will save enough energy to pay for itself in a given time period.
Type of insulation = mineral wool

Density of insulator, ρI = 130 kg/m3
Thickness of insulator, tw = 50 mm
Approximate volume of insulation, vI  Di H v t w
   2.7510.960 50 103
 4.735m3
Weight of insulation   I v I g
 130kg / m3  4.735m3  9.81m / s
 6.039kN
The density of insulation material should be doubled to allow for attachment fitting,
sealing, and moisture adsorption and hence the real weight of insulation is,
 6.039kN  2  12.077kN
Total weight load, W = Weight of vessel + Weight of internal fittings + Weight of liquid
+ Weight of insulation
 29.442  114.055  339.532  12.077
 495.106kN
139
b) Wind Loading
Wind loading is important for tall columns installed in open. A column or vessel must be
designed to withstand the highest wind speed that is likely to be encountered at the site
during the life of the plant.
For preliminary design, equivalent to wind pressure, Pw  1280N / m 2
Mean diameter: Deff  Do  Di  2t  2.7625m
The loading per unit length of the vessel: Fw = PwDeff = 1280 x 2.7625 = 3536 N/m
w  Pw Deff  1280 2.7625  3536N / m
x  HV  10.990m
Bending moment at bottom tangent line :
wx 2 353610.990
2
Mx    2.14  105 N / m
2 2
c) Analysis of Stress
i. Primary Stresses
 Longitudinal and circumferential stresses:

P  0.2 N / mm 2 , t  12.5mm
PDi 0.22750
L    11N / mm2
4t 412.5
PDi 0.22750
h    22N / mm2
2t 212.5
140
 Direct stress:
W 495.106  103
w    4.563N / mm2
 Di  t t  2750  12.512.5
 w is compressive stress and therefore the value is negative  54.563N / mm2 .
 Bending stresses
Iv 

64
D
o
4 4
 Di   
64
2.75
4

 2.754  0.051m4
M x  Di  2.14 105  2.75 

b    t     12.5 103   5.765N / mm2
Iv  2  0.051  2 
 Total longitudinal stresses

 z upwind    L   w   b  11  4.563  5.765  12.201N / mm2
 z downwind   L   w   b  11  4.563  5.765  0.672N / mm2
Since the torsional shear stress negligible,

1
 1   h   z   h   z 2  4 2    h  22N / mm 2
2 
1
 2   h   z   h   z 2  4 2    z  12.201N / mm 2
2 
 3  0.5P (negligible for thin walled vessel)
 Maximum stress intensity,  max
 max    1   2   h   z  22  12.201  9.799N / mm 2
S  16824psi  116N / mm 2
If  max  S design , the material construction that we used is acceptable and an elastic
stability can be checked.
  max  S design (acceptable)

141
ii. Elastic Stability
A column design must be checked to ensure that the maximum value of the resultant axial
stress does not exceed the critical value at which buckling will occur when the
 compressive c .
For steel at ambient T, E = 200,000 N/mm2 and with a safety factor of 12;
 t 
  2  10 4  
12.5
 c  2  10 4  3 
 90.498N / mm 2
 Do   2.762  10 
 compressive   b   w  5.765  4.563  10.328N / mm 2
Since   compressive   c , this design is safe and the buckling process does not occur.
7.2.6 Design of Vessel Supports
The vessel support is intended to support the pressure vessel on the support base. For our
design case, the straight skirt support is chosen because it recommended for vertical
vessels as they do not impose concentrated loads on the vessel shell and suitable for use
with tall columns subject to wind loading.
Type of support : Straight Skirt Support (θs= 90°)

Material of construction : Carbon Steel
Maximum allowable stress,fs : 128.245 N/mm2
Elastic modulus, E : 200000 N/mm2
Height of skirt, hs : 2m
Skirt diameter, Ds = Di : 2.75 m
Weld joint factor, J : 1.0
142
i. Bending stress in the skirt:
wv x 2 353612.9902
Ms    2.98  105 Nm
2 2
 bs 
4M s


4 2.98  105   3.999N / mm 2
 Ds  t s t s Ds  2.75  0.01250.01252.75
ii. Dead weight stress in the skirt:
W 495.106  103
 ws    0.271N / mm 2
 Ds  t s t s  2.75  0.01250.0125
 s tensile   bs   ws  3.728N / mm 2
 s compressive   bs   ws  4.271N / mm 2
The skirt thickness should be such that under the worst combination of wind and dead
weight loading, the following criteria are not exceeded:
 s tensile  f s J sin  s and  s compressive   0.125E t s Ds sin  s
f s J sin s  128.2451sin 90o  128.245N / mm 2
0.125E t s Ds sin s  0.125200,00012.5 2.75  103 sin 90  113.636N / mm 2
From the criteria above, the skirt thickness fulfill the conditions of
 s tensile  f s J sin s and  s compressive   0.125E t s Ds sin  s . Since both criteria
are satisfied, additional 2mm for corrosion will give a design thickness of 14.5 mm.
143
7.2.7 Base ring and anchor bolt design
In absorber design, double plate with gusset is used in order to make the vessel more
stable and strongly built.
Approximate pitch circle diameter, Db = 2m

Circumference of bolt circle = 2000 
2000
Number of bolts required, at minimum recommended bolt spacing   6.28
600
Close multiple of 4, Nb = 8 bolts
Take bolt design stress, fb = 125 N/mm2, Ms = 2.983x105Nm, W = 495.106 kN
Area of one bolt at the root of the thread:
Ab 
1  4M s



1  
 4 2.983  105 
 495.106  103   499.389mm 2
 W  
 8125  2  10
3
N b f b  Db 
where: Ab = area of one bolt at the root of the thread, mm2

Nb = Number of bolts
fb = maximum allowable bolt stress, N/mm2
(typical design value = 125N/mm2)
Ms = bending (overturning) moment at the base, Nm
Db = bolt circle diameter, m
499.389 4
Bolt root diameter   25.214mm (satisfactory)

 2  103 
Bolt spacing   942.6mm (satisfactory)
4
Use M30 bolts (BS 4190:1967) root area  561mm2
144
The compressive load on the base ring per unit length, Fb:
 4M s
Fb   



W   4 298.348  10 3

495.106  10 3 
  483.56kN / m
 D s
2
D s    2.752  2.75 
The minimum width of the base ring is given by:

Fb 1 483.56  103
Lb   3   96.711m
f c 10 5  103
fc = the maximum allowable bearing pressure on the concrete foundation pad, typically
range from 3.5 to 7 N/mm2. In our design case, we assumed it to be 5 N/mm2.
This is the minimum width required; actual width will depend on the chair design. So, the
actual width required (refer figure 13.30):
 Lr  t s  50mm
 76  14.5  50mm
 140.5mm
Actual bearing pressure on concrete foundation:

483.559  103
fc '  3.442N / mm 2
0.1405
The required thickness for the base ring is found by treating the ring as a cantilever beam.
The minimum thickness is given by:
3 fc ' 33.442
t b  Lr  76  19.882mm  20mm
fr 140
The minumum thickness for base ring is 20 mm with total number of 8 bolts.
145
7.2.8 Design of Flanged Joints
Flanged joints are used for connecting pipes and instruments to vessels, for manhole
covers, and for removable vessel heads when ease of access is required. Flanged joints are
also used foe connecting pipe sections where ease of assembly and dismantling is
required for maintanance, but pipework will normally be welded to reduce costs.
Welding-neck flanges are used in our absorber design because it has a long
tapered hub between the flange ring and the welded joint. This gradual transition of the
section reduces the discontinuity stresses between the flange and branch, and increase the
strength of the flange assembly.
There are five openings in absorber where should place the flanged joints :
1. Opening for feed stream from reactor (S9)
2. Opening for absorbent feed stream (S10-1)
3. Opening for vapor product stream (S11)
4. Opening for liquid product stream to distillation column (S12)
5. Manhole opening
146
Table 7.9: Opening pipe size calculations for absorber

Opening G (kg/s) ρ (kg/m3) Dopt (mm) Dnominal (mm) Do (mm)
S9 38.884 1.759 0.15 150 168.28
S10-1 25.833 1037.948 4.949 125 141.30
S11 32.322 1.271 0.16 200 219.08
S12 32.396 962.901 5.737 150 168.28
Table 7.10: Dimension of Flange Design and Size of Bolt

Nominal Pipe o.d Flange(mm) Raised Face(mm) Bolting Drilling(mm) Neck
Opening
Size(mm) (mm) D b h d4 f No. d2 k d3 h2 r
S9 150 168.3 265 18 48 202 3 M16 8 18 225 184 12 10
S10-1 125 141.30 240 18 48 178 3 M16 8 18 200 155 10 8
S11 200 219.08 320 20 55 258 3 M16 8 18 280 236 15 10
S12 150 168.28 265 18 48 202 3 M16 8 18 225 184 12 10
Manhole 600 609.6 755 24 70 670 5 M24 20 26 705 640 16 12
147
Figure 7.3: Drawing of mechanical design by using AutoCAD for absorber

148
7.3 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF DISTILLATION COLUMN
7.3.1 Introduction
In this design, the carbon-manganese steel is chosen as our material for distillation
construction. Carbon steel is steel where the main alloying constituent is carbon. While
the manganese content in carbon steel is added for the purpose of increasing depth of
hardening and improving strength and toughness of our column design. In this design,
carbon-maganese steel is used because the molybdenum content in this alloy can improve
the corrosion resistance in reducing conditions, such as existances of vapour maleic
anhydride. In this design, take the corrosion allowance as 2.0mm. Besides that, the
carbon-manganese steel has greater strength than the plain carbon steels, particularly at
elevated temperaturers (see Table 7.8, references (1)). Unlike the plain carbon steels,
carbon-manganese steel is not that easy become brittle at low temperatures.
7.3.2 Mechanical Design of Distillation Column
Diameter of the tower (Di) = 2.40 m

Working pressure = 130kPa, Design pressure (Pe) = 143kPa
Working temperature = 351.40C, Design temperature = 386.54 C
Shell material – AS3679 grade 300, Carbon-Manganese Steel
Density of the material = 8000 Kg/m3
Permissible tensile stress (ft) = 4.5 MN/m2
Design stress (F) = 1.05 MN/m2
Elastic Modulus (E) = 1.88×105 MN/m2
Tray spacing = 0.6m
Weir height = 40mm
Downcomer clearance = 0.5”
Height of support = 2m
149
7.3.3 Design of The Covers To The Column
Standard ellipsoidal head with major axis: minor axis = 2:1.

The minimum thickness required is given by the formula:
Pe D i
Thickness, e = +C
2JF - 0.2 Pe
Design pressure, Pe = 143kPa

Di = Inner diameter of the column = 2400 mm
Shell is butt welded with weld joint efficiency, J = 0.85
Design stress, F = 105 N/mm2
C = corrosion allowance given to the material = 2mm (generally)
Therefore, e = 3.9230 mm.
But there will be a minimum wall thickness required to ensure that any vessel is
sufficiently rigid to withstand its own weight, and any incidental loads. (Section 13.4.8
reference (1)). So, the minimum required thickness of the cover is taken as 9 mm.
7.3.4 Minimum Thickness of The Shell
Pe D i
Thickness of the shell, t s =  C = 3.9242 mm
2JF - PI
But the minimum thickness of the material used for construction of the shell is 9 mm. So,
the minimum thickness = 9 mm.
Therefore, the height of the column between the two tangent lines, Hv = 10818 mm.
150
7.3.5 Stress Analysis of The Vessel
Stress analysis of the material of construction and the column are carried with the
assumptions stated in the require location and specification of the material of
construction.
a) Dead weight of vessel
For preliminery calculations the approximate weight of a cylindrical vessel with domed
ends, and uniform wall thickness, can be estimated from the following equation:
Wv = 240Cv D m (H v + 0.8 D m )t
where: Wv = total weight if the shell,excluding internal fittings,such as plates, N.
Take , C v = 1.15, vessel with plates.
D m = mean diameter of the vessel = (Di + t s 10-3 ) = 2.409 m
So, Wv = 76266,72 N = 76.27 kN.
i. Weight of plates:
πDi2
Plate area, A = = 4.5239 m2
4
Weight of one plate = ρm Atg

= 7820 x 4.5239 x 0.003 x 9.81
= 1.0411 kN
Weight of n plate = 14 x 1.0411= 14.58kN
151
ii. Weight of insulation:

Density of insulator = 130 kg/m3
Approximate volume of insulation = π X Di X Hv X tw
= π X 2.40 X 10.818 X 0.050 m
= 4.0783m3
Weight of insulation = 130 kgm-3 X4.0783 m3 X 9.81 ms-2

= 5.20 kN
The weight of insulation is doubled to allow for the fittings. Hence, the actual weight of
the insulation = 5.20kN X 2 = 10.40 kN
Total weight load, W = 76.27 + 14.58 + 10.40

= 101.25 kN
7.3.6 Wind Loading
Take dynamic wind pressure as 1280 N/m2

Mean diameter, including the insulation, Deff = 2.4 + 2(9+50) x 10-3
=2.5180 m
Loading (per linear meter), Fw = PwDeff

= 3223.04 N/m
1
Bending moment at the bottom line, M x = Fw H v 2
2
= 188.59 kNm
152
7.3.7 Analysis of Stresses
PDi 0.143 2400

Longitudinal stress, σ L = 
4t 4 x9
= 9.5333 N/mm2
PDi 0.143 2400

Circumferential Stress, σ h = 
2t 2 x9
= 19.0667 N/mm2
W 101250
Direct stress, σ w = 
π ( Di + t )t  (2400  9)9
= 1.4865N/mm2 (compressive)
Bending stress, σb where:

Outer diameter, Do = Di + 2t
= 2418mm
π
Second moment, I v = ( D 4 - Di 4 )
64 o
= 4.94 x 109mm4
M Di
Bending Stress, σ b = ± ( + t)
Iv 2
 0.04615N/mm2
The resultant longitudinal stress is: σz = σ L + σ w + σ b

σw is compressive and therefore it is negative.
σz (upwind) = σL + σw + σb = 9.5333 + 1.4865+ 0.04615 = 11.07 N/mm2

σz (downwind) = σL + σw + σb = 9.5333 – 1.4865– 0.04615 = 8.00 N/mm2
153
7.3.8 Principal Stresses
As there is no torsional stress, the principal stresses will be σ z and σh.The radical stress
for the thin wall vessel is negligible, σR ≈ (Pe /2) ≈ 0.0715 N/mm2
1
σ 1 = [σ h + σ z + (σ h - σ z ) 2 + 4τ ] = σh = 19.0667 N/mm2
2
1
σ 2 = [σ h + σ z + (σ h - σ z ) 2 + 4τ ] = σz = 11.07 N/mm2
2
σ3 = 0.5P = σR = 0.0715 N/mm2
a) Allowable Stress Intensity
i. Upwind wind:
σ1 – σ2 = σh - σz
= 19.0667 – 11.07
= 7.9967 N/mm2
σ1 – σ3 = σh + σR
= 19.0667 + 0.0715
= 19.1382 N/mm2
σ2 – σ3 = σz + σR
= 11.07 + 0.0715
= 11.1415 N/mm2
ii. Downwind wind:
σ1 – σ2 = σh - σz
= 19.0667 – 8.00
= 11.0667 N/mm2
154
σ1 – σ3 = σh + σR
= 19.0667 + 0.0715
= 19.1382 N/mm2
σ2 – σ3 = σz + σR
= 8.00 + 0.0715
= 8.0715 N/mm2
The maximum allowable stresses intensity, Δσ max is 19.1382 N/mm2, which is less than
the design stress for the material construction, S, that is, 19.1382 N/mm2 < 105 N/mm2.
Therefore, the wall thickness = 9mm is sufficient for the vessel design of the distillation
column.
7.3.9 Elastic Stability
E t
σc = ( )
3(1 - v 2 ) R p
For steel at ambient temperature with E = = 1.88×10 5 MN/m2, the formula for elastic
stability is shown as below:
t 9
σ c = 2 × 10 4 ( )  2  10 4 ( )
Do 2418
= 74.44 N/mm2
Therefore, (Σ σ)max = σb + σw
= 0.04615 N/mm2 + 1.4865N/mm2
= 1.5327 N/mm2
\
Since (Σ σ)max < σc, the design are satisfactory.

155
7.3.10 Vessel Support Design
In this design, skirt support is used. A skirt support consists of a cylindrical or conical
shell welded to the base of the vessel. A flange at the bottom of the skirt transmits the
load to the foundations. The skirt is welded flush with shell which is usually preferrred.
Besides that, skirt supports is recommended for vertical vessels as they do not impose
concentrated loads on the vessel shell; they are particularly suitable for use with tall
columns subject to wind loading.
a) Skirt Thickness
The maximum dead-weight load on the skirt will occur when the vessel is full of liquid.
πDi 2 H v ρg
Approximate weight, Ws =
4
  2.4 2 10.8181165.9398 9.81

4
= 559.76 kN
Total weight, Wt = 101.25 kN + 559.76 kN

= 661.01 kN
1
Bending moment at the base of skirt, M s = Fw x 2
2
x = Hv + height of skirt = 12.818 m
1
M s   3223.04 12.8182 = 264.77 kNm
2
Take skirt thickness, t s as 9mm (minimum thickness). The skirt thickness must be
sufficient to withstand the dead loads and bending moments imposed on it by the vessel.
156
4M s
Bending stress in the skirt, σ bs =
π ( Ds + t s )t s Ds
4(264.77  106 )

 (2400  9)9  2400
= 6.4787 N/mm2
Ws
Dead weight stress in the skirt, σ ws (test) =
π ( Ds + t s )t s
559.76  103

 (2400  9)9
= 8.2181 N/mm2
W 101.25  103
σ bs (operating) = 
π ( Ds + t s )t s  (2400  9)9
= 1.4865 N/mm2
The test condition is with the vessel full of liquid for the hydraulic test. In estimating total
weight, the weight of liquid on the plates has been counted twice. The weight has not
been adjusted to allow for this as error is small, and on the “safe side”.
Resultant stress: σs (tensile) = σbs – σws(operating)

= 6.4787 N/mm2 – 1.4865 N/mm2
= 4.99N/mm2
σs (compressive) = σbs + σws(test)

= 6.4787 N/mm2 + 8.2181N/mm2
= 14.70 N/mm2
157
Criteria for design: σs (tensile) < fs J sinθ

< (105) (0.85) sin900
< 89.25 N/mm2
ts
σs (compressive) < 0.125E ( ) sinθ
Ds
9
< 0.125188,000( ) sin 90
2400
< 88.13 N/mm2
Since both criteria are satisfied, hence, t = 9mm is accepted. By adding 2mm for
corrosion allowance, gives a design thickness of 9+2 = 11mm.
7.3.11 Base Ring and Anchor Bolt Design
Approximate pitch circle diameter, Db = 2.0m

Circumference of bolt circle = πDb = π (1800mm) = 6283 mm
Number of bolts required, at minimum recommended bolt spacing, N b

πDb   2000
Nb =  = 10.47
600 600
Closest multiple of 4 = 12
Take bolt design stress = 125 N/mm2
Ms = 264.77 kNm
Take W=operating value = 101.25 kN
1 4M s
- W )  1 ( 4  264.77 10 - 101.25 103 )
3
Ab = (
Nb fb Db 12 125 2.0
= 285.53mm2
158
4 Ab
Bolt root dia. = = 19.07 mm

Total compressive load on the base ring per unit length, Fb
4M s W
)  ( 4  264.77 2 10  101.25 10 )
3 3
Fb = ( 2 +
πDs πDs   2.0   2.0
= 100.39kN/m
Taking the bearing pressure as 5 N/mm2

Fb
Lb = = 20.08 mm
fc
Use M24 bolts with the root area = 353 mm2
Lr = 76mm
Actual width required, Ls = Lr + ts + 50mm
= 76 mm + 11 mm + 50 mm
= 137 mm
Actual bearing pressure on concrete foundation, 𝑓𝑐′

Fb 100390
f c' =  = 7.3277 N/mm2
Ls 137 1000
3 f c'
Base ring thickness, t b = Lr
fr
3  7.3277
 76
140
= 30.11mm (Round-off to 30.50 mm.)
Chair dimensions from Fig. 13.30 (reference (1)) for bolt size M24 .
Skirt to be welded flush with outer diameter of column shell.
159
7.3.12 Shell Manholes
Manholes are necessary in closed vessels to permit inspection, cleaning, repairs an so on.
Entry into the shell of a distillation tower is made via manholes. There are usually fitted
in the column so that each serves 10 to 20 trays. When the service is clean and
noncorrosive, up to 30 trays or more may be served by one manhole. Recommended
manhole diameters vary from one designer to another, but are always in the range of 16 to
24 in (406.40 to 609.60 mm) (Henry Z. Kister 1989).
The manhole diameter must be less than plate spacing (600mm). Therefore, it is
decided to use 450mm manhole diameter, while the blind flanges are used as covers for
manholes
7.3.13 Selection Of Flanges
There are many different flange standards to be found worldwide. To allow easy
functionality and inter-changeability, flanges joints are designed to have standardised
dimensions. In this design, all flanges used were of the narrow-faced welding neck type,
which are suitable for extreme service conditions subjected to temperature, shear and
vibration loads. The flanges have a long tapered hub between the flange ring and the
welded joint. This gradual transition of the section reduces the discontinuity stresses
between the flange and branch and increases the strength of the flange assembly. Besides
that, welding-neck flanges are suitable for extreame service conditions; where the flange
is likely to be subjected to temperature, shear and vibration loads. They will normally be
specified for the connections and nozzles on process vessels and process equipment. The
diameter of each of the welding-neck flange will be calculated by applying equation
below with the construction material of carbon steel SA516 Grade 70.
160
doptimum = 293 G 0.53 ρ – 0.37
with: G = Fluid flow rate, kg/s

Ρ = Fluid density, kg/m3
Welding-neck flanges were found to be the best option for this design. Details
of the detail of the flanges design are summarized below:
Table 7.11: Parameters for openings of distillation column
Opening ρ, kg/m3
G, kg/s do , mm Nominal, d, mm
Manholes - - 450.00 450
Feed inlet 32.40 962.90 168.28 150
Top outlet 12.70 27.46 330.81 350
Bottom outlet 25.42 701.327 168.28 150
Reflux return inlet 5.7166 1165.94 54.14 150
Reboiler return inlet 28.14 31.63 478.58 350
Table 7.12: Standard steel flanges dimension for nominal pressure of 6 bar (600 kPa)
Raised Face,
Nominal Pipe o.d., Flange, mm
Opening mm
Size, mm mm
D b h1 d4 f
Manholes 457.20 457.20 635 38.0 39.60 533.40 1.60
Feed inlet 150 168.30 265 18 48 202 3
Top outlet 350 355.60 490 22 62 415 4
Bottom
outlet 150 168.30 265 18 48 202 3
Reflux
return inlet 50 60.30 140 14 38 90 3
Reboiler
return inlet 500 508 645 24 65 520 4
161
Table 7.13: Standard steel flanges dimension for nominal pressure of 6 bar (600 kPa)
Nominal Drilling, mm Neck, mm
Opening Bolting
Size, mm No. d2 k d3 h2 r
Manhole 457.20 M32 16 31.75 577.90 - - -
Feed inlet 150 M16 8 18 225 184 12 10
Top outlet 350 M20 12 22 445 385 15 12
Bottom
outlet 150 M16 8 18 225 184 12 10
Reflux
return inlet 50 M12 4 14 110 74 8 6
Reboiler
return inlet 500 M20 20 22 600 538 15 12
7.3.14 Selection of Gaskets
A gasket is a mechanical seal that fills the space between flanges, may also be called a
seal, generally to prevent leakage from or into the joined objects while under
compression.
The following factors must be considered when selecting a gasket material:

a. The process conditions: pressure, temperature, corrosive nature of the process
fluid.
b. Whether repeated assembly and disassembly of th joint is required.
c. The type of flange and flange face.
162
Metal-reinforced gaskets were found to be the best option for this application, in which it
can be used up to 450C. Details of the gasket type are summarized below (Table 13.4,
reference (1)):
Gasket material : Flat metal (stainless steel)

Grooved metal
Gasket factor : 4.25
Min. design seating stress : 69.5 N/mm2
Minimum gasket width : 10.0 mm
163
Figure 7.4: Drawing of mechanical design by using AutoCAD for Distillation Column
164
7.4 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF CONDENSER
The design of the condenser is included of cylindrical shell and hemispherical heads at
both ends. Since vapour maleic anhydride present in the condenser which has very low
corrosivity, carbon-manganese steel is chosen to construct condenser’s wall. The price of
carbon-manganese steel is quite acceptable.
Operating pressure, Po = 110 kPa = 15.95 psi

Maximum temperature (able to withstand) , T = 234.9 °C = 454.8°F = 728 K
Since Po>Patm, thus the design is follow internal pressure.
CA = 2mm due to the low corrosive in the process.
7.4.1 Wall Thickness
a) Cylindrical Shell
Wall thickness of Cylindrical shell is determined based on UG-27, thin shell. Cylindrical
shell’s height is equal to the shell diameter because the condenser is fitted horizontally.
While cylindrical shell’s length is equal to tube length.
Height of Shell, hshell = 860mm = 0.860m = 33.86’’

Length of shell, L = 4.88 m = 192.13’’
Density, ρ = 1164 kg/m3
Specific gravity, g = 9.81m/s2
Hydrostatic pressure, Ph = ρgh = 9820.20 Pa = 1.424 psi
Total pressure, PD = Po + Ph = 15.95 + 1.424= 17.37 psi
Design pressure consider a safety factor, PJ = 1.10PD = 19.11 psi
At temperature = 234.9 °C,
Maximum allowable stress, S = 133020 kPa = 19292.9 psi (Sinott R.K 2005),
165
Inside diameter of cylindrical shell, Di = 0.860m = 33.86’’

Inside radius of cylindrical shell, R = 33.86’’/2 =16.93’’
Joint efficiency, E = 1
For Circumferential stress (Longitudinal Joints):

PR
Minimum required thickness of shell, tmin  = 0.0168 in
SE  0.6P
R/2 = 8.47’’
tmin circumferential < R/2
For Longitudinal Stress (Circumferential Joints):

PR
Minimum required thickness of shell, tmin  = 0.0084 in
2SE  0.4 P
R/2 = 8.47’’
tmin longitudinal < R/2
The minimum thickness or maximum allowable working pressure for cylindrical shell
shall be the greater thickness or lesser pressure.
Thus, tmin = 0.0168 in

Since CA = 2 mm = 0.0787 in, thus:
Corrosion allowance thickness, t corrosion = 0.0168 in + 0.0787 in
= 0.0955 in
= 2.4 mm
Minimum nominal thickness, t nominal = 0.25 in = 6.35 mm (ASTM International)

166
b) Hemispherical Head
Hemispherical heads are used to joint at the both end for the condenser and carbon-
manganese steel are selected as material to construct condenser’s heads. Refer to ASME
Code UG-32(f), the required thickness of a hemispherical head shall be determined by:
𝑃𝐿
𝑡 = 2𝑆𝐸−0.2𝑃
PJ = 19.11 psi
At temperature = 234.9 °C,
Maximum allowable stress, S = 133020 kPa = 19292.9 psi (Sinott R.K 2005)
Inside spherical, L = 33.86’’/2 =16.93’’
𝑃𝐿
Minimum thickness of hemispherical head, 𝑡 =
2𝑆𝐸−0.2𝑃
19.11𝑥16 .93
= 2(19292 .9)(1)−0.2(19.11)
= 0.0084 in
Since CA = 2 mm = 0.0787 in, thus:

= 0.0871 in
= 2.2 mm
Compare between the thickness of shell and head calculated, the minimum thickness is
2.4mm. Thus,
Minimum nominal thickness, t nominal = 0.25 in = 6.35 mm (ASTM International)
tmin = tnominal – CA = 6.35 – 2 = 4.35mm = 0.1713 in
167
7.4.2 Maximum Allowance Working Pressure
a) Cylindrical shell
Inside radius of cylindrical shell, R =16.93 in

Maximum allowable stress, S = 19292.9 psi (Sinott R.K 2005),
For Circumferential Stress (Longitudinal Joints),

Minimum required thickness, t = 0.1713 in
SEt (19292.9)(1)(0.1713)
MAWPpart = = = 194.03psi
R  0.6t 16.93  0.6(0.1713)
For Longitudinal Stress (Circumferential Joints),

Ro = 16.93 in + 0.1713 in = 17.10 in
2SEt 2(19292.9)(1)(0.1713)
MAWPpart = = =388.09 psi
R o  0.4t 17.10  0.4(0.1713)
b) Hemispherical Part
Minimum required thickness, t = 0.1713 in

2SEt 2(19292.9)(1)(0.1713)
MAWPpart = = = 389.63 psi
L  0.2t 16.93  0.2(0.1713)
MAWPvessel is equal to smallest of MAWPpart , that is 194.03psi or 1337.79 kPa
7.4.3 Combined Load
For wall thickness, t = 6.35 mm = 0.00635 m

Pressure, PJ = 19.11 psi = 131.76 kPa = 131.8 x10-3 Nmm-2
168
a) Primary Stress
Di = 860 mm
PDi (131.8  10 3 )(860)
i. Longitudinal Stresses,  L    4.46N / mm 2
4t 4(6.35)
PDi (131.8  10 3 )(860)

ii. Circumferential Stresses,  h    8.93 N / mm 2
2t 2(6.35)
iii. Direct Stress
For a steel vessel: Cv = 1.08 for vessels with only few internal fittings
Hv = height or length between tangent lines of the cylindrical section
= 0.860 m
Dm = mean diameter of vessel

= Di + t x 10-3
= (860 x 10-3 + 6.35 x 10-3)m
= 0.86635 m
Wv = total weight of the shell excluding internal fittings

= 240 CvDm (Hv + 0.8Dm) t
= 240 (1.08) (0.86635) (0.860 + 0.8 x 0.86635) (6.35)
= 2214.60N
= 2.21 kN
There are many tubes inside the condenser, thus tube’s weight cannot be ignored. Besides
that, the weight of baffles, fluid inside both of the tubes and shell also need to be
considered.
169
 Weight of tubes:
Dimension of tubes is 20 mm o.d., 16.8 mm i.d., 4.88 m long of steel, square pitch.
Number of tubes = 606
Density of steel = 7.85 g/cm3 = 7850 kg/m3
𝜋 𝑑 𝑜 2 −𝑑 𝑖 2
Total tube’s weight, Wt = 𝑥 𝑙 𝑥𝜌𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑥𝑁𝑡 𝑥𝑔
4
𝜋 0.020 2 −0.0168 2
= 𝑥 4.88 𝑥7850𝑥606𝑥9.81
4
= 21062.93 N
= 21.06 kN
 Weight of baffles:
Let number of baffles = Nb
𝐿
𝑁𝑏 + 1 = 𝐷
𝑠
4.88
𝑁𝑏 + 1 = 0.860
𝑁𝑏 + 1 = 6
𝑁𝑏 = 5
Thickness of baffles, t = 6 mm
𝜋
Weight of the baffles = 𝑁𝑏 𝑥 𝑡 𝑥 𝑥 𝐷2 𝑥𝜌𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙
4
𝜋
= 5𝑥 0.006 𝑥 𝑥 0.8602 𝑥7850
4
= 136.80 kg
= 1368N
=1.37 kN
 Weight of tube plate:

Minimum thickness of tube plate, t = 0.75 x tube o.d.
= 0.75 x 20 mm
170
= 15mm
Since the design plate thickness must be greater than the minimum thickness. Thus, the
thickness of tube plate use is 20mm or 0.020m.
Weight of tube plate = 𝐴𝑠 𝑥 𝑡 𝑥 𝜌𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑥𝑔

= 0.1479𝑥 0.02 𝑥 7850𝑥9.81
= 227.79 N
There are two tube plates in condenser, thus,
Total weight of tube plates = 2 x 227.79 N
= 455.58 N
= 0.46 kN
 Weight of the fluid in tube side (Cooling water):

= weight of cooling water in tube + weight of cooling water in end-box
𝜋 4𝜋
= 𝑥 𝑑𝑖 2 𝑥 𝑙 𝑥𝑁𝑡 𝑥 𝜌𝑐𝑤 𝑥𝑔 + 𝑟 3 𝑥 𝜌𝑐𝑤 𝑥𝑔
4 3
𝜋 4𝜋 0.860 3
= 𝑥 0.01682 𝑥 4.88 𝑥 606 𝑥 992.26 𝑥9.81 + ( 2 ) 𝑥992.26 𝑥9.81
4 3
= 6381.10N + 3241.82N
= 9622.92N
= 9.62 kN
 Weight of the fluid in shell side (Organic vapor):

= 𝐴𝑠 𝑥 𝑙 𝑥 𝜌𝑣 𝑥𝑔
= 0.1479𝑥 4.88𝑥 2.56 𝑥 9.81
= 18.1258 N
= 0.018 kN
Total dead weight load, W = 2214.60N + 21062.93 N + 1368N + 455.58 N + 9622.92N

+ 18.1258 N
= 34742.16 N
171
= 34.74 kN
𝑊
Thus, direct stress, 𝜍𝑤 =
𝜋 𝐷𝑖 +𝑡 𝑡
34742 .16
=𝜋 860 +6.35 𝑥6.35
= 2.01 N/mm2
σw is compressive stress above the vessel support, therefore it is negative value is -2.01
N/mm2.
iv. Bending Stresses
Di = 860 mm = 0.860 m
Do = 860 mm + 2(6.35mm) = 872.7 mm = 0.8727m
The second moment of area of the vessel about the plane of bending,
𝜋
𝐼𝑣 = 64 (𝐷𝑜 2 − 𝐷𝑖 2 )
𝜋
= 64 0.87272 − 0.8602
= 0.00108 m4
Bending moment at any plane, Mx = wx2/2,

w = the load per unit length
x = distance measured from the free end
w = PwDeff =1280N /m2 (0.8664 m) = 1108.99 N/m

Where, Pw = wind pressure
Deff = effective diameter of column
Mx = (1108.99 x 0.860 2)/2

= 410.10 Nm
172
Thus, bending stress,

𝑀 𝐷
𝜍𝑏 = ± 𝐼 ( 2𝑖 + 𝑡)
𝑣
410 .10 0.860

𝜍𝑏 = ± 0.00108 + 0.00635
2
= ± 16.9436 x 104 N/m2
= ± 0.1694 N/mm2
b) Principal Stress
Total Longitudinal Stresses, σz = σL + σw ± σb
σz (upwind) = σL + σw + σb = 4.46 + (-2.01)+ 0.1694 = 2.6194 N/mm2

σz (downwind) = σL + σw - σb = 4.46 +(- 2.01) - 0.1694 = 2.2806 N/mm2
The torsional shear stress is normally negligible, τ = 0, the principle stresses will be:
σ1 = σh and σ2 = σz
The third principle stress, σ3 = 0 (negligible for thin walled vessel)
∆σ (upwind) = σh - σz = 8.93- 2.6194 = 6.3106 N/mm2

∆σ (downwind) = σh - σz = 8.93– 2.2806 = 6.6494 N/mm2
Thus, Maximum allowable stress intensity, ∆σmax = 6.6494 N/mm2
S design for carbon manganese steel 454.8°F is at about 133.02 N/mm2

∆σmax < S design.
c) Elastic Stability
173
𝐸 𝑡
Critical buckling stress, 𝜍𝑐 =
3 1−𝑣 2 𝑅𝑝
For steel at ambient T, E = 200 000 N/mm2 and with a safety factor of 12:
𝑡
𝜍𝑐 = 2𝑥104 𝐷𝑜
6.35
= 2𝑥104 872 .7
= 145.53 N/mm2
Maximum compressive stress: Σσcompressive = σb + σw

= 0.1694 N/mm2 + 2.01N/mm2
= 2.1794 N/mm2
Since Σσcompressive < σc (The design is safe)
7.4.4 Design of Saddle Support
Saddles are the most commonly used support for horizontal cylindrical vessels. A
horizontal vessel is supported at two cross-sections. A vessel supported on two saddles
can be considered as a simply supported beam, with an essentially uniform load, and the
distribution of longitudinal axial bending moment.
The saddle must be designed to withstand the load imposed by the weight of the
vessel and contents. They are contrcuted of bricks or concrete, or are fabricated from steel
plate. The contact angle should not be less than 120ο, and will not normally be greater
than 150ο . Wear plates are often welded to the shell wall to reinforce the wall over the
area of contact with the saddle. (Sinott R.K 2005)
For the condenser, saddle saddle must be able to withstand total loading, 34.74
kN. Refering to Figure 13.26 (R.K. Sinnott 2005), the dimension of the standard saddle
support should be designed as in the table below. All contacting edges fillet welded.
174
Figure 7.5: Standard steel saddles for vessel up to 1.2m
Table 3.14: Dimension of Saddle Support

Vessel Maximum
Dimension (m) (mm)
diam. weight
Bolt Bolt
(m) (kN) V Y C E J G t2 t1
Diam. Holes
0.9 65 0.63 0.15 0.81 0.34 0.175 0.095 10 6 20 25
7.4.5 Flange Design
Flanged joints are used for connecting pipes and instruments to vessels. Flanges may also
be used on the vessel body, when it is necessary to divide the vessel into sections for
transport and maintenance. In the condenser design, the welding-neck flanges which
made from carbon are selected. Its gradual transition of the section reduces the
discontinuity stresses between flange and branch, and increase the strength of the flange
assembly. Welding-neck flanges are also suitable for extreme service condition where it
is likely to be subjected to temperature, shear and vibration loads.
Flanged joints specification:

Type of joint = Welding-neck flanges
Material of construction = carbon steel
175
Since carbon steel pipe will be used, the optimum diameter size for each opening is
calculated by the following equation: (R.K. Sinnott 2005)
d, optimum = 293 G 0.53 ρ – 0.37
where, G = fluid flow rate (kg/s)

ρ = density of the fluid (kg/m3)
Table 3.15: Calculation of Dnominal for Condenser

Mass flow ρ d,optimum d,optimum dNominal,
Stream rate,G (kg/s) (kg/m3) (mm) (in) (mm)
Organic vapour inlet 12.70 27.46 330.81 13.024 350
Organic vapour outlet
(condensate) 12.70 1164 82.7 3.26 80
Cooling water inlet 193.35 992.26 371.4 14.62 400
Cooling water oulet 193.35 992.26 371.4 14.62 400
Refering to Appendix E (R.K. Sinnott 2005), the dimension of the welding neck flanges
should be designed as in the table below.
Figure 7.6: Welding neck flanges

176
Table 3.16: Typical Standard Flange Design for Shell Sides (Organic Vapour)
Raised
Pipe Flange Drilling Neck
dNominal face
Flange o.d. Bolting
(mm) h2
d1 D b h1 d4 f No. d2 k d3 r
≈
Inlet 350 355.6 490 22 62 415 4 M20 12 22 445 385 15 12
outlet 80 88.9 190 16 42 128 3 M16 4 18 150 102 10 8
Table 3.17: Typical Standard Flange Design for Tube Sides (Cooling Water)
Raised
Pipe Flange Drilling Neck
dNominal face
Flange o.d. Bolting
(mm) h2
d1 D b h1 d4 f No. d2 k d3 R
≈
Inlet 400 406.4 540 22 65 465 4 M20 16 22 495 438 15 12
outlet 400 406.4 540 22 65 465 4 M20 16 22 495 438 15 12
177
Figure 7.7: Drawing of mechanical design by using AutoCAD for condenser

178
7.5 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF HEAT EXCHANGER
The design of heat exchanger consists of cylindrical shell and torispherical heads at both
ends. In addition, the heat exchanger is fitted horizontally. Carbon steel typed SA-352
grade LCB are selected to construct heat exchanger. The reasons that choose carbon steel
as a material construction is because it is cheaper and works well in many applications.
Operating pressure, Po = 280 kPa = 40.61 psi. Since Po>Patm, thus the design is follow
internal pressure.
Maximum temperature, T = 350 °C = 662 °F. .
7.5.1 Minimum Wall Thickness
Cylindrical shell’s height is equal to the shell diameter because the heat exchanger is
fitted horizontally. While cylindrical shell’s length is equal to tube length.
So, Height of shell, hshell = Ds = 0.856 m = 33.70 in = 2.808 ft

Length of shell, L = 5 m = 196.85 in
Density, ρ = 2310 kg/m3
Specific gravity, g = 9.81m/s2
Operating pressure, Po = 280 kPa = 40.61 psi.

Hydrostatic pressure, Ph = 0.433h = 1.215 psi
Total pressure, PD = Po + Ph = 40.61 + 1.215 = 41.83 psi
Design pressure, PJ = 1.10PD = 1.10 (41.83) = 46.01 psi
From ASME Code, Table 1A, Section II, Part D, at operating temperature at 662 0F:
Maximum allowable stress, S = 17 156 psi = 118 286 kPa
179
Inside diameter of cylindrical shell, Di = 0.856m = 33.70 in

Inside radius of cylindrical shell, R = 33.70/2 = 16.85 in
R/2 = 8.425 in
i. Circumferential stress (Longitudinal Joints)

PR
Minimum required thickness of shell, tmin 
SE  0.6P
46.01 (16.85)
=
17 156 1 − 0.6(46.01)
= 0.0453 in < 4.918 in (t <𝑅 2)
ii. Longitudinal Stress (Circumferential Joints)

PR
Minimum required thickness of shell, tmin 
2SE  0.4 P
46.01(16.85)
=
2 17 156 1 + 0.4(46.01)
= 0.0226 in < 4.918 in (t <𝑅 2)
Thus the value t min (circumferential stress) is higher than t min (longitudinal stress) so that
the largest value of t min is choosen as tcal.
Thus, tmin = 0.0453 in

Since CA = 4 mm = 0.16 in, thus

= 0.2053 in
= 5.215 mm
Nominal thickness, t nominal = 6 mm = 0.2362 in

180
b) Torispherical Head
Both end part of heat exchanger are used torispherical head which fitted horizontally and
carbon steel typed SA-352 are selected as a material construction.
Maximum allowable stress, S = 17 156 psi = 118 286 kPa, at T = 6620F

Crown radius, Rc = Di = 0.856 m =33.70 in
Inside spherical, L = Rc= 0.856m =33.70 in
Knuckle radius, Rk = 0.06Rc = 0.06(33.70) = 2.022 in
Inside knuckle radius, r = Rk = 2.022 in
PJ = 1.10PD = 46.01 psi
0.885 𝑃𝐿
Minimum thickness of torispherical head, 𝑡 = 𝑆𝐸−0.1𝑃
0.885 46.01 (33.70)

=
17 156 1 − 0.1(46.01)
= 0.075 in
Since CA = 4 mm = 0.16 in, thus
Corrosion allowance thickness, tcorrosion =0.075 in + 0.16 in
= 0.2350 in
= 5.969 mm
Nominal thickness, t nominal = 6 mm = 0.2362 in
By using the maximum thickness, t =6 mm – CA = 2 mm = 0.0787 in

Inside radius of cylindrical shell, R= 16.85 in
Maximum allowable stress, S = 17156 psi
181
a) Cylindrical shell
i. Circumferential stress (Longitudinal Joints)

𝑆𝐸𝑡
𝑀𝐴𝑊𝑃 =
𝑅 + 0.6𝑡
17 156 1 (0.0787)
=
16.85 + 0.6(0.0787)
= 79.905 psi ≈ 550.93 𝑘𝑃𝑎
= 5.50 × 102 𝑘𝑃𝑎

2𝑆𝐸𝑡
𝑀𝐴𝑊𝑃 =
𝑅 − 0.4𝑡
2 17 156 1 (0.0787)
=
16.85 − 0.4(0.0787)
= 160.56 psi ≈ 1107.02 𝑘𝑃𝑎
= 1.11 × 103 𝑘𝑃𝑎
b) Torispherical Part
𝑫𝒔 0.856
L= radius of torispherical = = = 0.428 𝑚 = 16.85𝑖𝑛
𝟐 2
𝑆𝐸𝑡
𝑀𝐴𝑊𝑃 =
0.885 𝐿 + 0.1𝑡
17 156 1 (0.0787)
=
0.885 16.85 + 0.1(0.0787)
= 90.49 psi ≈ 623.91 𝑘𝑃𝑎
= 6.23 × 102 𝑘𝑃𝑎
182
Table 7.18: Maximum Allowance Working Pressure Result

Part tcalc Tnominal MAWP MAWP- MAWPvessel
(m) (m) (Pa) Static Head (Pa)
Cylindrical 1.15 x10-3 5.50 x105 5.42 x105 5.42 x105
5.74 x10-4 6x10-3 1.11 x106 1.10 x106
Torispherical 1.91 x10-3 6.23x 105 6.15 x 105
(Right)
Torispherical 1.91 x10-3 6.23x 105 6.15 x 105
(Left)
Each MAWP will subtract with static head pressure, 8.377 x 103Pa
So, MAWPvessel = 5.42 x 105 Pa
7.5.3 Analysis of Combined Loading
a) Shell weight
From the equation, for steel vessel, is reduced to, W  240Cv Dm ( H v  0.8 Dm )t
where, W = total weight which is supported by vessel wall, N

Cv =1.08 for vessel with only few internal fittings
Hv = height or length between tangent lines (length of cylindrical section), m
Dm = mean diameter of vessel = (Di + tx10-3), m
Minimum wall thickness, t = 6 mm
Mean diameter of vessel, Dm = Di + (t x 10-3)

= 0.856 + 6 x 10-3
= 0.862 m
183
𝐷𝑠
Height between tangent lines, Hv = 𝐿 + 1/3( 2 )(2)
= 5 + (1/3) (0.428) (2)

= 5.285 m
So, Wv = 240 (1.08) (0.856) (5.285 + 0.8 (0.856))(6)

= 7947.30 N
= 7.947 kN
b) Tube Weight
WT  t (do2  di2 ) Nt g 4
Number of tubes, Nt = 720

Inside diameter of tube, di = 18mm = 0.018m
Outside diameter of tube, do = 20mm = 0.020m
Density of tube, t = 7790 kg/m3
Gravity acceleration, g = 9.81 m/s2
𝜋 0.020 2 −0.018 2
Tube weight, WT = 𝑥 7790 𝑥 720 𝑥 9.81
4
= 3284.30 N = 3.284 kN
c) Internal fittings
𝑊𝑠 = 𝜌𝑠 𝐴𝑠 𝑔(𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑠)𝑡
Number of baffle =5
Baffle thickness, t = 171.2 mm = 0.1712 m
Shell’s density, s = 7790 kg/m3
Shell’s diamter, Ds = 856 mm = 0.856 m
184
Area, As =  Ds2 4 = 𝜋 (0.8562 )/4 = 0. 576m2

Weight of internal fitting, Ws = 7790( 0.576)(9.81)(5)(0.1712)
= 37, 679.30 N = 37.7 kN
d) Tube side fluid
𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 ′ 𝑠 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡 = 𝜋𝜌𝑡 𝑑𝑖2 (𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑠)𝑁𝑡 𝑔
Number of Baffles =5
Number of tubes,Nt = 720
Density tube side fluid, t = 3567 kg/m3
Gravity acceleration,g = 9.81 m/s2
Tube’s inside diameter,di = 0.018 m
Weight fluid (tube) = 𝜋 3567 0.0182 720 9.81
= 25 644.81 N = 25.6 kN
e) Shell side fluid
𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 ′ 𝑠 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡 = 𝜌𝑠 𝐴𝑠 𝑔(𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑠)
Number of baffles =5
Density of shell fluid,s = 2310 kg/m3
𝜋 0.856 2
Shell’s area,As =  Ds2 4 = = 0.575 m2
4
Weight fluid (shell) = (2310)(0.575)9.81(5)

= 65150.66 N = 65.2 kN
185
f) Weight of baffles
𝜋
Weight of baffles= 𝑁𝑏 𝑥 𝑡 𝑥 𝑥 0.8872 𝑥𝜌𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙
4
Let number of baffles = Nb

𝐿
𝑁𝑏 + 1 =
𝐷𝑠
5
𝑁𝑏 + 1 =
0.856
𝑁𝑏 + 1 = 5.841
So, 𝑁𝑏 = 4.841 ≈ 5
Thickness of baffles, = 171.2 mm = 0.1712 m
𝜋
Weight of the baffles = 𝑁𝑏 𝑥 𝑡 𝑥 𝑥 0.8872 𝑥𝜌𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙
4
𝜋
= 5𝑥 0.1712 𝑥 𝑥 0.8872 𝑥7790
4
= 4120 kg
= 40 400= 40.4 kN
g) Weight of insulation
Weight of insulation =130 𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 𝑥 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑥 9.81 𝑚𝑠 −1

Density of insulator = 130 kg/m3
Approximate volume of insulation = 𝜋 × 𝐷𝑖 ×Hv× tw
= π × 0.856 m × 5.285 m × 0.075 m
= 1.066 m3
186
Weight of insulation = 130 kgm-3 × 1.066 m3 × 9.81 ms-2

= 1.359 kN
The weight of insulation is doubled to allow for the fittings. Hence,
The actual weight of the insulation = 1.359 kN X 2 = 2.718 kN
Total weight load, W = 7.947 kN + 3.284 kN + 37.7 kN + 25.6 kN + 65.2 kN +

40.4 kN + 2.718 kN
= 182.85 kN = 182 850 N
7.5.4 Stress Analysis
t=6 mm
Di=856 mm
P = 40.61 psi
𝑁
6.895 𝑘𝑃𝑎 1
= 40.61𝑝𝑠𝑖 × ( 𝑚𝑚 2
) = 0.28 N/mm2
1 𝑝𝑠𝑖 1000
a) Determination of Longitudinal and Circumferential Stress:
Longitudinal:
PDi (0.28)(856)
L    9.987N / mm 2
4t 4(6)
= 9.987 x 103 kPa
Circumferential:
PDi (0.28)(856)
h    19.97N / mm 2
2t 2(6)
= 1.997 x 104 kPa

187
b) Determination of Direct Stress, w:

W
w 
 ( Di  t )t
182 850
=
𝜋 856 + 6 6
= 11.25 N/mm2 = 1.125 x 104 kPa
c) Determination of Bending Stress, b
Di = Ds = 856 mm = 0.856 m
Deff = Do = Di + 2t
= 856 + 2(6)
= 868 mm = 0.868 m
where, Pw = wind pressure =1280 N/m2

Deff = effective diameter of column
So, w = PwDeff =1280N /m2 (0.868m) = 1111.04 N/m
WHv 2 1111.04  5.2852

M= = = 15 516.35 Nm
2 2
 
I= ( Do 4  Di 4 ) = (0.8684  0.8564 ) = 0.001509 m4
64 64
M Di 15516.35 0.856
σb =  (  t) =  (  0.006) = ±4462 622 N/m2 = 4.462 N/mm2
I 2 0.001509 2
d) Total longitudinal Stress
σz (upwind) = σL + σw + σb = 9.987+ (-11.25) + 4.462= 3.199 N/mm2 = 3.199 x 106 Pa

σz (downwind) = σL + σw - σb = 9.987+(- 11.25) –4.462 = -5.725 N/mm2 = - 5.725x 106 Pa
188
Since the torsional shear stress is normally negligible, τ = 0, the principle stresses will be:
σ1 = σh and σ2 = σz
The third principle stress, σ3 = 0 (negligible for thin walled vessel)
∆σ (upwind) = σh - σz = 19.97 - (3.199) = 16.77 N/mm2

∆σ (downwind) = σh - σz = 19.97 – (-5.725) = 25.69 N/mm2
Thus, Maximum allowable stress intensity, ∆σmax = 25.69 N/mm2
()max=25.69 N/mm2 < Sdesign=118.286 N/mm2 , the design satisfied.
e) Elastic Stability
𝐸 𝑡
Critical buckling stress, 𝜍𝑐 =
3 1−𝑣 2 𝑅𝑝
For steel at ambient T, E = 200 000 N/mm2 and with a safety factor of 12:
𝑡
𝜍𝑐 = 2𝑥104 𝐷𝑜
6
= 2𝑥104 868
= 138.25 N/mm2 =1.383 x 108 Pa
Maximum compressive stress:

Σσcompressive = σb + σw = 4.462 N/mm2 + 11.25 N/mm2
= 15.71 N/mm2 = 1.571x 107 Pa
Since ()compressive < c , thus the design is safe.
189
7.5.5 Design of Saddle Support
The supports must be designed to carry the weight of the vessel and contents, and any
superimposed loads, such as wind. Besides, support should be designed to allow easy
access to the vessel and fitting for inspection and maintenance. Saddle support is the
support that selected for heat exchanger. Saddles are the most commonly used support for
horizontal cylindrical vessels, legs can be used for small vessels. This criteria is satisfied
to support the heat exchanger.
Below is the table that show the dimension for the saddle support that should be
designed as followed condition for the vessel up to 1.2m. The shell diameter for heat
exchanger is 0.856 m. Based on the table below, the dimension for the saddle support that
suitable is 0.9 m which nearest value of vessel diameter with maximum weight 65 kN.
While the bolt diameter is 20mm and the bolt holes is 25 mm.
Table 7.19: Standard of Dimension for Saddle Support for vessel up to 1.2m
Vessel Maximum
Dimension (m) (mm)
diam. weight
Bolt Bolt
Diam. Holes
0.8 50 0.58 0.15 0.70 0.29 0.225 0.095 8 5 20 25
0.9 65 0.63 0.15 0.81 0.34 0.275 0.095 10 6 20 25
1.0 90 0.68 0.15 0.91 0.39 0.310 0.095 11 8 20 25
7.5.6 Flange Design
Flanged joints are used for connecting pipes and instruments to vessels, for manhole
covers, and for removable vessel heads when ease of access is required. Flanges may also
190
be used on the vessel body, when it is necessary to divide the vessel into sections for
transport or maintenance. Flanged joints are also used to connect pipes to other
equipment, such as pumps and valves. Several different type of flange are sued for
various application.
Welding-neck flanges are used in heat exchanger design. It has a long tapered hub
between the flange ring and the welded joint. This gradual transition of the section
reduces the discontinuity stresses between the flange and branch, and increase the
strength of the flange assembly. Welding-neck flanges are suitable for extreme service
conditions, where the flange is likely to be subjected to temperature, shear and vibration
loads.
Flanged joints specification: Type of joint = Welding-neck flanges

Material of construction = Carbon steel
Table 7.20: Diameter Size for Each Opening

Mass flow ρ dNominal,
Stream rate,G (kg/s) (kg/m3) Di (mm) Di (in) (mm)
S-7 (inlet) 38.884 2.5949 150 5.84 150
S-7 hot out (outlet) 38.884 1.6791 140 5.45 150
S- 8 (inlet) 38.884 1.4296 120 4.86 150
S-8 cold out (oulet) 38.884 1.9718 140 5.47 150
Refering to Appendix E (R.K. Sinnott 2005), the dimension of the steel welding neck
flanges should be designed as in the table below.
191
Figure 7.8: Steel welding neck flanges
Table 7.21: Typical Standard Flange Design for Shell Sides (Organic Vapour)
Pipe Raised
dNominal Flange Drilling Neck
Flange o.d. face Bolting
(mm)
d1 D b h1 d4 f No. d2 k d3 h2≈ r
Inlet 150 168.3 265 18 48 202 3 M16 8 18 225 184 12 10
outlet 150 168.3 265 18 48 202 3 M16 8 18 225 184 12 10
Table 7.22: Typical Standard Flange Design for Tube Sides (Heating medium)
Pipe Raised
dNominal Flange Drilling Neck
Flange o.d. face Bolting
(mm)
d1 D b h1 d4 f No. d2 k d3 h2≈ r
Inlet 125 139.7 240 18 48 178 3 M16 8 18 200 155 10 8
outlet 150 168.3 265 18 48 202 3 M16 8 18 225 184 12 10
192
Figure 7.9: Drawing of mechanical design by using AutoCAD for heat exchanger
193
7.6 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF REBOILER
Stainless steel alloy 18Cr/8Ni Ti stable grades 321 are used for the design of the shell of
reboiler. The operating pressure for this reboiler is 130kPa and the highest temperature
was 400oC.
7.6.1 Minimum Wall Thickness
Minimum wall thickness, t is calculated based on circumferential and longitudinal stress

with, P = 18.855 psia
S = 17000 psia
E = 0.85
R = 12.79 in
𝑃𝑅 18.855 ×12.79
Circumferential stress,𝑡 = =
𝑆𝐸−0.6𝑃 17000 ×0.85 − 0.6×18.855
Then, t = 0.0167 in
𝑃𝑅 18.855 ×25.59
Longitudinal stress, 𝑡 = 2𝑆𝐸+0.4𝑃 = 2×17000 ×0.85 + 0.4×18.855
Then, t = 0.0083 in
By comparing the value of thickness obtained from circumferential stress and

longitudinal stress, the minimum thickness for the longitudinal shell shall be the greater
thickness, which is 0.0167 in (0.4242 mm). By adding the corrosion allowance of 2.0 mm
to the shell, the thickness of the cylindrical shell will becomes:
t design = 0.4242 mm + 2.0 mm

= 2.4242 mm
194
b) Design of Torispherical Heads
P = 18.855 psia
S = 17000 psia
E = 0.85
L = 94.488 in
M = 1.44
𝑃𝐿𝑀 18.855 × 94.488 × 1.44

𝑡= =
2𝑆𝐸 − 0.2𝑃 2 × 17000 × 0.85 − 0.2 × 18.855
Then, t = 0.08878 in = 2.26 mm
By consider corrosion allowance, t = 2.255 mm + 2 mm

= 4.26 mm
c) Minimum Thickness for Overall
The minimum thickness for overall is shown as below:
Table 7.23: Minimum Wall Thickness for shell and head

Minimum Thickness, tmin (mm)
Shell 2.42
Head 4.26
Based on the practical minimum thickness of pressure vessel, wall thickness must not less
than 5.00 mm (Sinnot 1994). So the minimum wall thickness of the vessel (shell) is 5.00
mm.
195
By using the maximum thickness, t = 2.42 mm,
a) Shell, Cylindrical part
i. Circumferential Stress (Longitudinal Joints)

SEt
MAWP = R  0.6t
= 106.85 psia

2SEt
MAWP = R  0.4t
= 214.02 psia
b) Torispherical Part
Ds 25.59
L = radius of torispherical =   12.80in
2 2
SEt
MAWP = 0.885L 0.1t
= 121.08 psia
196
7.6.3 Stress Analysis
By taking t min = 0.095 in and MAWP vessel = 106.85 psia
PDi
Longitudinal Stress: σL = = 7167.39 psia
4t
PDi
Circumferential Stress: σh = = 14334.78 psia
2t
7.6.4 Total Load
a) Shell weight, Wv = 240Cv D m (H v + 0.8 D m )t
Mean diameter of vessel, Dm = 0.6487 m

Torispherical tangential height, htorispherical = 0.084 m
Minimum wall thickness, t min = 0.0242 m
Effective height, Hv = 0.800 m
Cv = 1.08
Total weight of shell, Wv = 5.367 N
b) Tube Weight, WT  t (d 02  d i2 ) N t g / 4
Number of tubes, Nt = 24
Inside diameter of tube, di = 0.025 m
Outside diameter of tube, do = 0.030 m
Density of tube, t = 7700kg/m3
Gravity acceleration, g = 9.81m/s2
Tube weight, WT = 391.56 N
197
c) Internal fittings, 𝑊𝑠 = 𝜌𝑠 𝐴𝑠 𝑔(𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑠)𝑡
Number of baffle =5
Baffle thickness, t = 0.010 m
Shell’s density, s = 7700 kg/m3
Shell’s diamter, Ds = 0.65 m
Baffle weight,Ws = 944.21 N
d) Tube side fluid, 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 ′ 𝑠 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡 = 𝜋𝜌𝑡 𝑑𝑖2 (𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑠)𝑁𝑡 𝑔
Number of Baffles =5
Number of tubes,Nt = 24
Density tube side fluid, t = 9.58 kg/m3
Tube’s inside diameter,di = 0.025 m
Flow weight (tube) = 22.14 N
e) Shell side fluid, 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 ′ 𝑠 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡 = 𝜌𝑠 𝐴𝑠 𝑔(𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑠)
Number of baffles =5
Gravity acceleration,g = 9.81m/s2
Density of shell fluid,s = 1050 kg/m3
Flow weight (shell) = 12875.63 N
f) Total weight
Total dead weight = 14238.9 N
Wv 14238.9 4
σw =   27.78x10 Pa
π(Di  t)t π(0.650  0.0242)(0.0242)
198
7.6.5 Bending momen and stress determination
Saddle support must be designed in order to withstand the load resulted from dead weight
of the vessel as well as the contents inside the vessel.
a) Bending Moment
W = Pw*Deff = 1280 x 0.658 = 842.24 N/m

WHv 2 (842.24)(0.8) 2
M= =
2 2
= 269.51 Nm
Π 
I= (Do 4  Di 4 ) = (0.6504  0.6474 )
64 64
= 1.61 x 10-4 m4
M Di
σb =  (  t)
I 2
269.51 0.647
= (  0.0242)
1.61 104 2
= ± 5.8 x105Pa
b) Total Longitudinal Stress
σz (Upwind) = σL + σw + σb = 50.275 x106Pa

σz (Downwind) = σL + σw - σb = 49.115 x106Pa
Since torsional shear stress is negligible, the principle stresses will be total longitudinal
stress, σz and circumferential stress, σh. Greatest difference between principle stresses will
be on a downside side.
9.8834x107 – 49.115 x106 = 98.83 x106Pa
199
Low alloy carbon steel, S = 1.38 x108 Pa

Since S > (Δσmax),
Thus material selection is satisfied.
Check elastic stability (buckling)

t
σc = 2x104 ( ) N/mm2
Do
= 524.78 N/mm2 = 80.67 x107Pa
The maximum compressive stress will occur when the vessel is not under pressure
(Σ σ)max = 27.78 x104 + 5.8 x105
= 0.858 x106 Pa
Since σc > (Σ σ)max. Thus, the design is satisfactory.
7.6.6 Specification of the Saddle Support
The saddle must be designed to withstand the load imposed by the weight of the vessel
and contents. They are contrcuted of bricks or concrete, or are fabricated from steel plate.
The contact angle should not be less than 120ο, and will not normally be greater than
150ο . Wear plates are often welded to the shell wall to reinforce the wall over the area of
contact with the saddle.
Refering to Figure 13.26 (R.K. Sinnott 1983), the dimension of the standard
saddle support should be designed as followed condition. Table below shown the
modification of dimension of saddle support. From shell diameter of the shell that gets
from calculation, standard saddle design is choose and all the information is given in the
table below.
200
Table 7.24: Modification of Dimension of Saddle Support

Vessel Maximum
Dimension (m) (mm)
diam. weight
Bolt Bolt
Diam. Holes
0.4 20 0.38 0.15 0.4 0.19 0.155 0.095 4 5 20 25
0.6 35 0.48 0.15 0.55 0.24 0.19 0.095 6 5 20 25
0.8 50 0.58 0.15 0.7 0.29 0.225 0.095 8 5 20 25
7.6.7 Flange Design
Table 7.25: Pipe diameter inlet an outlet of reboiler

Stream Steam Steam Liquid Liquid Vapour
inlet outlet inlet outlet outlet
Diameter(mm) 141.30 141.30 168.28 168.28 168.28
Figure 7.10: Welding neck flanges
DN = Nominal size, D = Outside Diameter, A = Outside diameter of neck , B1 = Bore of

Type 101 & 112 Flange, C1 = Thickness of Plate Flange, C2 = Thickness of Weld Neck
201
and Boss Flange , N1 = Dia of Weld Neck , N2 = Dia of Boss, R = corner Radius, H1 =
Length of Boss Flange, H2 = Length of Weld Neck Flange, H3 = Length of Neck.
Table 7.26: Selected standard flange design

Steam inlet Steam outlet Liquid Liquid Vapour
inlet outlet outlet
DN 125 125 150 150 150
D 270 270 300 300 300
C1 28 28 30 30 30
C2 26 26 28 28 28
H1 48 48 52 52 52
H2 68 68 75 75 75
H3 12 12 12 12 12
R 6 6 8 8 8
A 139.7 139.7 168.3 168.3 168.3
N1 162 162 162 162 162
N2 170 170 172 172 172
B1 141.5 141.5 141.5 141.5 141.5
d1 188 188 188 188 188
f1 3 3 3 3 3
Table 7.27: Flange bolting

Steam inlet Steam Liquid inlet Liquid Vapour
outlet outlet outlet
DN 125 125 150 150 150
K 220 220 250 250 250
L 26 26 26 26 26
No 8 8 8 8 8
Size M24 M24 M24 M24 M24
K = Bolt Circle Diameter, L = Diameter of Bolt Hole, No = Number Of Holes, Size =

Size Of Bolt.
202
Figure 7.11: Drawing of mechanical design by using AutoCAD for reboiler

CHAPTER VIII
WASTE TREATMENT
8.1 INTRODUCTION
The Maleic Anhydride plant consists of a packed bed reactor area, absorbing & maleic
anyhydride refining area. The off-gas which consists mainly of carbon monoxide,
carbon dioxide, un-reacted n-butane & some maleic anhydride & dibutylphthalate
from the absorbing system flows to an incinerator where these components are
destroyed. Basically, these gaseous wastes can be categorized into two groups:
(a) Carbon monoxide & carbon dioxide.

(b) Volatile organic compounds (VOC) such as n-butane, maleic anhydride &
dibutylphthalate.
Table below showed the flow rate of component waste gases from S17.
Table 8.1: Component flow rate of waste gases.

Component Mole Fraction Production Rate (kg/hr)
n-Butane 0.00612 1586.88
Oxygen 0.0028 400
Nitrogen 0.75995 95115.44
Maleic anhydride 0.00092 402.05
Carbon monoxide 0.00613 767.2
Carbon dioxide 0.00613 1205.6
Water 0.21794 17535.78
Dibutyl Phthalate 0.00001 19.58
Total 1.0 117032.53
204
8.2 REGULATORY ANALYSIS FOR WASTE GAS
According to Part V (Regulation 21) of Environmental Quality (Clean Air)

Regulations, 1978, every new facility shall comply with Standard C. Under Third
Schedule of Regulation 32, carbon monoxide & maleic anhydride are considered as
noxious and offensive substances.
Since the amount of maleic anyhydride and dibutyl phthalate released is small,
therefore, treatment for these two substances is not required. According to McCoy, J.T.
(2008), for n-butane, there is clearly limited potential for toxicity associated with
environmentally relevant exposures to this compound in air as its concentration is
maintained under the explosivity limit. In these case, the mole fraction of n-butane is
0.006 which is under the explosivity limit (0.017). By maintaining concentrations
below each chemical’s limit, health concerns (including the potential for them to act
as simple asphyxiants) are minimized. Therefore, there is no need to treat n-butane .
There are no ambient air quality standards in Malaysia. The Malaysian

government, however, established Recommended Malaysian Air Quality Guidelines
(RMAQG) in 1988. Pollutants addressed in the guidelines include ozone, carbon
monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, total suspended particles, particulate
matter under 10 microns, lead and dust fall. The averaging time, which varies from 1
to 24 hours for the different air pollutants in the RMAQG, represents the periods of
time which measurements is monitored and reported for the assessment of human
health impacts of specific air pollutants. For carbon monoxide, the recommended
concentration for averaging time 8 hours is 9ppm. The concentration of carbon
monoxide releases from S17 is :
Concentration of CO emitted,
27.40  28.01
  6.1102  10 3 kg / m 3  6.1102mg / m 3
125606.016
205
Concentration of CO that measured over eight hours,
22.40  T ( K )  1  mg 
    c 
M (kg / kgmole)  273  P(atm)  m 3 
22.40  371.60  1 
   6.1102
28.01  273  1.0856 
 6.1268 8hours
 49 ppm
Therefore, carbon monoxide needs to be treated.
Kyoto Protocol is a protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on

Climate Change (UNFCCC or FCCC), aimed at fighting global warming. Country that
signed this protocol must commit themselves to a reduction of four greenhouse gases
(GHG) (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, sulphur hexafluoride) and two groups
of gases (hydrofluorocarbons and perfluorocarbons) produced by them, and all
member countries give general commitments. Although there is no emission limit
stated in EQ (Clean Air) Regulations, 1978, since Malaysia is one of the countries
who signed this protocol, therefore, treatment of carbon dioxide is a must.
Concentration of CO2 emitted,

27.40  44.01
  9.6004  10 3 kg / m 3  9.6004mg / m 3
125606.016
Concentration of CO2 that measured over eight hours,
22.40  T ( K )  1  mg 
    c 
M (kg / kgmole)  273  P(atm)  m 3 
22.40  371.60  1 
   9.6004
44.010  273  1.0856 
 6.1267 8hours
 49 ppm
In this case, our target is to reduce it to 5ppm.
206
8.3 WASTE GAS TREATMENT
In this case, wet scrubber is used to reduce the concentration of carbon monoxide and
carbon dioxide with NaOH solution.
8.3.1 Wet Scrubber
The principle of this type of scrubber is to remove contaminants from the gas stream
(S17) by passing the stream through a packed structure which provides a large wetted
surface area to induce intimate contact between the gas and the scrubbing liquor
(sodium hydroxide, NaOH). Then, the contaminant (CO2 and CO) is absorbed into or
reacted with the scrubbing liquor. A schematic flowchart of wet scrubber is shown in
figure 8.1.
Figure 8.1: Wet Scrubber
The stoichiometric chemical equation for the reaction that occurs in the wet
scrubber is shown below:
2 NaOH  CO 2  Na 2 CO3  H 2 O
NaOH  CO  HCOONa
At the end, all treated gases will send to the flue gas stacks for emission. On
the other hand, the excess natrium hidroxide solution, sodium bicarbonate (Na 2CO3)
and sodium formate (HCOONa) that formed at the bottom of scrubber will be further
treated in the waste water treatment process that will be discussed later.
207
a) Process Design of Wet Scrubber
Total mole flow rate for stream 17,

kgmol 1000gmol 1hr
N T  4470    1241.67gmol / s
hr hr 3600s
Average molecular weight, M r  26.2kg / mol

Recovery fraction of CO2 and CO = 0.95
Absorption factor, AKE  1.40 , K n  0.87
Mole flow rate of 20% NaOH required, L  AKEV N 1 K n
 1.40 1241.67  0.8x0.2

= 278.13 gmol/s
Number of minimum theoretical plates required (Kremser’s equation):

   AKE   0.95  1.40 
ln  k  ln 
 AKE (1   k  1.40  (1  0.95) 
N   5.53
ln AKE ln1.40
Plate efficiency can be obtained from the correlation given by O’Connell correlation
as:
0.0498 0.0498
Eo    0.334
( K n M L  L / PL ) 0.209
 0.87  40  0.0035
0.209
 1100 
 
5.53
Therefore, number of actual tray   17trays
0.334
In this design, the plate spacing is taken as 0.69m.
Therefore, the height of the wet scrubber, H  17  0.69  11.73  12m
0 .5
 LM L   v 
Liquid flow rate factor, FLV    
 VM V   L 
208
0 .5
 278.13  40  1.2 
  
 1241.67  26.2  1100 
 0.06
From figure 5.9 (reference “Prinsip Reka Bentuk Proses Kimia”):

At FLV  0.06 and plate spacing  0.61m , C f  0.12m / s
So, C  FST FF FHA C F  1  0.75  1  0.12  0.09

0 .5 0.5
   V   1100  1.2 
Flooding velocity, u f  C  L   (0.09) 
 V   1 .2 
 2.72m / s
Solving for diameter,
 
0.5 0.5
 4VM V   4  1241.67  103  26.2 
DT     
 fu f  1  Ad / AV   0.8  2.72    1  0.1  1.2 
 2.10m
Diameter of the column = 2.10m

 Height of the column = 12m
b) Absorption of CO2 and CO
Molar flow rate of NaOH solution= 278.13 gmol/s

Mass flow rate of NaOH soulution = 278.13 x 40 = 11125.36 g/s = 40051.3 kg/hr
Volumetric flow rate of NaOH solution = 40051.3/2130 = 18.8 m3/hr
Concentration estimation of CO2 emitted after absorption process:

Concentration of CO2 emitted  (1  0.95)  49  2.45 ppm
Concentration estimation of CO emitted after absorption process:

Concentration of CO emitted  (1  0.95)  49  2.45 ppm
Hence, both concentration of CO2 and CO after treated is greatly reduced.

209
8.3.2 Design of Flue Gas Stack
A flue gas stack is a type of chimney, a vertical pipe, channel or similar structure
through which combustion product gases called flue gases are exhausted to the outside
air. In this design, the flue gas is composed of carbon dioxide (CO2) and water vapor
as well as nitrogen and excess oxygen remaining from the intake combustion air.
Basically, the flue gas stacks are often quite tall, up to 400 meters (1300 feet) or more,
so as to disperse the exhaust pollutants over a greater area and thereby reduce the
concentration of the pollutants to the levels required by governmental environmental
policy and environmental regulation.
There are many factors that need to be considered when designing the flue gas
stacks, namely, effective height of the stack, H which is related to the physical height
of stack, hs and height of dispersing plume H. A schematic flowchart of flue gas
stack is shown below.
Figure 8.2: Flue gas stack
Where the effective height of stack, H  hs  H , with hs  2.5 (highest stack height
estimation).
210
Height of dispersing plume, ∆H is calculated by using equation below:
sd   (2.68  10 3 ) PTd 

H  1 .5   
u   Ts 
where; ∆H = height of dispersing plume, m

vs = velocity of flue gas stack, m/s
d = diameter of stack, m
u = velocity of wind, m/s
∆T = temperature of stack – temperature of air, K
P = atmosphere pressure, kPa
Ts = temperature of stack
Equation above is used for neutral condition. When the condition is not stable, ∆H
needs to be added with a factor that is from 1.1 to 1.2, while when the condition is
stable, ∆H have to be reduced with the factor from 0.8 to 0.9. The calculation steps for
effective height of stack are shown as below.
For flue gas flow, the outer diameter of the standard pipe used is 8.625 in, in which
the thickness of the pipe is 0.148 in. So, the inner pipe diameter = 8.329 in = 0.2116 m.
(332.74 / 3600)
Velocity of flue gas stack, vs   2.6283m / s
  (0.2116) 2 
 
 4 
With the value of v s  2.6283m / s , hs  70m , d  1.3m , u  3.5m / s ,
P  101.325kPa , T  25K , Ts  353.15K @ 800 C , Ta  298.15K @ 250 C .
Height of dispersing plume,
H 
2.6283 1.3  
1.5   2.68  103  101.325  1.3 
353.15  298.15 
 
3.5   353.15 
 1.5180m
211
Effective height of stack, H = 70 + ∆H

= 71.52 m
8.4 WASTEWATER TREATMENT
8.4.1 Introduction
The wastewater coming out from wet scrubber consists of un-reacted NaOH, sodium
bicarbonate and sodium formate. These wastewater needs to be treated before it can be
released to river. Table 8.2 below showed the component flow rate to wastewater
treatment plant. Calculations are as follows:
2 NaOH  CO 2  Na 2 CO3  H 2 O
2mol of NaOH are required to react with 1mol of CO2,
Therefore 54.8 kmol/hr of NaOH is required to react with 27.4 kmol/hr of CO 2 to
produce 27.4 kmol/hr of sodium bicarbonate.
NaOH  CO  HCOONa
1mol of NaOH are required to react with 1mol of CO,
Therefore 27.4 kmol/hr of NaOH is required to react with 27.4 kmol/hr of CO to
produce 27.4 kmol/hr of sodium formate.
Table 8.2: Component flow rate of wastewater

Component Molar flow rate (kmol/hr) Volumetric flow rate (m3/hr)
Un-reacted NaOH(aq) 920.27 17.28
Sodium bicarbonate 27.4 1.06
Sodium formate 27.4 0.97
Total 975.07 19.3
8.4.2 Regulatory Analysis for Wastewater
According to Environmental Quality (Industrial Effluent) Regulations 2009, the

wastewater coming out from the plant has to adhere to Standard B where the effluent
212
will be discharged to South China Sea. Table 8.3 below showed the acceptable
conditions for discharge of industrial effluent or mixed effluent of Standard B where
the maleic anhydride plant has to adhere according to Fifth Schedule and Seventh
Schedule (Regulation 12) for other industries of EQ (Industrial Effluent) Regulations
2009.
Table 8.3: Environment Parameters for Standard B

Parameter Maximum Value (mg/L)
pH 5.5 – 9
BOD5 50
COD 200
Total Suspended Solids 100
According to First Schedule (Regulation 2) of Environmental Quality

(Scheduled Waste) Regulations 2005, mineral sludges including calcium hydroxide
sludges, phosphating sludges, calcium sulphite sludges and carbonates sludges are
considered as schedule waste. In this case, sodium bicarbonate is carbonates sludge
and therefore the handling of this sludge has to adhere to EQ (Scheduled Waste)
Regulations 2005.
8.4.3 Wastewater Treatment Process
The simplified waste treatment plant flow diagram is shown in Figure 8.3. Incoming
wastewater is pumped from the wet scrubber at the beginning of the treatment primary
pH adjustment tank. The pH adjustment tank used to adjust the pH of the incoming
wastewater to desired pH. Neutralization of alkaline waste streams (NaOH) involves
reducing the pH, usually by adding an acidic chemical, such as HCl. This pH
adjustment tanks utilizes high speed mixer sized to properly blend the incoming
wastewater and the added adjustment chemicals (HCl) within the detention time of the
mixing tank. Besides that, pH analyzers that have been selected with proper probe will
be used for each application. This is a complete integration system with a complete
system control panel.
213
The true core of the treatment process is biological treatment, which is carried
out as an active process. In this wastewater treatment process, activated sludge process
is used. Activated sludge is a process dealing with the treatment of sewage or
industrial wastewaters. Atmospheric air is introduced to a mixture of primary treated
wastewater combined with organisms to develop a biological floc which reduces the
organic content of the sewage. The combination of raw sewage (or industrial
wastewater) and biological mass is commonly known as Mixed Liquor. Once the
sewage (or industrial wastewater) has received sufficient treatment in aeration tank,
excess mixed liquor is discharged into clarifier tanks. In the clarifier tank, part of the
settled material, the sludge, is returned to the head of the aeration system to re-seed
the new sewage (or industrial wastewater) entering the tank. This fraction of the floc
is called Return Activated Sludge (R.A.S.). Excess sludge which eventually
accumulates beyond what is returned is called Waste Activated Sludge (W.A.S.).
W.A.S is removed from the treatment process to keep the ratio of biomass to food
supplied (sewage or wastewater) in balance. This is called the F:M ratio. W.A.S is
stored away from the main treatment process in storage tanks and is further treated by
digestion, either under anaerobic or aerobic conditions prior to disposal.
Figure 8.3: Process Flow Diagram for Waste Treatment Plant
217
8.4.4 Detailed Design of Wastewater Treatment Unit Operation
In this section, we will carry out some calculation on the design of wastewater treatment
units.
Effluent flow rate = 19.3m3/hr

19.3m 3 1000L
= x
hr 1m 3
= 19300 L/hr
C 4 H 10  3.5O2  C 4 H 2 O3  4 H 2 O
O2
Effluent COD Concentration = molecular weight of x concentration of C4H10
C 4 H 10
32
= x2064.64mg / L
58
= 1139.11 mg/L
1139.11
Ratio of COD/BOD =
800
= 1.14
From the calculation, we noticed that the value of COD and BOD is a little bit too high,
therefore it has to be reduced to reach the standard B. The value of COD and BOD in
standard B is shown in table 8.4.
Table 8.4: COD and BOD Value for Effluent Content and Standard B
Parameter Effluent Content Standard B
(mg/L) (mg/L)
COD 1139.11 100
BOD5 at 20°C 800 50
218
The operation units for wastewater treatment plant dependant on the physical and chemical
properties of effluent.
a) pH Adjustment Tank
Volumetric flow rate of influent = 19.3 m3/hr = 19300 L/hr

m 3 24hr
Average flow rate of wastewater per day = 19.3   463.2m 3 / day
hr 1day
Space time for the sludge to be stable, τ = 3 hours
Volume of pH adjustment tank = Volumetric flow rate of influent X space time
1day
= 463.2m / day   3hour
3
24hour
= 57.9 m3
Assume the tank is rectangular:

Depth of tank = 5 m, Ratio of depth to length = 1:1
57.9
Width =  2.32m
5 5
Area of the tank, A = 2.32 X 5.0 = 11.58m2
b) Aeration tank

m 3 24hr
hr 1day
Volume of aeration tank = Volumetric flow rate of influent X space time

1day
= 463.2m / day   2hour
3
24hour
= 38.6 m3
219
Assume the tank is rectangular:

Depth of tank = 4m, Ratio of depth to length = 1:1
38.6
Width =  2.4m
4 4
Area of the tank, A = 2.4X 4.0 = 9.65 m2
For the aeration tank,
The percentage of COD remove =92%

The percentage of COD remaining =8%
COD remaining = 0.08X 1139.11 mg/L = 91.13 mg/L
The percentage of BOD remove = 95%

The percentage of BOD remaining = 5%
BOD remaining = 0.05 X 800 mg/L = 40mg/L
The percentage of SS remove = 30%

The percentage of SS remaining = 70%
SS remaining = 0.70 X 385 mg/L = 269.50 mg/L
c) Clarifier

m 3 24hr
hr 1day
Volume of clarifier = Volumetric flow rate of influent X space time

1day
= 463.2m / day   3hour
3
24hour
= 57.9 m3
220
Assume the tank is square:

Depth of tank = 4m, Ratio of depth to length = 1:1
57.9
Width of tank =  3 .8 m
4
Area of the tank, A = (3.8)2= 14.48 m2
The percentage of SS remove = 70%

The percentage of SS remaining = 30%
SS remaining = 0.30 X 269.50 mg/L = 80.85 mg/L
8.5 SUMMARY ON COD, BOD REMOVAL EFFICIENCY IN EACH UNIT
8.5.1 COD Removal
Table 8.5: COD Removal Efficiency in Each Processing Unit

Processing Unit Percentage of COD Influent Effluent
Removal (mg/L) (mg/L)
Sedimentation Tank 60% 1139.11 455.64
Aeration Tanks 80% 455.64 91.13
8.5.2 BOD Removal
Table 8.6: BOD Removal Efficiency in Each Processing Unit

Processing Unit Percentage of BOD Influent Effluent
Removal (mg/L) (mg/L)
Sedimentation Tank 60% 800 320
Aeration Tanks 85% 320 48
222
CHAPTER IX
UTILITY DESIGN
For maleic anhydride plant, the utilities required are cooling water, steam, and fuel
(natural gas). Thus, in this chapter, the amounts of these utilities usage are calculated and
those utility systems are designed.
9.1 COOLING SYSTEM
Cooling tower is a very important part of many chemical plants. They have a relatively
inexpensive and dependable means of removing low grade heat from cooling water.
Mechanical draft counterflow cooling tower is used in our plant. The tower
utilizes large fan to force air through circulated water. The water falls downward over fill
surfaces which help increase the contact time between the water and the air. This helps
maximize heat transfer between them. The counterflow tower occupies less floor space
than a crossflow tower. The figure below show the structure of mechanical draft
counterflow tower.
223
Figure 9.1: Mechanical Draft Counterflow Tower
Figure 9.1 show the cooling system in our plant. The heat exchanger that need to use
cooling water as a cooling medium are cooler E-2, cooler E-3, cooler E-5, reactor cooling
system (cooler), condenser located at the outlet of distillation column, and condenser
located at the steam system. After exchange heat with plant heat exchanger, hot water will
flow to the cooling tower to cool down to 25oC. Then, the cold water from cooling tower
is pump to plant heat exchanger again and repeat the cycles. The make-up water source is
used to replenish water lost to evaporation. Hot water from heat exchangers is sent to the
cooling tower. The water exits the cooling tower and is sent back to the exchangers or to
other units for further cooling.
Figure 9.2: Closed Loop Cooling Tower System

224
9.1.1 Cooling Water Usage
a) Cooler E-2
Q = 428.54 kW
For hot stream (n-butane): Mass flow rate of n-butane = 15925.48 kg/hr
Tin = 90oC
Tout = 39oC
For cold stream (cooling water): Tin: 25oC

Tout: 55oC
Mass flow rate of cooling water, mcw:

kJ
428.54 kw  mcw  4.187  (50  25)
kg.K
mcw = 4.094 kg/s

3600s
 4.094kg / s 
1hr
= 14738.42 kg/hr
b) Cooler E-3
Q = 937.07 kW
Inlet temperature of hot stream = 151.5 oC
Outlet temperature of hot stream = 132 oC

Tout: 55oC
225
937.07
Mass flow rate of cooling water, mcw 
(55  25)4.181
= 7.471 kg/s
3600s
 7.471kg / s 
1hr
= 26895.10 kg/hr
c) Cooler E-5
Q = 16, 333 kW
For hot stream (Dibutyl Phthalate solvent, DBP): Mass flow rate of = 91,520.60 kg/hr
Tin= 351.43 oC
Tout = 30 oC

Tout: 55oC
16333
Mass flow rate of cooling water, mcw: 
(55  25)4.181
= 130.216 kg/s
3600s
 130.216kg / s 
1hr
= 468777.80 kg/hr
d) Reactor cooling system (cooler)
For hot stream (molten salt): Tin: 280oC

Tout: 200oC

226
Tout: 55oC
Mass flow rate of cooling water, mcw:

kJ
1050kw  mcw  4.187  (55  25)
kg.K
mcw = 8.539 kg/s

3600s
mcw  8.359kg / s 
1hr
= 30093.15 kg/hr
e) Condenser
Q = 24252 kW
For hot stream (organic vapour with maleic anhydride):
Total Mass flow of organic vapor, mv = 45683.97 kg/hr = 12.70kg/s
Tin = 234.9oC
Tout = 149.3oC

Tout: 55oC
24252
Mass flow rate of cooling water, mcw 
(55  25)4.181
= 193.35 kg/s
3600s
 193.35 kg / s 
1hr
= 696 060 kg/hr
Table 9.1: Summary of Cooling Water Flow Rate for each Plant Heat exchanger
227
Heat exchanger Cooling water flow rate (kg/hr)

Cooler E-2 14738.42
Cooler E-3 26895.10
Cooler E-5 468777.80
Reactor cooling system (cooler) 30093.15
Condenser (MA plant) 696060
Condenser for steam system

1058436.00
(refer to section 5.2.5)
Total cooling water supply: 2295000
Density of water = 1000 kg/m3

Thus, total volume of cooling water supply,
= 2295000 kg/hr x (1/1000) m3/kg
= 2295 m3/hr
= 2295 m3/hr x 24hr/day
= 55080 m3/day
9.1.2 Design Considerations
Once a tower characteristic has been established, the required tower size will be a
function of:
i. Cooling range
ii. Approach to wet bulb temperature
iii. Mass flow rate of water
iv. Wet bulb temperature
v. Air velocity through tower or individual tower cell
vi. Tower height
Information of cooling tower in Maleic anhydride plant:

228
Hot-water temperature T1, = 55oC = 131°F

Cold-water temperature T2, = 25oC = 77°F
Wet-bulb temperature tw, = 70°F
Water rate = 2295m3/hr x 24 hr/day x 1day/ 60min x 264.17 gal/1m3
= 242508 gal/min
Figure 9.3: Sizing chart for a counterflow induced-draft cooling tower (Perry Chemical
Engineer’s Handbook)
A straight line on Figure 9.3, connecting the points representing the design water and wet-
bulb temperatures, shows that a water concentration of 1.25 gal/(min/ft2) is required.
𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑

The area of the tower is calculated, = 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
242508 gal /min
= 𝑚𝑖𝑛
1.25 𝑔𝑎𝑙 /( )
𝑓𝑡 2
= 294006 ft2
= 194006 ft2 x (0.3048m x 0.3048m)/1ft 2
= 18024 m2
General rules are usually used to determine tower heights depending on the necessary
time of contact are shown in table below:
229
Table 9.2: General Rules Used to Determine Tower Heights

Approach to Wet Bulb (oF) Cooling Range (oF) Tower Height (ft)
15-20 25-35 15-20
10-15 25-35 25-30
5-10 25-35 35-40
(source: cheresources,2008)
From the table, we know that typical tower height for this cooling tower is in the range
15-20 ft. Let say, the cooling tower’s height is 18ft = 4.57m
Other design characteristics to consider are fan horsepower, pump horsepower,

make-up water source, fogging abatement, and drift eliminators.
9.1.3 Water Make-up
Make-up requirements for a cooling tower consist of the evaporation loss, drift loss, and
blowdown.
Wm = We + Wd + Wb
where: Wm is make up water,

We is evaporation loss
Wd is drift loss, and
Wb is blowndown
All consistent units are in m3/h.

230
(a) Evaporation loss

Evaporation loss, We = 0.00085Wc(T1-T2)
Where Wc = circulating water flow, m3/hr at tower inlet
T1 and T2 are inlet water temperature minus outlet water temperature, oF
Thus,
We = 0.00085 x 2295m3/hr x (131°F -77°F) x 1.8
= 189.61 m3/hr
(b) Drift is entrained water in the tower discharge vapors. Drift loss is a function of
the drift-eliminator design, which typically varies between 0.1 and 0.2 percent of
the water supplied to the tower. Thus,
Drift loss, Wd = 2295m3/hr x 0.002 = 4.59 m3/hr
(c) Blowdown discards a portion of the concentrated circulating water due to the
evaporation process in order to lower the system solids concentration. Cycles of
concentration involved with cooling-tower operation normally range from three to
five cycles. Five cycles are selected for this cooling tower.
Wb = We / (cycles - 1)
= 189.61 m3/hr / (5-1)
= 47.40 m3/ hr
Thus,
Amount of make up water, Wm
= 189.61 m3/hr + 4.59 m3/hr + 47.40 m3/hr
= 241.6 m3/hr
9.2 STEAM SYSTEM

231
In this steam system, raw water is feed to demineralization plant for treatment before it is
fed to boiler. Then, the treated water is pumped to the boiler and heat up to 400 oC
superheated steam. The superheated steam generated is used to supply the steam for plant
boiler and heater, and supply steam for steam turbine to generate electricity. After supply
heat for plant boiler and heater, the steam is flow to the steam condenser to condense. The
steam at outlet of steam turbine is also will flow to the condenser. Water from the
condenser will recycle back to the demineralization plant and undergo same process again.
Figure 9.4: Overall Steam System
Table 9.3: Summary of power required for each component

Component Power,Q (kW)
Compressor CP-1 4528.934
Boiler E-1 1485.233
Boiler E-4 14312.311
Heater E-6 464.199
Reboiler 456.630
9.2.1 Steam usage to generate power by steam turbine
232
In this Maleic anhydride plant, steam turbine is used to generate power to supply the
compressor CP-1.
Power of compressor CP-1 = 4528.934 kW
Let: Mass flow rate of superheated steam supply to steam turbine = m1

Mass flow rate of superheated steam leaving steam turbine = m2
Inlet steam temperature = 400oC
Outlet steam temperature = 125oC
Inlet pressure = 200kPa
Outlet pressure = 150kPa
Enthalpy of superheated steam supply steam turbine, h1 = 3276.7 kJ/kg
Enthalpy of superheated steam leaving steam turbine, h2 = 2721.5 kJ/kg
m1h1 = m2 h2 + Q, m1 = m2 = m
m(h1-h2) = Q
m (3276.7 kJ/kg - 2721.5 kJ/kg) = 4528.934 kW
m = 8.1573 kg/s
Therefore, total steam required for steam turbine to generate 4528.934 kW is 8.1573 kg/s.
9.2.2 Steam Supply from Boiler to Maleic Anhydride Plant
If we know the heat transfer rate, the amount of steam can be calculated:
ms = q / he = q/ 2085 kJ/k
where: ms = mass of steam (kg/s)

q = calculated heat transfer (kW)
he = evaporation energy of the steam (kJ/kg) =2085 kJ/kg
Table 9.4: Calculation of Steam Supply Flow Rate

Component Heat transfer, q (kW) Steam supply flow rate,ms (kg/s)
233
Boiler E-1 1485.233 0.7123

Boiler E-4 14312.311 6.8644
Heater E-6 464.199 0.2226
Reboiler 456.630 0.2190
Total steam supply: 8.0183
Thus, Total steam supply = total steam supply + total steam required for steam turbine
= 8.0183 kg/s + 8.1573 kg/s
= 16.1756 kg/s
= 16.1756 kg/s x 3600s/hr x 24 hr /day
= 1397571.84 kg/day
At 400oC and 200kPa, specific volume of superheated steam = 1549.2 cm3/g
Density of steam = 1/ (1549.2 cm3/g)

= 0.00065 g/cm3
= 0.00065 g/cm3 x (1kg/1000g) x (1000000cm3/m3)
= 0.65 kg/m3
Total steam supply = (1397571.84 kg/day) / (0.65 kg/m3)

= 215012.06 m3/day
9.2.3 Fuel Supply to Boiler
For boiler, Inlet temperature (water) = 25oC

Outlet temperature (superheated steam) = 400oC
Specific heat capacity of water is 4.19 kJ/kg.oC
Heat transfer rate, q = (16.1756 kg/s) (4.19 kJ/kg.oC) (400oC - 25oC)

= 25415.91 kW
234
Let, mass of fuel (natural gas) supply to boiler = mfuel
Heating value of natural gas = 21000 Btu/lb

𝐽
𝐵𝑡𝑢 2326 .1 1𝑘𝐽
𝑘𝑔
= 21000 𝑥 1𝐵𝑡𝑢 𝑥
𝑙𝑏 1000 𝐽
𝑙𝑏
= 48848.1 kJ/kg
mfuel = q / heating value of natural gas

= 25415.91 kW / 48848.1 kJ/kg
= 0.5203 kg/s
= 0.5203 kg/s x 3600s/hr x 24 hr /day
= 44954.35 kg/day
9.2.4 Boiler Design in Steam System
a) Heat duty calculation
Calculate heat duty for this boiler that generating 58232.16 kg/h at 200 kPa and 400 oC
Water inlet temperature = 125 oC
Steam and water properties:

Superheated steam enthalpy at 2 kPa and 400 oC = 3274.890 kJ/kg
Saturated water enthalphy = 2711 kJ/kg
Heat duty = 58232.16 × (3274-2711)

= 32 MW
Usually 1-3% of the water flow is used for blowdown.

Considering 2% blowdown, heat in blowdown water
235
= 58232.16 (0.02)(295-125)
= 198 kW
Total heat duty = 32 + 0.198

= 32.198 MW
b) Area of the boiler
Oil flow rate = 44954.35 kg/day

= 44954.35/86400
= 0.52 kg/s
Duty = 32198 kW
Steam flow-rate = 58232.16 kg/h
From figure 12.1 (Coulson & Richardson, Chemical Engineering Design), for steam and
heavy organic liquid as fuel supply to boiler, take:
U = 300 Wm-2 C-1
Area required for the boiler is = 32198 × 103 /(300×275)

= 390 m2
Boiler design required from calculation:

Required superheated steam flowrate = 58232.16 kg/h
Required fuel flowrate = 0.52 kg/s
Total heat duty = 32.198 MW
Area required for the boiler = 390 m2
9.2.5 Condenser Design in Steam System

236
The superheated steam from plant boiler and heater and also the steam from the steam
turbine will flow to condenser to condense before entering the demineralization plant
again. The cooling medium is cooling water which supply by cooling tower. The
condenser design is one shell pass, two tube passes, pull-through floating head with each
tubes dimension of 20 mm o.d., 16.8 mm i.d., 4.88 m long of steel and square pitch
arrangement. The operating pressure = 120 kPa.
For hot stream (steam):

Mass flow of steam, mv = 16.1756 kg/s
Inlet temperature = 125oC
Enthalpy at inlet temperature = 2724 kJ/kg
Outlet temperature = 75oC
Enthalpy at outlet temperature = 444.356 kJ/kg
16.1765 kg kJ
Heat transferred from steam, Qv = x (2724 − 444.356) kg
s
= 36877 𝑘𝑊
For cold stream (cool water):

Inlet temperature = 25 oC
Outlet temperature = 55 oC
(25  55)o C
Cooling water mean temperature =  40o C
2
Cooling water capacity at 40oC = 4.181kJ/kg.K
36877
Cooling water flow, mcw   294.01 kg/s = 1058436 kg/hr
(55  25)4.181
T1 = 125oC
t2= 55°C T2 = 75 °C
237
t1 = 25°C
(125  55)  (75  25)

Log mean temperature, ∆Tlm   59.44o C
(125  55)
ln
(75  25)
(125  75)
R  1.67
(55  25)
(55  25)
S  0.3
(125  25)
Use a horizontal exchanger, condensation in the shell, two tube passes.
For one shell pass, two tube passes, from figure 12.19,
Ft = 0.93.
∆Tm = 0.93 x 59.44 = 55.28oC

Q = UAΔT
36877 x103
Total Area required, A   741.22 m 2
900x55.28
Select tubes of 20 mm o.d., 16.8 mm i.d., 4.88 m long of steel, square pitch.
Surface area of one tube = 20 x 10-3 x  x 4.88 = 0.305 m2
741.22
Number of tubes   2430
0.305
Use square pitch, Pt  1.25x20mm  25mm
1
2430 2.263
Tube bundle diameter, Db  20( )  1417 mm
0.158
Db 1417
Number of tubes in centre row, Nr    57
Pt 25
238
Shell diameter, Ds = 1417mm + 97 mm = 1514 mm
a) Tube-side coefficient (Cooling water)
 2430
Tube cross-sectional area  x(16.8 x103 ) 2 x  0.2693m 2
4 2
55  25
At mean temperature, t   40 o C
2
Density of water, ρL  992.26 kg / m 3
294.01 1
Water linear velocity, ut  992.26 x 0.2693  1.1m / s
4200(1.35  0.02x40)1.10.8
hi  0.2
 5543 W / m 2o C
16.8
b) Shell-side coefficient (steam)
125  75
Mean temp, Shell-side   100 o C
2
55  25
Tube-side   40 o C
2
Assume that the condensing coefficient, ho = 1500 W/m2oC

(100 – Tw) 1500 = (100 – 40) (1000)
Tw = 60oC
100  60
Mean Temperature Condensate   80 o C
2
Physical properties at 80 oC: 𝜇𝐿 = 0.0003565 Pa. s
𝜌𝐿 = 971.83 kg/m3
𝑘𝐿 = 0.668 W/𝑚 𝑜 𝐶
239
Vapor density at mean vapor temperature.

Density of vapor, ρv  0.71 kg / m 3
Wc
Horizontal tube loading, Ґh 
LN t
1
 16.1756kg / s x
4.88m x 2430
 0.0014 kg / s m
Average no. of tube in vertical tube row, Nr  2 x57  38

3
Heat transfer coefficient, hc

𝜌 𝐿 𝜌 𝐿 −𝜌 𝑉 𝑔 1/3
= 0.95 𝑥 𝑘𝐿 𝑁𝑟 −1/6
𝜇 𝐿 𝛤𝑕
971 .83 971.83−0.71 9.81 1/3

= 0.95 𝑥 0.668 38−1/6
0.0003565 𝑥 0.0014
= 5146 W/𝑚2 𝑜 𝐶
c) Overall Coefficient
Using the fouling factors as 3000W/m2oC for each side,
Wall thermal conductivity, k w = 50 W/m2oC
do
d o ln
1 1 1 di do 1 d 1
   ( x )( o x
U o ho hod 2k w d i hid d i hi )
20
20x103 ln( )
1 1 1 16.8 20 1 20 1
  ( ) x  x
U 5146 3000 2 x50 16.8 3000 16.8 5543
U  851W / m 2o C
240
Close to estimate.
d) Shell-side Pressure Drop
Shell diameter, Ds = 1417mm + 97 mm = 1514 mm
Baffle spacing, lb = shell diameter, Ds

= 1514 mm
( PT  d o ) Ds  B (25  20)
Cross-flow area, As   x 1514 x1514 x 10 6  0.458m 2
PT 25
Ws 1
Mass velocity, G s   16.1756x  35.32 kg / sm 2
As 0.458
G s 35.32
Velocity, us    0.71  49.75 m / s
v
1.27 2 2
Equivalent diameter, d e  d ( PT  0.785d o )
o
1.27
 (252  0.785x202 )
20
 19.8 mm
vapor viscosity = 0.0002838 Pa.s
ud i (35.32)(19.8 x10 3 )

Re    2464.19
 0.0002838
From figure 12.30, 45% cut, jf = 4.2 x 10-2,

241
Take pressure drop as 50 per cent of that calculated using the inlet flow; neglect viscosity
correction.
1 D s L   0.14 u s 
2
Ps  8 j f ( )( )( ) 
2  de  B w 2 
1  2 1514 4.88 0.71x49.752 

Ps  8 x 4.2 x10 ( )( ) 
2 19.8 1.514 2 
= 36381 N / m2
= 36.38 kPa
e) Tube-side Pressure Drop
Viscosity of cooling water at 40oC = 6.6 x10-4 Pa.s

ud i 992.26 x1.1x16.8 x103
Reynolds number, Re    27783.28
 6.6 x104
From figure 12.24, jf = 3.8 x10-3

Neglect viscosity correction.
L  x ut 2
Pressure drop, ∆Pt  N p [8 x j f x ( d )  2.5] 2

i
4.88 992.26 x1.12

 2[8 x 3.8x103 x ( )  2.5]
16.8x103 2
 13603.76N / m2
 13.60 kPa
Acceptable.
242
CHAPTER X
ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
10.1 PROFITABLE ANALYSIS
The propose of this analysis is to estimate total cost to build a maleic anhydride
production plant that will be constructed at Gebeng, Kuantan in order can analyze the
profit accurately and worth pursuing financially. Another objectives are:
a) Enable to make sure whether the planed project will make profit or not.
b) Allow company to consider about the alternative investment.
c) Help to decide the alternative design for the plant.
d) Estimate total capital investment to build the plant.
10.2 MARKET AND RECOMMENDED PRODUCTION CAPACITY
Commonly, demand of maleic anhydride is depend on the production of unsaturated

polyester resin, 1,4-butanediol, fumaric acid, lube oil additives, agricultural and so on.
Global demand of Maleic Anhydride (MA) (as of 2009) = 17 49000 tonnes / yr

Global production capacity of MA (as of 2009) = 14 35000 tonnes / yr
Taking 60% from the difference between demand and production capacity,
Therefore, our plant production capacity is = 0.6 x (1749000 – 1435000)
= 204600 tonnes/ yr
= 200 kt /yr (rounded up)
243
10.3 THE PRICES OF PRODUCT
The main product that produces from this plant is maleic anhydride. The price of maleic
Anhydride on August 2009 is RM 4587.20 per tonne.
10.4 PLANT SPECIFICATION
Table 10.1: Plant specification

Information Estimated data
Design life 25 years
Period of Planning and Construction Plant 2010-2035
Operation Years 2011-2035
Product Price (RM/tonne) 4587.20
Percentage Increase Plant Capacity per Year First Year (2010) – 50%
Second Year (2011) – 80%
Third Year (2012) – 90%
Fourth Year (2013) – 100%
10.5 COST ESTIMATION
10.5.1 Total Capital Investment
Total capital investment, CTC is the sum of capital required to provide facilities in the
plant, start plant operation and acquire land for the site to construct the plant.
𝐶𝑇𝐶 = 𝐶𝐹𝐶 + 𝐶𝑊𝐶 + 𝐶𝐿
where : CTC = Total investment cost
CFC = Fixed capital investment
CWC = Working capital
CL = Capital to purchase land for the plant
244
10.5.2 Fixed Capital Investment, CFC
Fixed capital investment may be divided into components:

a) Manufacturing fixed capital investment, or commonly known as direct costs.
b) Non-manufacturing fixed capital investment, or commonly known as indirect
costs.
10.5.2.1 Direct Costs
i) Purchased Equipment Cost
A) Maleic Anhydride Plant Equipment:
 Boiler E-1
Size, S = 15, 925 kg/hr
Refer to http://matche.com/EquipCost, Cost of Boiler E-1 in year 2007 = RM 2,000,000
From Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI):
Index CEPCI 2007 = 525.4
Cost of Boiler E-1 = RM 2,000,000 x (631.9 / 525.4)

= RM 2,405,405
= RM 2,410,000
 Compressor CP-1
Size, S = 4.53x103 kW
Refer to http://matche.com/EquipCost, Cost of compressor in year 2007 = RM 5,000,000
245
Cost of Compressor CP-1 = RM 5,000,000 x (631.9 / 525.4)

= RM 6,013,514
= RM 6,015,000
 Cooler E-2
Q = 428.54 kW
For hot stream (n-butane): Mass flow rate of n-butane = 15925.48 kg/hr
Tin = 90oC
Tout = 39oC
Tout: 55oC
kJ
Mass flow rate of cooling water, mcw: 428.54 kw  mcw  4.187  (50  25)
kg.K
mcw = 4.094 kg/s

3600s
 4.094kg / s 
1hr
= 14738.42 kg/hr
Log mean temperature difference, ∆𝑇lm = 22.92 oC
R = 1.7, S = 0.46
From figure 12.20 ( Sinott R.K 2005), for two shell passes and four tube passes, Ft = 0.9
𝑇m = 0.9 x 22.92 oC = 20.63 oC
Overall coefficient, U assume = 500 W/ oC m2
Area required, A= 𝑄 𝑈∆𝑇𝑚 = 41.55 m2
Refer to http://matche.com/EquipCost, Cost of cooler E-2 in year 2007 = RM 2,200,000

246
Cost of Cooler E-2 = RM 2,200,000 x (631.9 / 525.4)

= RM 2,645,946
= RM 2,700,000
 Heat Exchanger E-3

Q = 10, 847 kW
Pressure = 250 kPa ≈ 2.5 bar
Mass flow rate = 139 982.19 kg/hr
0
Log mean temperature difference, ∆𝑇lm = 31 C
R = 0.90, S = 0.10
From figure 12.19 (Sinott R.K 2005), Ft = 0.85
𝑇m = 0.85 x 31oC = 26.35oC
Overall coefficient U assume = 300 W/ 0C m2
Refer to http://matche.com/EquipCost, Cost of Heat Exchanger E-3 in year 2007 =

RM 1,000,000

Cost of Heat Exchanger E-3 = RM 1,000,000 x (631.9 / 525.4)

= RM 1,202,703
= RM 1,203,000
 Reactor R-1
Size, S=91.25 m3
Refer to http://matche.com/EquipCost, Cost of Reactor R-1 in year 2007 = RM 2,500,000
247

Cost of Reactor R-1 = RM 2,500,000 x (631.9 / 525.4)

= RM 3,006,757
= RM 3,007,000
 Reactor cooling system (cooler)

For hot stream (molten salt): Tin  2800 C , Tout  2000 C ,
Q  mCT
kJ
1050kw  m  1.23  (280  200)
kg.K
3600s
mhot  10.67kg / s 
1h
 3.84  10 4 kg / h
For cold stream (cooling water): Tin  25 C , Tout  550 C ,

0
kJ
1050kw  mcw  4.187  (55  25)
kg.K
3600s
mcw  8.36kg / s 
1h
 3.01x 10 4 kg / h

R = 2.67, S = 0.18
From figure 12.19( Sinott R.K 2005), Ft = 0.96
𝑇m = 0.96 x 198.97 oC = 191.01 oC
248
Area required, A= 𝑄 𝑈∆𝑇𝑚 = 11 m2
From figure 6.3 b (Sinott R.K 2005): Bare vessel cost = $ 8, 000 (in year 2004)
Pressure factor = 1.0
Type factor (U-tube) = 0.85
For vessel cost = (bare cost from figure) x Pressure factor x Type factor
= $8, 000 x 1.0 x 0.85
= $6, 800
= RM 26,000
So, Cost of the cooler = RM 26,000 x (631.9 / 444.2)

= RM37, 000
 Absorber C-1
Vessel Height = 11.15 m
Diameter, d = 2.75 m
Number of tray = 16
Type of column plate = Sieve
Material =carbon steel
Pressure = 200kPa = 2 bar
Refer to http://matche.com/EquipCost, Cost of Absorber C-1 in year 2007 = RM 450,000

Cost of Absorber C-1 = RM 450,000 x (631.9 / 525.4)

= RM 541,216
= RM 542,000
249
 Boiler E-4
Size, S = 116, 624 kg/hr
Refer to http://matche.com/EquipCost, Cost of Boiler E-4 in year 2007 = RM 9,000,000
Cost of Boiler E-4 = RM 9,000,000 x (631.9 / 525.4)

= RM 10,824,324
= RM 10,900,000
 Distillation Column C-2

Vessel Height, H = 8.4 m
Number of tray = 14
Material = carbon manganese steel
Pressure = 143kPa = 1.43 bar
Refer to http://matche.com/EquipCost, Cost of Distillation column C-2 in year 2007 =
RM 550,000

Cost of Distillation column C-2 = RM 550,000 x (631.9 / 525.4)

= RM 661,486
= RM 662,000
250
 Condenser
Q = 24252 kW
For hot stream (organic vapour with maleic anhydride):
Total Mass flow of organic vapor, mv = 45683.97 kg/hr
Tin = 234.9oC
Tout = 149.3oC
For cold stream (cooling water): Tin= 25oC
Tout = 55oC
24252
Mass flow rate of cooling water, mcw: 
(55  25)4.181
= 193.35kg/s
3600s
 193.35 kg / s 
1hr
= 696060.00 kg/hr

For one shell pass, two tube passes, from figure 12.19, Ft = 0.97.
∆Tm = 0.97 x 150.4 = 145.9oC
Q = UAΔT
24252 x103
900x145.9
Refer to http://matche.com/EquipCost, Cost of condenser in year 2007 = RM 200,000

Cost of condenser = RM 200,000 x (631.9 / 525.4)

= RM 240,541
= RM 241,000
251
 Reboiler
Area of reboiler = 10.53 m2
Refer to http://matche.com/EquipCost, Cost of reboiler in year 2007 = RM 47,000
Cost of reboiler = RM 47,000 x (631.9 / 525.4)

= RM 56,527
= RM 57,000
 Cooler E-5
Q = 16, 333 kW
For hot stream (Dibutyl Phthalate solvent, DBP): Mass flow rate of = 91,520.60 kg/hr
Tin= 351.43 oC
Tout = 30 oC
Tout: 55oC

R = 10.71, S = 0.09
From figure 12.19(Sinott R.K 2005), Ft = 0.88
𝑇m = 0.88 x 71.39 oC = 62.82 oC
Area required, A= 𝑄 𝑈∆𝑇𝑚 = 520 m2
From figure 6.3 b (Sinott R.K 2005):

Bare vessel cost = $ 100, 000 (in year 2004)
Type factor (Floating head) = 1.0
252
= $100, 000 x 1.0 x 1.0
= $100, 000
= RM 380, 000

So, Cost of the cooler = RM 380, 000 x (631.9 / 444.2)

= RM 540, 000
 Pump
Power = 1.837 kW
Refer to http://matche.com/EquipCost, Cost of pump in year 2007 = RM 34,000
There have 3 pumps in MA plant,

Thus, cost of pumps = RM 34,000 x 3 = RM 102,000
Cost of pumps = RM 102,000 x (631.9 / 525.4)

= RM 122,676
= RM 123,000
 Heater E-6
Size, S=464.199 kW
Refer to http://matche.com/EquipCost, Cost of heater in year 2007 = RM 280,000
253

Cost of heater = RM 280,000 x (631.9 / 525.4)

= RM 336,757
= RM 337,000
 Cooler E-3
Q = 937.07 kW
Inlet temperature of hot stream = 151.5 oC
Outlet temperature of hot stream = 132 oC
For cold stream (cooling water): Tin = 25oC
Tout = 55oC
R = 0.46, S = 0.25
From figure 12.19( Sinott R.K 2005), Ft = 0.98
𝑇m 0.98 x 98.67 oC = 96.7 oC

Bare vessel cost = $ 8, 000 (in year 2004)
Type factor (U-tube) = 0.85
= $8, 000 x 1.0 x 0.85
= $ 6,800
= RM 25,840
254

So, Cost of the cooler = RM 25,840 x (631.9 / 444.2)

= RM 37,000
 Crystallizer P-1/CR-101
Refer to http://matche.com/EquipCost, Cystallizer type: Batch, Atmospheric
Crystallizer volume = 20,558 L
≈ 21,000 L
≈ 5548 gal
Material: Carbon steel
Cost of crystallizer in year 2007 = $122,900 = RM 467,020
Cost of one product tank = RM 467,020 x (631.9 / 525.4)

= RM 560,000
 Filter P-2/UF-101
Capacity = 20,178 L/hr
≈ 20.2 m3/hr
Type: Plate and frame
Material: Cast iron
Size, S ≈ 25 m3
Refer to http://matche.com/EquipCost, Cost of filter in year 2007 = RM 230,000

255
Cost of Filter P-2/UF-101 = RM 230,000 x (631.9 / 525.4)

= RM 276,622
= RM 277,000
 Tray Drying P-3/TDR-101

Refer to http://matche.com/EquipCost, Dryer type: Tray, Atmospheric
Dryer surface area: 200 ft 2
Material: Carbon Steel
Cost of tray drying in year 2007 = $ 21,400 = RM 81,320
Cost of one product tank = RM 81,320 x (631.9 / 525.4)

= RM 98,000
 Product tank
Cystal MA produced = 19,398 L/hr
= 19.4 m3/hr
Size, S ≈ 25 m3
Refer to http://matche.com/EquipCost, Cost of product tank in year 2007 = RM 124,600
There have 5 product tanks in MA plant,

Thus, cost of product tank = RM 124,600 x 5 = RM 623,000

Cost of product tank = RM 623,000 x (631.9 / 525.4)

= RM 749,284
= RM 750,000
256
B) Waste Treatment Equipment:
For waste gas treatment plant,
 Wet scrubber
Vessel Height = 12 m
Number of tray = 17
Material =carbon steel
Pressure = 110 kPa = 1.1 bar
Refer to http://matche.com/EquipCost, Cost of Wet scrubber in year 2007 = RM 295,000

Cost of Wet scrubber = RM 295,000 x (631.9 / 525.4)

= RM 354,797
= RM 355,000
 Flue gas stack

Velocity of flue gas stack, v s  2.6283m / s
Height of stack, hs = 70m

Diameter of stack, d = 1.3m
Pressure, P = 101.325kPa
Temperature, T = 353.15K
Refer to http://matche.com/EquipCost, Cost in year 2007 = $ 165, 500 (RM 628, 900)
257

Cost of Stack = RM 628, 900 x (631.9 / 525.4)

= RM 760, 000
For waste water plant,
 pH Adjustment Tank
Size, S = 231 m3
Constant, C = 1750 £
Index, n = 0.6
Cost in year 2004, (Sinott R.K 2005)
Ce = CSn = 1750 £ x 231 0.6
= 45 835£
= RM 246, 592

Cost of pH Adjustment Tank = RM 246, 592 x (631.9 / 444.2)

= RM 350, 000
 Aeration Tank
Size, S = 154.0 m3
Index, n = 0.6
258
Ce = CSn = 1750 £ x 154 0.6

= 35, 938£
= RM 193, 346

Cost of Aeration Tank = RM 193, 346 x (631.9 / 444.2)

= RM 280, 000
 Clarifier
Size, S = 231.0 m3
Index, n = 0.6
Ce = CSn = 1750 £ x 231 0.6
= 45, 835£
= RM 246, 592

Cost of Clarifier = RM 246, 592 x (631.9 / 444.2)

= RM 350, 000
 Dechlorination Tank
Size, S = 231.0 m3
Index, n = 0.6
259

Ce = CSn = 1750 £ x 231 0.6
= 45, 835£
= RM 246, 592

Cost of Dechlorination tank = RM 246, 592 x (631.9 / 444.2)

= RM 350, 000
C) Cooling System Equipment:
 Cooling tower
Water rate = 242508 gal/min
Refer to http://matche.com/EquipCost, Cost in year 2007 = $ 4,082,400 = RM 15,000,000
Cost of Stack = RM 15,000,000 x (631.9 / 525.4)

= RM 18,000,000
D) Steam System Equipment:
 Demineralize water plant

Refer to http://matche.com/EquipCost, Cost in year 2007 = $ 400, 000 = RM 1,520, 000
260
Cost of Demineralize Plant = RM 1,520, 000 x (631.9 / 525.4)

= RM 1,800, 000
 Boiler
Capacity = 16.1756 kg/s = 58232 kg/hr = 128,378 lb/ hr
Refer to http://matche.com/EquipCost,
Boiler type: oil/ gas fired
Material: Carbon steel
Cost of boiler in year 2007 = $ 1,486,100 = RM 5, 647, 180

Cost of boiler = RM 5, 647, 180 x (631.9 / 525.4)

= RM 6,800,000
 Steam turbine
Refer to http://www.netl.doe.gov/energy-analyses/pubs/PELostEstim_FinalReport.pd
Power = 4528.934 kW = 6070 horsepower
Refer to http://matche.com/EquipCost, Cost of steam turbine in year 2007=RM 1,500,000
Cost of steam turbine = RM 1,500,000 x (631.9 / 525.4)

= RM 1,804,054
= RM 1,805,000
261
 Condensor
Q = 36877 𝑘𝑊
For hot stream (steam): Mass flow of steam, mv = 16.1756 kg/s
Inlet temperature = 125oC
Outlet temperature = 75oC
For cold stream (cool water): Inlet temperature = 25 oC
Outlet temperature = 55 oC
Log mean temperature, ∆Tlm  59.44o C

R  1.67 , S  0.3

For one shell pass, two tube passes, from figure 12.19, Ft = 0.93
∆Tm = 0.93 x 59.44 = 55.28oC

Q = UAΔT
36877 x103
900x55.28

Bare vessel cost = $ 120,000 (in year 2004)
Type factor (Floating head) = 1.0
Cost of condenser in year 2004 = (bare cost from figure) x Pressure factor x Type factor
= $ 120, 000 x 1.0 x 1.0
= $120, 000
= RM 456, 000
262

So, Cost of the condenser = RM 456, 000 x (631.9 / 444.2)

= RM 650,000
Table 10.2: Cost estimated for equipments

No of Cost per Cost estimated
Purchased Equipment pieces piece (RM) (RM)
MA plant: Boiler E-1 1 2,410,000 2,410,000
Compressor CP-1 1 6,015,000 6,015,000
Cooler E-2 1 2,700,000 2,700,000
Heat Exchanger E-3 1 1,203,000 1,203,000
Reactor R-1 1 3,007,000 3,007,000
Reactor cooling system

1 37,000 37,000
(cooler)
Absorber C-1 1 542,000 542,000
Boiler E-4 1 10,900,000 10,900,000
Distillation Column C-2 1 662,000 662,000
Condensor 1 241,000 241,000
Reboiler 1 57,000 57,000
Cooler E-5 1 540, 000 540, 000

Pump P-1 3 41,000 123,000
Heater E-6 1 337,000 337,000
Cooler E-3 1 37,000 37,000

Crystallizer P-1/CR-101 1 560,000 560,000
Filter P-2/UF-101 1 277,000 277,000

263
Tray Drying P-3/TDR- 1 98,000 98,000

101
Process tank 5 150,000 750,000
Total: 26,496,000
Waste Treatment 355,000 355,000

Wet scrubber 1
Plant: i) gas
Flue gas stack 1 760, 000 760, 000
Total: 1,115,000
ii) waste water pH Adjustment Tank 1 350, 000 350, 000
Aeration Tank 1 280, 000 280, 000

Clarifier 1 350, 000 350, 000
Dechlorination Tank 1 350, 000 350, 000
Total: 1,330,000
Cooling system Cooling tower 1 18,000,000 18,000,000
Pump 3 34,000 102,000
Total: 18,102,000
Steam system Demineralize water plant 1 1,800, 000 1,800, 000

Boiler 1 6,800,000 6,800,000
Steam turbine 1 1,805,000 1,805,000
Condensor 1 650,000 650,000

Pump 2 34,000 68,000
Total: 11,123,000
Total Equipment Cost: 59 million
264
ii) Equipment Delivery Cost
For pre-design estimates, a delivery allowance of 10% of the purchased equipment cost is
recommended. Thus,
Equipment delivery cost = 0.1 x Total purchased equipment cost
= RM 5,827,600
iii) Equipment Installation Cost
Installation of process equipment involves cost of labour, foundations, supports, platform,

construction expenses and other factors directly related to the erection of the purchased
equipment. Installation costs for equipment are estimated to vary from 25 to 55 percent of
the delivered purchased equipment cost. In this analysis, installation costs for equipment
are assumed as 55% of the delivered purchased equipment cost. Thus,
Purchased equipment installation cost = 0.55 x Delivered equipment cost
= RM 3,206,000
iv) Instrumentation and Controls Cost

Refer to http://www.pceducation.mcmaster.ca/instrumentation/ControlEquipmentCost
 Control valve
Type: Diaphragm valve body
Cost per piece (in year 2003) = $600 = RM 2,280
Index CEPCI 2003 = 402
Cost of control valve (per piece) = RM 2,280 x (631.9/402)
= RM 3,584
 Valve
Type: ball valve
265

Thus, Cost of valve = RM 7,600 x (631.9/402) = RM 11,946
 Pressure controller
Cost per piece (in year 2003) = $3,000 = RM 11,400
Cost of pressure controller (per piece) = RM 11,400 x (631.9/402)
= RM 17,920
 Flow control
Cost of flow controller (per piece) = RM 6,650 x (631.9/402)
= RM 10,453
 Temperature controller
Cost of temperature controller (per piece) = RM 3,800 x (631.9/402)
= RM 5,973
 Level controller
Thus, Cost of level controller = RM 15,200 x (631.9/402) = RM 23,893
266
 Pressure relief valve

Thus, Cost of pressure relief valve (per piece) = RM 11,400 x (631.9/402)
= RM 17,920
 Pressure transmitter
Type: Pressure - electronic
Thus, Cost of pressure transmitter (per piece) = RM 7,600 x (631.9/402)
= RM 11,946
 Flow transmitter
Type: Flow - orifice
Thus, Cost of flow transmitter (per piece) = RM 13,300 x (631.9/402)

= RM 20,906
 Temperature transmitter
Type: Temperature - RTD
267
Thus, Cost of temperature transmitter (per piece) = RM 7,600 x (631.9/402)

= RM 11,946
 Level transmitter
Type: Level-Ultransonic
Thus, Cost of level transmitter = RM 9,500 x (631.9/402)

= RM 14,933
Table 10.3: Summary of Instrumentation and Controls Cost

No of Cost per pieces Cost estimated
Group Item pieces (RM) (RM)
Valves Control valve 22 3,584 57,344
Valve 8 11,946 11,946
Controller Pressure controller 4 17,920 71,680
Flow controller 7 10,453 104,530
Temperature controller 10 5,973 11,946
Level controller 2 23,893 23,893
Pressure relief valve 7 17,920 35,840
Transmitter Pressure transmitter 4 11,946 47,784
Flow transmitter 7 20,906 209,060
Temperature transmitter 10 11,946 23,892
Level transmitter 2 14,933 14,933
Computer Computer 4 3,000 12,000
Total RM 900,000
268
v) Piping Cost
Maleic anhydride plants are considered as a fluid process plant.
Table 10.4: Cost estimated for piping

Cost for piping Percent of purchased equipment cost Cost estimated (RM)
Material 38 22,200,000
Labour 30 17,500,000
Total piping cost RM 39,700,000
vi) Electrical System Cost
To operate a plant, we need to consider the electrical system which consists of power
wiring, lighting, transformation and service, and instrument and control wiring. For most
process plants, the installation cost of electrical systems is estimated to be 15 to 30
percent of the delivered purchase equipment cost. Thus,
Electrical system cost = 0.3 x Delivered equipment cost

= RM 1,850,000
vii) Building Cost
The cost of buildings, including services consists of expenses for labour, materials and
supplies involved in the erection of all buildings connected with the plant. The cost of
building are used for piping to supply water in the building, lighting, air conditioning
system, ventilation and other services that are required in the building.
269
Table 10.5: Cost estimated for building cost

Type of process Percentage of purchased Cost estimated for building
equipment cost cost (RM)
Solid-fluid
(New unit at existing site) 25 14,600,000
viii) Yard Improvement Cost
For most process plants, the cost for yard improvement is approximately 10 to 20 percent
of the purchased equipment cost. Thus,
Yard improvement cost = 0.2 x purchased equipment cost

= RM 11,660,000
ix) Service Facilities Cost
Service facilities are components to provide utilities to the plant as well as other types of
services such as supplying steam, supplying water, supplying power, supplying
compressed air, supplying fuel, facilities for waste treatment and disposal, fire protection
system, maintenance workshop, first-aid items and infirmary, cafeteria equipment and
facilities and so on.
The total cost for service facilities in process plants generally range from 30 to 80
percent of the purchased equipment cost. In this analysis, total cost for service facilities
are estimated as 80 percent of the purchased equipment cost. Thus,
Service Facilities Cost = 0.8 x purchased equipment cost

= RM 46,630,000
270
10.5.2.2 Indirect Costs
i) Engineering and Supervision Cost
The engineering and supervision cost are required for construction design and
engineering, use of internal or licensed software to aid in the design process, production
of computer-based drawings, purchasing, accounting, cost engineering, travel,
communication, home office expenses and overheads.
Engineering and supervision cost is estimated to be approximately 30 percent of

the delivered equipment cost. Therefore, RM 1,750,000 is needed.
ii) Legal Expenses
Legal costs are due to expenses incurred in equipment purchase, drawing out construction
contracts, understanding and complying with local authority requirement and compliance
with environmental and safety requirements. A legal expense is estimated to be 1 to 3
percent of the fixed capital investment, assumed needed RM 14,570,000.
iii) Construction Expenses
Construction expenses are included construction and operation of temporary structures,

purchases and operation of construction machinery and tools, payments to home office
personnel located at construction site, construction payroll, travel and living expenses
taxes and insurance and construction overheads. The construction expenses average
roughly 8 to 10 percent of the fixed capital investment. Thus, assumed needed is about
RM 138,406,000.
271
iv) Constractor’s Fee
It represents the profit made by the company appointed to provide the engineering,
purchasing and construction services. It can be estimated to be 1.5 to 6 percent of the
fixed capital investment. Thus, assumed needed RM 11,660,000.
v) Contingencies
Contingencies such as weather, transportation accidents, strikes by construction workers,

price change, small design changes, errors in estimation and other unforeseen expenses
must be considered.
An estimate of the contingencies to be part of the fixed capital investment with 5

to 15 percent of the fixed capital investment. Thus, assumed RM 138,406,000 is needed.
Table 10.6: Total fixed capital investment

Fixed capital Component Cost estimated (RM)
investment
Direct costs Purchased equipment cost 58,276,000
Equipment delivery cost 5,827,600
Equipment installation cost 3,206,000
Instrumentation and controls cost 900,000
Piping cost 39,700,000
Electrical system cost 1,850,000
Building cost 14,600,000
Yard improvement cost 11,660,000
Service facilities cost 46,630,000
Indirect costs Engineering and supervision cost 1,750,000
Legal expenses 14,570,000
Construction expenses 138,406,000
272
Constractor’s fee 11,660,000

Contingencies 138,406,000
Total RM 488,000,000
10.5.3 Working Capital, CWC
The working capital for an industrial plant consists of the total amount of money invested
in:
i. Raw materials and supplies carried in stock
ii. Finished stock and semi-finished products in the process of being manufactured
iii. Accounts receivable
iv. Cash kept on hand for monthly payment of operating expenses, such as salaries,
wages and raw material purchases
v. Accounts payable
vi. Taxes payable
Most chemical process plants use an initial working capital amounting to 10 to 20

percent of the total capital investment. In this analysis, we assumed 20 percent.
Thus, CWC = (0.1~0.2)CTC
If CWC = 0.2CTC ,
Therefore, CTC = (CFC+CL)/0.8 = (RM 488,000,000 + 0)/0.8 = RM 610,000,000
Thus, CWC = 0.2 x RM 610,000,000

= RM 122,000,000
10.5.4 Capital to purchase land for the plant, CL
Since this maleic anhydride plant are build at existing site at Gebeng, so we no need to
consider capital to purchase land for the plant. Thus, CL=0.
273
Table 10.7: Summary total capital investment

Capital Cost estimated (RM)
Fixed Capital Investment, CFC 488 million
Working Capital, CWC 122 million
Capital to purchase land for the plant, CL 0
Total capital investment, CTC CTC = CFC + CWC + CL
= 610 million
10.6 TOTAL PRODUCT COST
Total product cost is all costs related to:

i. Operation of the plant
ii. Selling the products
iii. Recovering the capital investment
iv. Contributing to corporate functions such as management, planning, organizing
staff development programs, and research and development.
To determine total product cost, we use method by Turton, Bailie, Whiting and Shaeiwitz
in the book “Analysis, Synthesis and Design of Chemical Processess”.
The total product cost, TPC, can be determined when the following costs is known:
i. Fixed capital investment (CFC)
ii. Operating labour cost (COL)
iii. Utilities cost (CUT)
iv. Waste treatment cost (CWT)
v. Raw material cost (CRM)
Direct Manufacturing Cost,

DMC = CRM + CWT + CUT + (1.33) COL + (0.03) TPC + (0.069) CFC
274
Fixed Manufacturing Cost,

FMC = (0.708) COL + (0.168) CFC
General Expenses,
GE = (0.177) COL+ (0.009) CFC + (0.16) TPC
Total Product Cost or Total Manufacturing Cost,

TPC = DMC + FMC + GE
If annual depreciation charges are not included in TPC, the following equation are use to
calculate the total product cost.
TPC = 0.180CFC + 2.73COL+ 1.23(CUT+ CWT+ CRM)
10.6.1 Operating Labour Cost, COL
Operating labour cost is the second highest in the manufacturing cost of a product.
Usually operator works 48 weeks/year, 3 shifts/week, 8 hour/shift.
This means an operator works = 48 weeks/year x 3 shifts/ week
= 144 shifts/ year
Plant operate 24 hours/day for 365 days/year
Number of shifts per year required = (365 days/year x 3 shifts/ day)

= 1095 shifts/year required
Therefore, Number of operators required to fulfill 1095 shift/ year

= (1095 shift/year) / 144 shifts/ year
= 8 person
275
Table 10.8: Total operator per shift for equipment

Equipment type Number of Operators per Shift Operator per Shift
equipment per Equipment
Heaters 1 0.50 0.50
Compressor 1 0.15 0.15
Heat Exchanger 1 0.10 0.10
Reactor 1 0.50 0.50
Coolers 4 0.10 0.40
Absorber 1 0.00 0.00
Distillation Column 1 0.35 0.35
Condensers 2 0.10 0.20
Reboiler 1 1.00 1.00
Pumps 8 0.00 0.00
Crystallizer 1 0.50 0.50
Filter 1 0.00 0.00
Tray Drying 1 0.05 0.05
Process tanks (5 pieces) 5 0.00 0.00
Wet scrubber 1 0.00 0.00
Stack 1 0.00 0.00
Waste Water Treatment 1 2.00 2.00
Plant
Cooling tower 1 1.00 1.00
Boiler 3 1.00 3.00
Demineralize water plant 1 0.50 0.50
Steam turbine 1 0.15 0.15
Total 10.4
The number of operators required per shift = 11

Operating labour = (8)(11) = 88
276
Chemical plant operators are relatively highly paid, and a typical value of RM42,000
/year, (RM3, 500/month) is assumed.
So, labour cost = 88 x (RM 42, 000) = RM 3,700,000/year
10.6.2 Utilities Cost, CUT
The cost of utilities consists of steam, electricity, process and cooling water, natural gas
which varies widely depending on the amount needed, plant location and source.
a) Electricity consumption
Since we have a steam turbine to generate electric for the compressor in the plant, thus we
just estimate the electricity supply for pump only. Besides that, we had also considered
the electricity supply for the building for air-cond, light, computer and so on which
assumed.
Total power of pumps =1.837kW x 8 x 24hr = 352.7 kWh

Power of air-conditioner = 1.5 kW x 24hr =36 kWh
Assumed there have 10 air-conditioners are used, so the total power supply to computer is
360 kWh.
Power of light = 100 W x 24 hr = 2.4 kWh

Assumed there have 100 lights are used, so the total power supply to computer is
240kWh.
Power of computer = 200W x 24 hr = 4.8 kWh

Assumed there have 50 computers are used, so the total power supply to computer is
240kWh.
Thus, total power required = 352.7 kWh + 360 kWh + 240kWh + 240kWh = 1192.7 kWh
Refer to http://www.tnb.com.my/tnb/tariff/newrate_industrial.htm
277
Bill calculation for Tariff E-1 (Medium Voltage General Industrial Tariff)
Cost for all kWh is 26.6sen/kWh
Thus, Cost for electricity per day = 1192.7 kWh x RM 0.266/kWh
= RM 317/day
Cost for electricity per year = RM 317/day x 30 day/month x 12 month/year

= RM 114,000 /year
b) Process and cooling water consumption
Refer to chapter utility, cooling system part,

Cooling water consumption = 55080 m3/day
Water make-up = 241.6 m3/hr
Raw water supply to boiler to generate steam,

= 1397571.84 kg/day x 30 day/month x (1/1000) m3/kg
= 41,927 m3/month
Water consumption for the plant for the first month,

= 55080 m3 + (241.6 m3/hr x 24hr/day x 30 day/1month) + 41,927 m3/month
= 270,959 m3/month
Refer to http://www.syabas.com.my/mainservice.php
Bill calculation for Tariff Code -11 (Commercial)
35m3 = 35 m³ x RM 2.07 = RM 72.45

Remainder = 270,924 m³ x RM 2.28 = RM 6.18 x 105
Total = RM 6.18 x 105/month
278
Since the water use in steam system can be recycle, thus assumed raw water supply to
boiler to generate steam from the second month and after is 30% of raw water supply to
boiler = 0.3 x 41,927 m3/month = 12,578 m3/ month.
Since the cooling water use in cooling system can be recycle, consumption for the
plant start from second month and after = (241.6 m3/hr x 24hr/day x 30 day /1month) =
173,952 m3/ month.
Total water usage start from second month and after,

= 12,578 m3/ month + 173,952 m3/ month
= 335,850m3/ month
Bill calculation for Tariff Code -11 (Commercial)
35m3 = 35 m³ x RM 2.07 = RM 72.45

Remainder = 335,815 m³ x RM 2.28 = RM 7.66 x 105
Total = RM 7.66 x 105/month
Total water bill = RM 6.18 x 105/month + RM 7.66 x 105/month x 11month/yr

= RM 1.384 million/year
Since water is also need to supply in building such as office, lab and so on, thus it is
assumed as 5% from water consumption for the plant) = RM 69,200/year
Thus, overall water bill per year = RM 1.384 million/year + RM 69,200/year

= RM 1.45 million/year
279
c) Natural gas consumption
Refer to chapter utility, steam system part; amount of Liquefied Natural Gas is needed to
supply heat for boiler,
= 44954.35 kg/day
= 44954.35 kg/day x (1tonne/1000kg) x (30 day/month) x (12 month /year)
= 16,000 tonne/year
Refer to http://www.treasury.gov.my, Cost of natural gas = RM1416/tonne

Thus, Total cost of natural gas estimated = 16,000 tonne/year RM 1416/tonne
= RM 23 million /year
d) Molten salt consumption
Molten salt is use as a cooling medium for reactor.

Mass flow of molten salt = 10.67 kg/s = 38412 kg/hr
Since the molten salt can be recycle for use, thus we assumed the amount of molten salt
needed per year = 40000 kg/year = 88000 lb/year
Refer to http://www.amazon.com, 1 lb of molten salt = $10.48 = RM40
Thus, total cost of molten salt = RM40/lb x 88000 lb/year
= RM 3,520,000/year
Table 10.9: Summary of utilities cost

Utilities Estimated cost
Electricity RM 0.114 million /year
Water RM 1.45 million/year
Natural gas RM 23 million /year
Molten salt RM 3.52 million/year
Total Utilities Cost: RM 28 million/year

280
10.6.3 Waste Treatment Cost, CWT
The waste treatment plant consists of waste gas treatment and waste water treatment
plant. Cost required for waste treatment is needed to be considered because there are
several chemical added to treat effluent waste water. Refer to chapter waste water
treatment,
Amount of NaOH is required to treat waste gas,

= 62.80kg/hr x 24hr/day x 30 day/month x 12 month/year
= 542592 kg/year
= 550 tonne/year
For pH adjustment tank, adjustment chemicals (HCl) will be added to incoming

wastewater with in the detention time of the mixing tank. The amount HCL is approximate
to 1 tonne/year.
For dechlorination tank, sodium bisulphite is added with average dosage 1.5
mg/L. Volumetric flow rate of influent = 77.0 m3/hr = 7.70 x 104 L/hr = 1.84 x 106 L/day
Total amount of sodium bishulphite added per year,

= 1.84 x 106 L/day x 1.5 mg/L
= 2.8 x 106 mg/day
= 2.8 x 106 mg/day x 30 day/month x 12 month/year
= 9.98 mg/year
= 998 kg/year
= 1 tonne/year
Refer to http://www.icis.com/staticpages/a-e.htm, the chemical costs for waste treatment

plants are shown as table below.
281
Table 10.10: Chemical Cost for waste treatment plant

Amount required
Price Cost estimated
Chemical Price (RM) in waste
(US dollar) (RM/year)
treatment plant
NaOH 390/tonne RM 1482 550 tonne/year 815,100
(alkaline chemical)
HCl (acidic chemical) 93.7/tonne 356.06/tonne 1 tonne /year 356
Sodium bisulphite 0.3250/lb 1.2350/lb 1 tonne /year 2723
Total Cost estimated: RM 820,000/year
10.6.4 Raw material cost, CRM
The raw material cost includes n-butane, Dibutyl phthalate solvent and Vanadium
phosphorus oxide.
Table 10.11: Raw material cost

Raw material Cost per unit Amount required Cost estimated
per year (RM)
n-butane RM 3.92/kg 24,821 kg/year 98,000
Dibutyl phthalate solvent RM 247.8/kg 5x105 kg/year 124,000,000
Vanadium phosphorus RM16.76/kg 45,000 kg/year 750,000
oxide (catalyst)
Total RM 125,000,000/year
282
Table 10.12: Cost estimated for each type of product cost

Cost estimated (RM/year)
Fixed capital investment (CFC) 488 million
Operating labour cost (COL) 3.7 million
Utilities cost (CUT) 28 million
Waste treatment cost (CWT) 0.82 million
Raw material cost (CRM) 125 million
Table 10.13: Summary of total product cost

Estimated cost
Direct Manufacturing Cost, DMC RM 214,600,000
Fixed Manufacturing Cost, FMC RM 84,400,000
General Expenses, GE RM 51,000,000
Total Product Cost RM 350,000,000
283
Summary of cost:
No Element Cost estimated (RM) Total Cost (RM)

1 Equipment cost:
1.1 MA plant 26,496,000
1.2 Waste gas treatment 1,115,000
1.3 Waste water treatment 1,330,000
1.4 Cooling system 18,102,000
1.5 Steam system 11,123,000 59 million
2 Total fixed capital investment

2.1 Direct cost 183 million
2.2 Indirect cost 305 million 488million
3 Total capital investment

3.1 Fixed Capital Investment, CFC 488 million
3.2 Working Capital, CWC 122 million
3.3 Capital to purchase land for the 0 610million
plant, CL
4 Utilities
4.1 Electricity 0.114 million /year
4.2 Water 1.45 million/year
4.3 Natural gas 23 million /year
4.4 Molten salt 3.52 million/year 28 million/year
5 Chemical Cost for waste treatment plant

5.1 NaOH 815,100/year
5.2 HCl 356/year
5.3 Sodium bisulphite 2723/year

0.82/year
284
6 Raw material cost

6.1 n-butane 0.98 million
6.2 Dibutyl phthalate solvent 124 million
6.3 Vanadium phosphorus oxide 0.75 million 125 million/year
(catalyst)
7 Operating labour cost 3.7 million
8 Total product cost

8.1 Direct Manufacturing Cost, 214.6 million
8.2 Fixed Manufacturing Cost, 84.4 million
8.3 General Expenses 51 million 350 million
10.7 ANALYSIS OF PROFITABILITY
For a manufacturing project, there are two types of profitability analysis which:
i. Methods that do not consider time value of money.
ii. Methods that consider the time value of money.
10.7.1 Methods that do not consider time value of money.
There are several methods which consist such as Return on Investment (ROI), Payback
Period (PBP) and Net Return.
a) Return on Investment (ROI)
The ratio of the profit to investment is determined in this method. There have several
measures of profit and investment can be used, the most common are net profit and total
capital investment, which can be expressed as below;
285
𝑁𝑃𝐽
𝑅𝑂𝐼 =
𝐶𝑇𝐶
where, 𝑅𝑂𝐼 = annual return on investment (fraction or percentage per year)

𝑁𝑃𝐽 = net profit for the year, j
𝐶𝑇𝐶 = total capital investment
Then, ROI that has been determined is then compared with a rate of return value
(fraction or percentage) known as the Minimum Acceptable Rate or Return (MARR) that
is given the symbol, mar. The value depends on the type of process and the level of risk
for the project. If the value of ROI is greater or equal to the value of the chosen, mar, then
the project is said to offer an acceptable return.
b) Payback Period (PBP)
Profitability is measure in terms of the length of time necessary for the total return to
equal the capital investment is called Payback period or payout period. The initial fixed
capital investment and the annual cash flow are usually used in this calculation by using
the following equation:
𝑉 + 𝐴𝑥
𝑃𝐵𝑃 =
𝐴𝑗
where; 𝑃𝐵𝑃 =Payback period (years)
𝑉= manufacturing fixed capital investment
𝐴𝑥 = non manufacturing fixed capital investment
𝑉 + 𝐴𝑥 = total fixed capital investment
𝐴𝑗 = Annual cash flow
The value of PBP should be compared to a reference PBP obtained from the
minimum acceptable rate of return, mar. The reference PBP is calculated by following
equation;
286
0.85
𝑃𝐵𝑃 𝑟𝑒𝑓 =
𝑚𝑎𝑟 + 0.85
𝑛
In conclusion, then project is said to be acceptable if the PBP for the project is lower
that the value of PBP ref.
c) Net return
For net return, the amount of cash flow is over and above that required to meet the
minimum acceptable rate of return and recover the total capital investment. The equation
to calculate the net return is;
n n n
Rn   ( N p , j  d j  rec j )   C j  mar n  c j
j 1 j b j b
where; Rn = money value of the net return

rec,j= money value recovered from working capital and the sale of physical assets.
Then, any positive value for Rn or Rn, ave indicates that the cash flow to the
project is actually greater than the amount necessary to repay the investment and obtain a
return that meets the minimum acceptable rate, mar. In other words, the project is earning
at a rate greater than mar. This will be on the other hand if the value is negative.
10.7.2 Methods that consider the time value of money
The methods that consider the time value of money include Net Present Value (NPV) or
Net Present Worth (NPW) and also Discounted Cash Flow Rate of Return (DCFRR).
287
a) Net Present Value (NPV) and Discounted Cash Flow Rate of Return (DCFRR).
Definition of Net present value (NPV) is the total present value (PV) of a time series of
cash flows. The NPV at the minimum acceptable rate of return, mar is positive, then the
project is said to earn a return greater than mar and is attractive.
For the Discounted Cash Flow Rate of Return (DCFRR) method, the objective is
to find the value of the interest rate, i such that NPV =0. If the value of i for a project is
greater than mar, then the project is said to be attractive. Below are the economic data to
calculate ROI, PBP and Net Return;
Table 10.14: Economic data for ROI, PBP and Net return
Fixed Capital Investment RM 488,000,000
Working Capital RM 122,000,000
Total Capital Investment RM 610,000,000
Full Capacity 200,000,000.00 kg/yr
Total Product Cost at Full Capacity RM 350,000,000/yr
Fixed Charges (including general expenses) RM 135,400,000/yr
Direct Manufacturing Costs at Full Capacity RM 214,600,000/yr
Design Life 25.00 yrs
Scrap Value at End of Design Life RM 0.00
Annual Depreciation Charges RM 19,520,000
Taxation Rate 0.25
Minimum Acceptable Rate of Return, marr 0.20
Product Sales Price RM 3.00/kg
PBPref 3.63
288
While, the economic data to calculate NPV and DCFRR are shown as below;
Table 10.15: Economic data for NPV (Net Present Value)

Total Product Cost at Full Capacity RM 350,000,000/yr
Design Life 25.00yrs
Annual Depreciation Charges RM 19,520,000
Taxation Rate 0.25
Product Sales Price RM 3.00/kg
PBPref 3.63
Table 10.16: Economic data for DCFRR ( Discounted Cash Flow Rate of Return)
Total Product Cost at Full Capacity RM350,000,000/yr
Design Life 25.00 yrs
289
Annual Depreciation Charges RM19,520,000

Taxation Rate 0.25
DCFRR, i 0.27
Product Sales Price RM3.00/ kg
PBPref 3.63
From the calculation, the ROI value is 0.30, which is greater than mar value is 0.20. The
minimum acceptable rate of return, mar is 20% due to new product entering into
established market. Then, the project is said to offer an acceptable return. For Payback
Period (PBP), the value for our project is 3.01 which lower than PBP ref is 3.63.
While, Net Return method for our project is RM 61,000,000 and it is positive
value which indicates that the cash flow is greater than the amount necessary to repay the
investment and obtain a return that meet the minimum acceptable rate, mar. In other words,
the project is earning at a rate greater than mar.
The NPV for our project is RM 260,000,000 which positive value at minimum
acceptable rate of return, mar is 0.20, means the project is said to earn a return greater
than mar and is attractive. For Discounted Cash Flow Rate of Return (DCFRR), the value
of the interest rate is, i= 0.27 with minimum acceptable rate of return, mar is 0.2.
290
10.7.2 Graph of Cumulative Discounted Cash Flow
Table 10.17: NPV depending on the interest rate, i
Payback period
Interest rate, i NPV (RM)
(year)
1101184004
0.1 5
795212917.2
0.125 5.8
567784469.4
0.15 6
394636525.4
0.175 6.3
259900139.4
0.2 15
Graph of Cumulative Discounted Cash Flow (RM)

against year
Cumulative Discounted Cash Flow (RM)
1.20E+09
1.00E+09
8.00E+08 i=0.1
6.00E+08
i=0.125
4.00E+08
2.00E+08 i=0.15
0.00E+00 i=0.175
-2.00E+08
-4 1 6 11 16 21 26 i=0.2
-4.00E+08
-6.00E+08 i=0.27
-8.00E+08
Year
Figure 10.1: Graph of Cumulative Discounted Cash Flow against year
From the graph above, the discounted cash flow when NPV= 0, is 27 %. This indicate,
when NPV= 0, the interest rate is maximum. Referring the table above, the NPV is
decrease with increasing interest of rate, i while the payback period is increasing. When,
the minimum rate of return is lower than the DCFRR = 27%, for our company at 20 %,
the value of NPV is RM 568 000000. Then, the project is said to be profitable.
291
10.8 ECONOMI POTENTIAL FUNCTION
10.8.1 Economic Potential for Maleic Anhydride, FPE2
The formula to calculate FPE2 as shown below;

𝑓𝑃𝐸2 = 𝐶𝑀𝐴 𝑃𝑀𝐴 + 𝐶𝐶𝑂2 𝑃𝐶𝑂 + 𝐶𝐶𝑂 𝑃𝐶𝑂 - 𝐶𝐵 𝐹𝐵
Table 10.18: Data that required for the calculation FPE2

PMA FB PCO PCO2 FPE2
X
(kmol/year) (kmol/year) (kmol/year) (kmol/yaar) (RM/ year)
0.1 2040000 2716325.74 1352651 1419771 302518726
0.2 2040000 2844785.77 1609572 1679865 275097876
0.3 2040000 2993195.35 1906391 1980352 243418631
0.4 2040000 3003200.34 1926401 2000609 241282983
0.5 2040000 3089552.24 2099104 2175446 222850461
0.6 2040000 3068895.35 2057791 2133622 227259844
0.7 2040000 3092655.37 2105311 2181729 222188072
0.8 2040000 3100440.53 2120881 2197492 220526266
0.9 2040000 3103478.69 2126957 2203643 219877746
0.95 2040000 3106923.79 2133848 2210619 219142360
0.99 2040000 3110544.64 2141089 2217950 218369459
292
FPE2 for Maleic Anhydride at yFB =0.0155

350000000
Economic Potential (RM/year)

300000000
250000000
200000000
150000000
FPE2
100000000
50000000
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Butane Conversion,X
Figure 10.2: Graph of FPE2 for Maleic Anhydride versus conversion,X
10.8.2 Economic Potential for Maleic Anhydride, FPE3 and FPE4

𝑓𝑃𝐸3 = 𝑓𝑃𝐸2 − 𝐾𝑟𝑡 − 𝐾𝑝𝑡1
𝐼 𝑚𝑠𝑘 7775 .3
where: 𝐾𝑟𝑡 = 𝐷1.066 𝐿𝑅0.12 2.18 + 𝐹𝑚𝐹𝑝 𝐹𝐼
𝐼 𝑚𝑠𝑑 3
𝐾𝑝𝑡1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑟 = 𝑅𝑀 6,015,000

293
FPE3 for Maleic Anhydride at yFB =0.0155

350,000,000

300,000,000
250,000,000
200,000,000
150,000,000
FPE3
100,000,000
50,000,000
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Butane Conversion, X
Figure 10.3: Graph of FPE3 for Maleic Anhydride versus conversion, X

𝑓𝑃𝐸4 = 𝑓𝑃𝐸3 – 𝐾 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑟 − 𝐾 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛
where : 𝐾 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑟 = 𝑅𝑀 542,000

𝐾 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 = 𝑅𝑀 662,000
FPE4 for Maleic Anhydride at yFB = 0.015

350,000,000
300,000,000
250,000,000
200,000,000
150,000,000
FPE4
100,000,000
50,000,000
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Butane Conversion, X
Figure 10.4: Graph of FPE4 for Maleic Anhydride versus conversion,X

294
Table 10.19: Data that required in the calculation FPE3 and FPE4
Volume Reactor length Diameter Reactor annual cost

3
X V (From graph)m Lr, m D, m Krt FPE2 FPE3 FP4
0.10 0.32 2.16 0.43 49734.61 302518726.20 296453992 295249992
0.20 0.68 2.79 0.56 80815.39 275097876.30 269002061 267798061
0.30 1.05 3.22 0.64 105995.83 243418631.06 237297635 236093635
0.40 1.51 3.64 0.73 133176.61 241282983.39 235134807 233930807
0.50 1.97 3.98 0.80 157348.90 222850460.57 216678112 215474112
0.60 2.62 4.37 0.87 187956.20 227259843.65 221056887 219852887
0.70 3.45 4.79 0.96 223469.67 222188072.28 215949603 214745603
0.80 4.46 5.22 1.04 262740.12 220526265.54 214248525 213044525
0.90 6.03 5.77 1.15 317437.13 219877745.66 213545309 212341309
0.95 7.95 6.33 1.27 377882.64 219142359.68 212749477 211545477
0.99 11.10 7.07 1.41 465827.91 218369459.24 211888631 210684631
294
CHAPTER XI
SAFETY ANALYSIS
11.1 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS
Releases of maleic anhydride into the environment can result from the manufacture and
use of the chemical. Small amounts can be found in the emissions from this production
process. There are believed to be no natural sources of release to the environment.
Besides that, maleic anhydride is biodegrades in soil and water. When released into soil it
can leach into groundwater; it will not evaporate significantly from water. When released
to air, maleic anhydride is expected to exist in the aerosol phase with a short half-life, it
can be broken down by reacting with ozone and hydroxyl radicals. It is not expected to
bioaccumulate. There is no significant global environmental effects are considered likely.
However, excessive exposure to maleic anhydride may affect the digestive system, eye,
kidney, lung and skin. The Environment Agency aims to ensure that environmental
exposures are too low to cause such effects (Environment-agency.gov.uk 2009).
11.2 PLANT RISK ANALYSIS
Risk analysis is the systematic application of methods to identify and evaluate hazards.
As such it is a very wide subject, stretching from financial investment analyses, to
analysis of continuing health hazards, insurance questions, as well as the problems of
safety. Even within the field of safety there is a wide variation in technique, depending on
295
what that to be analysed. Risk analysis is routinely applied for weapons systems, space
systems, communications systems, aircraft, road and transport, and bridge design as well
as to process plant. The techniques described here cover therefore just a small part of the
total field of risk analysis. Apart from that, accidents in chemical plants can be grouped
into a few dominant classes as below:
a) Mechanical crushing, falls, dropped objects.

b) Traffic accidents.
c) Corrosive burns, from spray and splashes.
d) Leaks of toxic substances, causing poisoning.
e) Asphyxiation after tank entry.
f) Fire.
g) Explosions.
h) Major toxic releases.
Of these, the last three can give rise to major hazards with large consequences
(Multiple fatalities and major environmental incidents). Fires and explosions can at the
same time be starting points for major toxic and environmental accidents. While here the
leakage and spills can lead to ground pollution, groundwater pollution and sea area
pollution (J.R. Taylor 1994).
Therefore, defining the scope of the analysis is important. It is easy to leave out
important contributors to risk, because of the choice of the method for analysis or because
of the preconceptions about what is most hazardous. A concept hazards analysis initial
review (CHAIR) and detailed concept hazard analysis initial review (CHA) can help to
avoid these problems which will be discussed later. Unfortunately any risk analysis is
very dependent on the assumptions made. If the situation changes, the analysis becomes
invalid, and may serve only as a false assurance.
296
Due to the fact that we are not come out with P&ID drawing which show the
detail of control system. Therefore, both CHAIR and CHA is base on the preliminary
process flow diagram (PFD) for production of maleic anhydride. For the CHA analysis,
only the reactor part will be discussed which added with basic control system.
11.2.1 Concept Hazard Analysis Initial Review (CHAIR)
Concept hazard analysis initial review (CHAIR) is an early safety in wide use in the
process industries. It is often known as pre-HAZOP STUDY. It is simplest form this
merely involves gathering a simple record of one or more meetings between appropriate
specialists at which various aspects of design and operation are discusses in a structured
way. This record might consist of a simple system description identifying the plant, plant
items and process description. Various keywords can then be used to stimulate an
appropriate discussion topic which is recorded together with actions and notes (Geoff
Wells 1997).
The main reaction in the PBR reactor involves the reaction of butane and oxygen
to produce maleic anhydride:
C 4 H 10  3.5O2  C 4 H 2 O3  4 H 2 O
C 4 H 10  5.5O2  2CO 2  2CO  5H 2 O
Butane + Oxygen → Carbon Dioxide + Carbon Monoxide + Water
The process is quite simple, so hazard analysis will be performed on the whole
production plant.
297
Table 11.1: CHAIR for MA production plant

Keyword Discussion Action/ Recommendation
1. Flammables Butane is extremely flammable and tends to self-ignite on Consider fire-fighting requirements.
release as a leak through flanges and joints.
2. Fire Loss of integrity on reactor circuit likely to give rise to torch i) Evaluate length of flame from pipe at various
fire. Escalation probable if torch fire impacts on other locations.
equipment or pipe rack. ii) Action to de-pressure needs evaluation.
iii) Maintain oxygen-free atmosphere at start-up
and shutdown.
3. Explosion An internal explosion could occur if plant is not thoroughly Nitrogen purge required at start-up and shut-
purged at start-up. down.
4. Discharge The emission of material on overpressure can be to Check if carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide
atmosphere or to flare. are environmentally friendly.
5. Reaction and The reaction of MA production is exothermic. As the A temperature controller and cold water flow is
over temperature production process for MA continued will result in increased needed to maintain the temperature of reactor.
temperature inside the reactor and also the outlet temperature Check mechanical design to withstand maximum
will be increased. feasible temperature.
6. Overpressure Overpressure can occur due to lack of demand for product or Check relief requirements if product off-spec or
downstream blockage. Upstream plant has slow response to lack of demand. Consider venting to atmosphere
reduce capacity. Hence need for venting as well as process or fuel gas. Report back on relief valve decision.
relief.
298
Keyword Discussion Action/ Recommendation

7. Start up of It is necessary to provide heat to warm up the reactor during An extra heat exchanger circuit is needed as
reactor start-up. Consider heat exchanger circuit for this purpose. start-up line for the reactor.
8. Toxics Chronic and acute effect for exposure of materials such as Delayed adverse effects possible. Obtain medical
butane and carbon dioxide which are toxic by inhalation. assistance.
9. Utility problems:
i) Loss of air i) Process is disturbed and cause production capacity MA i) Open the bypass on air failure.
decresed.
ii) Loss of cooling ii) Process is disturbed and might cause failure. ii) Install back-up of the utility if necessary.
iii) Loss of iii) All flows to stop. iii) Open the bypass on electricity failure.
electricity
10. External i) A local fire would necessitate the immediate depressure of i) Check plot plans of rest of complex.
Threats the plant. Segregate plant items by distance or barriers.
ii) Space required around reactor for packing the reactor and ii) Check packing operation to ensure no impact
bringing in the columns. danger.
299
11.2.2 Detailed Concept Hazard Analysis Initial Review (CHA)
Concept hazard analysis (CHA) is used for the identification of hazard characteristics in
an attempt to identify areas which are recognized as being particularly dangerous from
previous incidents in the past. It also identifies the need to explore any difficulties which
might be experienced with unwanted reactions. As well as identifying environmental
damage, the analysis may also consider whether the proposal fulfils the ‘green’ policies of
the company. Elimination or reduction of the hazards a primary objective, as doing this at
an early stage of the design is particularly cost-effective (Geoff Wells 1997).
CHA for MA production plant is carried in two phases whereby the first phase of
the analysis is to determine the substance characteristics of every stream in the section of
the plant being investigated. The second phase of the analysis is to determine the
hazardous process characteristics of the section of the plant under investigation and is
based on the outcomes of the first phase of the CHA. Table 5.2 shows the result of the
first phase of CHA recorded in a pro-forma. Table 5.3 shows the result of the second
phase of CHA.
300
Table 11.2: First phase of CHA (base on ICON process flow diagram drawing)
Stream Description Substance Phase Opt. Cond. Hazard Notes Action

No.
1 Feed to butane preheater Butane Liquid 72oC, 925kPa FLAMMABLE with
E-1 tendency to self-ignite on
release.
2 Feed to oxygen Oxygen Gas 25oC, 101.325 kPa -

compressor
3 Feed to butane expander Butane Vapour 90oC, 895kPa As stream No. 1
4 Feed to butane coolar Butane Vapour 90oC,300kPa As stream No. 1

E-2
5 Feed to Mix-1 Butane Vapour 39oC, 285kPa As stream No. 1
6 Feed to Mix-1 oxygen Vapour 154oC, 285kPa -
7 Feed to E-6 oxygen Vapour 131.1oC, 285kPa -
7-1 Feed stream to reactor Butane, oxygen Vapour 350oC, 275kPa OFF-SPEC with ratio of
butane-oxygen.
8 Feed to coolar E-3 MA,H2O,O2 ,N2,CO2 Vapour 350oC, 250kPa Accumulation of high
and CO. concentrations this
materials will become
TOXIC.
301
Stream Description Substance Phase Opt. Cond. Hazard Notes Action

No.
9 Butane products coolar MA, H2O, O2, N2, CO2 Vapour 132oC, 200 kPa As stream No. 8
outlet and CO.
10 Catalyst feed stream Dibutyl phthalate Liquid 30oC, 170kPa Slightly FLAMMABLE
to flammable in presence
of open flames and
sparks, of heat.
10-1 Catalyst outlet from Dibutyl phthalate Liquid 30.1oC, 170kPa As stream No.10
Mix-3
11 Feed to Mix-2 H2O,O2,N2,CO2 and Vapour 98.2oC,150.0kPa As stream No. 8

CO.
12 MA product to E-4 MA (main), 151.4oC, 160kPa REACTIVE may cause

H2O, O2 and N2. Liquid combustion on cantact
with air if flammable
present.
13 MA preheater E-4 H2O, MA, some Vapour, 300oC, 140kPa As stream No.12
outlet dissolved butane, Liquid
oxygen, CO2,
CO
302
Stream No. Description Substance Phase Opt.Cond. Hazard Notes Action

14 Unwanted products H2O, MA, some Vapour 149.3oC,110kPa As stream No.10
from distillation dissolved butane,
column oxygen, CO2, CO
15 Desired product from MA(main), H2O Liquid 149.3oC, 110kPa CORROSIVE subtance.
distillation column The products of
that is, mainly MA degradation are more
(Feed to crystallizer) TOXIC.
16 Feed to cooler DP(Recycled back Liquid 351.4oC, 130kPa As stream No.10

to absorber)
17 Vent as fuel gases MA, H2O, O2 , Vapour 98.6oC, 110kPa As stream No.14
N2,CO2 and CO.
18 Coolar outlet and DP Liquid 30 oC, 110 kPa As stream No.10

feed into pump P-1
303
Table 11.3: The result of the second phase of CHA.

NO Keyword Dangerous Cause/ Suggested Comments/
disturbance Consequence safeguards action
1 Flammables Release on rupture Release may self ignite. Segregation by distance. i) Study best way of
reducing damage.
ii) Project to advise on
fire-fighting.
2 Reaction Exothermic runaway Release of reaction energy. More robust design Check action if trip fails.
reaction in reactor. Weakening of materials of reactor. Trip reactor Check sneak path
of construction. on high temperature on start-up.
Project to advise.
3 Reaction Air in vessels Combustion in vessels Purge plant before start- up Get more information
causes CHEMICAL Ensure catalyst covered on catalyst. Project
EXPLOSION. by N2 as replaced to advise.
4 Pollutants Noise Noise in process area Operators to wear

protection in noisy areas.
5 Over Pressure Over-pressure in High pressure causes Place the relief valves Flare may be needed.
reactor PHYSICAL EXPLOSION. in circuit. Project to advise.
6 Over Overtemperature Runaway reaction as in As in item (2) As in item (2)

Temperature in reactor item (2).
304
NO Keyword Dangerous Cause/ Suggested Comments/

disturbance Consequence safeguards action
7 Abnormal Vibration of pipings Loosening of flange gives Vibration probe. Project to note.
Opening release.
8 Equipment: Excess heat of As in item (2) As in item (2) As in item (2)

Reactor reaction
9 Equipment: Blockage Blockage of butane at top Bed of ceramics on top of Check requirement at
Reactor of reactor (cause reactor. base.
channelling).
10 Equipment: High bed Failure to cool down Improve heat exchanger Project to advise.
Reactor temperature during the bed causes off spec network.
reaction product
305
11.3 REGULATIVE LAWS GUIDELINES
Improper unloading, handling and storage of maleic anhydride can result in fire,
explosion, and health hazards as well as corrosion of equipment and product degradation.
Maleic anhydride can be handled without unnecessary risk by using the appropriate safety
and handling procedures. Besides that, by obeying some regulative laws guidelines which
have been established by government or other environmental, safety and health agency as
stated below:
(a) Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Regulations:
 Reportable Quantity: 5000 Lbs
(b) National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 704 Rating:
 Health Hazardard Rating: 3

 Fire Hazardard Rating: 1
 Reactivity Hazardard Rating: 1
(c) National Institute Of Occupational Safety & Health (NIOSH) Guidelines:
 Time Weighted Averages (TWA): 1 mg/m3

 Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health (IDLH): 10 mg/m3
 Conversion: 1 PPM = 4.01 mg/m3 @ 25°C & 1ATM
(d) Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) Regulations:
 TWA: 1 mg/m3
 TWA Vacated: 1 mg/m3 (environmentalchemistry.com 2009).
Apart from that, disposal of maleic anhydride is regulated by the United States
(U.S.) Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) under the Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act (RCRA), regulation at 40 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) 2611.33(f),
306
and is coded as Hazardous Waste Number U147. This regulation requires that all waste
be disposed of through a licensed hazardous waste incinerator. It cannot be landfilled.
Cleaning maleic anhydride containers also is covered by RCRA regulations.

Regulations at 40 CFR 261.7 state that a container is considered empty when there is no
more than one inch of residue on the bottom of the container or inner liner or there is less
than 3% by weight of the total capacity of the container or inner liner if the container is
less than 110 gallons. If the container is not empty, the remaining contents and container
must be treated as hazardous waste. If the container is empty, it can be washed out using
an appropriate procedure.
According to the OSHA, the permissible exposure limit (PEL) for maleic
anhydride is 0.25 ppm (1.0 mg/m3) as an 8-hour time weighted average. The ACGIH
threshold limit value (TLV) is 0.1 ppm (0.4 mg/m3) as an 8-hour time weighted average
and has a sensitizer designation. These are the workplace concentrations in air to which
workers may be exposed according to OSHA and ACGIH. Maleic anhydride has good
warning properties when near the PEL because it is extremely irritating. For that reason,
under most circumstances, workers who breathe concentrations higher than the PEL will
experience major discomfort (American Chemistry Council 2001).
11.4 HAZARD AND OPERABILITY STUDY (HAZOP)
11.4.1 Hazards and Operability Review (HAZOP) before P&ID

307
Table 11.4: Hazards and Operability Review (HAZOP) Based On Process Flow Diagram
Project name: Production of Maleic Anhydride Date: 07/02/2010 Page 1 of 3

Process: Reducing N-butane Feed Flow Pressure
Section: Expander EX-1 Reference drawing: Process Flow Diagram
Item Study Process Deviations Possible Causes Possible Consequences Action Required
Node Parameters (guide
words)
1. Clogged of feed 1. No reaction occurs. 1. Select valve to fail open.
pipeline. Place filter in pipe.
2. Without a suitable 2. Same as above. 2. Set up a control system for

Feed controller and the expander.
1A Flow NO
pipeline control valve.
3. Plug in pipe; pipe 3. Same as above. 3. Same as above.

rupture.
1. Partially clogged 1. Less butane for reaction, 1. Install low flow alarm at
1B LOW of feed pipeline. feed flow.
Operator to take action.
308
1. Without a control 1. Feed pipeline may crack. 1. Install high flow alarm for
valve fails close. Overflow of n-butane, operator to take action.
1C HIGH deviation from the set
ratio of n-butane and
oxygen.
1. Clogged of feed 1. Pressure builds up inside 1. Select valve to fail open.
pipeline. the expander. Install high pressure alarm.
Product 2. Without a suitable 2. Same as above. 2. Same as above.

2A Flow NO
Pipeline controller and
control valve.

rupture.
1. Product pipeline 1. Hazard to workers. 1. Install low flow alarm.
leak. Operator to take action.
2B LOW
2. Product pipeline 2. Less feed flow of n- 2. Same as above.
partially plugged. butane to the reactor.
309
1. Without a control 1. Inefficiently reducing the 1. Install high flow alarm.

valve fails close. feed pressure. Operator to take action.
2C HIGH
2. Overpressure inside 1. Product pipeline may 2. Install high pressure alarm.
expander. crack. Operator to take action.
1. Not considered
Pressure NO
3A possible.
1. Product pipeline 1. Function of reducing feed 1. Install relief valve.
clogged. pressure not at optimum Install high pressure alarm.
condition. Expander may Operator to take action.
3B HIGH rupture and explode.
2. High pressure 2. Same as above. 2. Same as above.

inside expander.
1. Not considered
3C LOW possible.
310

Process: Incresing Oxygen Feed Flow Pressure
Section: Compressor CP-1 Reference drawing: Process Flow Diagram
words)

Feed
1A Flow NO controller and the compressor.
pipeline
control valve.

rupture.
1. Partially clogged of 1. Less oxygen for reaction, 1. Install low flow alarm at
1B LOW feed pipeline. feed flow.
1C HIGH
valve fails close. Overflow of oxygen, operator to take action.
311
deviation from the set

oxygen.
1. Clogged of feed 1. No pressure builds up 1. Select valve to fail open.
pipeline. inside the compressor. Install low pressure alarm.
Product 2. Without a suitable 2. Same as above. 2. Same as above.

2A Flow NO
Pipeline controller and
control valve.

rupture.
1. Product pipeline 1. Inefficiently increasing 1. Install low flow alarm.
leak. pressure of gas oxygen Operator to take action.
feed flow.
2B LOW
2. Product pipeline 2. Less feed flow of oxygen 2. Same as above.

partially plugged. to the reactor.
2C HIGH 1. Without a control 1. Inefficiently increasing 1. Install high flow alarm.
312
valve fails close. the feed pressure. Operator to take action.

the product crack. Operator to take action.
pipeline.
1. Not considered
Pressure NO
3A possible.

inside expander.
1. No feed valves fail 1. Inefficiently increasing 1. Install low pressure alarm.
open. pressure of gas oxygen Operator to take action.
feed flow.
3C LOW
2. Feed pipelines 2. Same as above. 2. Same as above.

clogged.
313

Process: Partial Oxidation between N-butane and Oxygen
Section: Packed Bed Reactor Reference drawing: Process Flow Diagram
words)

Feed
1A Flow NO controller and the reactor.
pipeline
control valve.

rupture.
1. Feed compressor 1. Less oxygen for reaction, 1. Install low flow alarm at
fails to function. deviation from the set reactor feed flow.
1B LOW ratio of n-butane and Operator to take action.
oxygen.
314
2. Partially clogged 2. Same as above. 2. Same as above.

heating pipe.
valve fails close. Overflow of n-butane and operator to take action.
1C HIGH oxygen feed, deviation
from the set ratio of n-
butane and oxygen.
AS WELL 1. Wrong material fed 1. No MA formation. 1. Check quality control
1D
AS into reactor. regularly.
1. Contamination of 1. Incomplete reaction. 1. Check for any feed pipeline
1E PART OF vapour n-butane leak.
and oxygen feed.
1. Clogged of feed 1. Pressure builds up inside 1. Select valve to fail open.
pipeline. reactor. Install high pressure alarm.
Product
2A Flow NO
Pipeline 2. Without a suitable 2. Same as above. 2. Same as above.
controller and
control valve.
315

rupture.
1. Product pipeline 1. Hazard to workers. 1. Install low level alarm.
2B LOW
2. Product pipeline 2. Less products to 2. Same as above.
partially plugged. absorber.
1. Without a control 1. Level vapour products 1. Install low level alarm.

valve fails close. inside reactor decrease Operator to take action.
drastically.
2C HIGH

rector. crack. Operator to take action.
3A Reactor Level NO 1. Not applicable here.
1. High feed flow. 1. Reactant concentration 1. Install high level alarm.
build up, possible Operator to take action.
3B HIGH runaway on heating.
2. Product pipeline 2. Same as above. 2. Same as above.

316
clogged.
1. Feed pipelines leak. 1. Oversupply of heat. 1. Install low level and high
temperature alarm.
3C LOW
2. Feed pipeline 2. Same as above. 2. Same as above.

partially plugged.
1. Not considered
4A Temperature NO
possible.
1. Over heating from 1. Reaction not on optimum 1. Install high temperature
the heat released condition. alarm
from the reaction. Failure of material of Install cooling water feed
construction at high pipeline.
4B
HIGH temperature. Operator to take action.
2. Failure of heater 2, Same as above. 2. Install temperature

E-6. controller.
1. Contamination of 1. Reaction not on optimum 1. Install low temperature

4C LOW
the feed material to condition. alarm.
317
the reactor. Operator to take action.

The reaction is not
completed.
3. Failure of heater 2. Same as above. 2. Same as above.

E-6.
1. Not considered
Pressure NO
5A possible.
1. Product pipeline 1. Reaction not on optimum 1. Install relief valve. Install
clogged. condition. Reactor may high pressure alarm.
rupture and explode. Operator to take action.
5B HIGH
2. High presure inside 2. Same as above. 2. Same as above.

reactor.
1. No feed valves fail 1. Reaction not on optimum 1. Install low pressure alarm.
open. condition. Operator to take action.
5C LOW
clogged.
6A Reaction NO 1. No flow from either 1. No MA production. 1. Install low feeds flow
318
one of the feeds. alarm at feed pipeline.

2. Wrong material feed 2. Same as above. 2. Check feed materials

into reactor. Undesired reaction may randomly.
occur.
1. Not considered
6B HIGH
possible.
1. Not on optimum 1. Less MA production. 1. Check quality control
condition regularly.
6C LOW
2. Low purity of feeds 2. Low MA purity. 2. Same as above.
material.
1. Some impurities fed 1. Incomplete reaction. 1. Check quality control
PART OF
into reactor. regularly.
OTHER 1. Feed contamination. 1. Less MA production. 1. Check for any pipe leak.
THAN
319

Process: Absorption of Maleic Anhydride
Section: Absorber Reference drawing: Process Flow Diagram
Item Study Node Process Deviations Possible Causes Possible Consequences Action Required
Parameters (guide
words)
1A Feed flow Flow HIGH 1. No control valve 1. Pressure inside absorber 1. Install pressure
absorber (from fails close. will increase and release valve. Install
reactor) causing gasket to leak. high flow alarm.
Operator to take
action.
2. No control system. 2. Same as above. 2. Same as above.
1B LOW 1. No control valves 1. Incomplete absorption 1. Install low flow

that response to it. process. alarm.
2A Feed flow Flow HIGH 1. No control valve 1. Pressure inside 1. Install pressure
absorber (from fails close. centrifuge will increase release valve.
recycle stream and causing gasket to Install high flow
and feed stream leak. alarm.
320
of organic Operator to take

solvent) action.
2. No control system. 2. Same as above. 2. Same as above.

2B LOW 1. Pump of absorbent 1. Incomplete absorption 1. Install low flow
recycle stream fails process. alarm.
to function
properly.
3A Product flow Flow LOW 1. Clogging of product 1. Product pipeline may 1. Install low flow
flow. crack. alarm for operator to
take action.
2. Product pipeline 2. Hazard to workers. 2. Same as above.

leak.
4A Waste flow Flow LOW 1. Clogging of waste 1. Product pipeline may 1. Install relief valve.
flow. crack. Install leak alarm for
operator to take
action.
5A Absorber Pressure HIGH 1. High feed flow 1. Absorber might be 1. Install high pressure
ruptured. alarm.
321
Operator to take
action.
5B LOW 1. Absorber failure. 1. Incomplete absorption 1. Install pressure alarm.

of mixture.
6A Level HIGH 1. High feed flow; 1. Product pipeline may 1. Install relief valve.
clogged product. crack. Install high level
alarm. Operator to
take action.
2. No level control 2. Same as above. 2. Same as above.

valve.
LOW 1. Low feed flow. 1. Incomplete absorption of 1. Install low level
mixture. alarm.
Operator to take
action.
2. No level control 2. Same as above. 2. Same as above.

valve.
322
Project name: Production of Maleic Anhydride Date: 10//02/09 Page: 1 of 5

Process: Separating Liquid Maleic Anhydride and Waste Gas
Section: Distillation Column Reference drawing: Process Flow Diagram
words)
1. No control valve fails 1. Heat and pressure build 1. Install flow indicator
open. up inside the column, and high pressure
Feed rupture or explode may alarm. Operator to
1A Flow NO
Pipeline occur. take action.
2. Feed pipeline clogged. 2. Same as above. 2. Same as above.

1. Partially plugged 1. Inefficient product from 1. Install low flow alarm
pipeline. phase separation and high pressure
process. alarm. Operator to
Heat and pressure build take action.
1B LOW
up inside column,
rupture or explode may
occur.
323
2. Feed pipeline leak. 2. Hazard to workers. 2. Same as above.

1. Without a control 1. Pressure build up inside 1. Select valve to fail
valve that fail close. phase separator, rupture close.
or explode may occur. Install high flow
1C HIGH
alarm.
Operator to take
action.
1. High pressure inside 1. No product from phase 1. Install check valve.
distillation column separator.
1D REVERSE than pressure in feed Pressure build up in
pipeline. column, rupture or
explode may occur.
1. No control valve fails 1. Pressure build up inside 1. Select valve to fail
open. phase separator, rupture open. Install high
or explode may occur. pressure alarm at
Product phase separator.
2A Flow NO
Pipeline
2. Feed pipeline clogged. 2. Same as above. 2. Install flow indicator
and low flow alarm.
324
Operator to take
action.
1. No control valve fails 1. Inefficient product from 1. Select valve to fail

close. phase separation close.
process.
2B
HIGH 2. Over pressure inside 2. Same as above. 2. Install high flow
distillation column. alarm.
Operator to take
action.
1. Product pipeline leak. 1. Hazard to workers. 1. Install low flow
alarm.
2C LOW
2. Product pipeline 2. Pressure build up inside 2. Same as above.
partially plugged. column, rupture or
explode may occur.
1. Product pipelines 1. Inefficient product from 1. Install high level
Distillation
3A Level HIGH clogged. phase separation alarm and pressure
colum
process. relief valve. Operator
325
Pressure build up inside to take action.

phase separator, rupture
or explode may occur.
2. Without a control 2. Same as above. 2. Same as above.

product pipeline valve
fail close.
1. Partially plugged of 1. Hazard to workers and 1. Install low level
feed pipeline. environment. alarm.
Operator to take
action.
3B LOW
2. Leaking of feed 2. Same as above. 2. Same as above.
pipeline.
3. Leaking of distillation 3. Same as above. 3. Same as above.

column.
1. Not considered
3C Temperature NO
possible.
3D HIGH 1. Over heated of feed 1. Feed in gas phase, no 1. Install high
326
stream due to failure vapour mixture. temperature alarm.

of heater E-4.
1. Failure of heater E-4. 1. Feed still in liquid 1. Install low
3E LOW phase, no vapour temperature alarm.
mixture.
1. Not considered
3F Pressure NO
possible.
1. Product pipelines 1. Distillation column 1. Install high pressure
clogged. may rupture or explode. alarm and pressure
relief valve. Operator
to take action.
3G HIGH
2. Install high flow

2. High feed flow. 2. Flooding in distillation alarm.
column.
3H LOW 1. Not dangerous.
327
Project name: Production of Maleic Anhydride Date:11/02/09 Page: 1 of 2

Process: Crystallization of Maleic Anhydride
Section: Crystallizer Reference drawing: Process Flow Diagram
Deviations
Study Process
Item (guide Possible Causes Possible Consequences Action Required
Node Parameters
words)
1. Not considered
1A Crystallizer Level NO
possible.
1. Product flow 1. Crystallizing process 1. Install high level alarm.
from distillation become inefficient and Operator to take action.
1B HIGH column exceeds affecting the product
than required quality.
value.
1. Leakage of feed 1. Leakage of mixture of 1. Inspect and monitor
flow pipeline. liquid and crystal maleic pipeline and tank
anhydride. Formations of periodically. Install low
1C LOW crystal maleic anhydride level alarm. Operator to
are lesser. take action.
2. Rupture of 2. Same as above. 2. Same as above.
crystallizer tank.
328
1. Waste pipeline 1. Tank ruptures and 1. Install pressure relief

clogged. explodes, causing danger valve and high pressure
1D Pressure HIGH
to workers nearby. alarm.
1. Feed pipeline 1. Temperature decrease, no 1. Install low pressure
1E LOW clogged. evaporation occurs. alarm. Operator to take
action.
1. Not considered
1F Concentration NO
possible.
1. Loss of water in 1. Not danger. 1. None.
1G HIGH
previous unit.
1. Low purity of 1. No or less formation of 1. Check quality control
1H LOW
feeds material. crystal maleic anhydride regularly.
329
Project name: Production of Maleic Anhydride Date: 12/02/09 Page: 1 of 3

Process: Mixing the Waste Gas Product of Distillation Column and Absorber.
Section: Mixer M-2 Reference drawing: Process Flow Diagram
Deviations
Study Process
Node Parameters
words)
1. No Control valve 1. No waste gas going into 1. Install feed flow control
fails open. fuel gas line. valve and low flow alarm.
Feed Operator to take action.
1A Flow NO
Pipeline
clogged.
1. No Control valve 1. Pressure builds up inside 1. Install high flow alarm.
1B HIGH fails close. pipeline. Operator to take action.
1. Partially plugged in 1. Less waste gas going into 1. Install low flow alarm.
feed pipeline. fuel gas line. Operator to take action.
1C LOW
2. Same as above.
330
2. Feed pipelines 2. Hazard to workers.

leak.
1. Pressure build up 1. No mixing process 1. Install check valves.
in mixer. occurs.
1D REVERSE
Flooding inside absorber
and distillation column.
1. No control valve 1. Failure of mixer. 1. Install flow indicator at feed
fails open. pipelines. Operator to take
action.
Product
2A Flow NO
Pipeline
clogged. Pressure build up in
mixer, rupture may occur.
1. No control valve 1. Flooding inside absorber 1. Install low flow alarm.
2B HIGH
fails close. and distillation column. Operator to take action.
1. Partially plugged in 1. Pressure build up in 1. Install low flow alarm.
product pipeline. mixer, rupture may occur. Operator to take action.
2C LOW
2. Product pipeline 2. Hazard to workers. 2. Install hazardous gases
leak. indicator.
331
1. Undesired reaction 1. Not considered possible. 1. None.

OTHER occur in the mixer
2D
THAN because of
impurities
332

Process: Mixing the Recycle Dibutyl Phithalate and Feed Dibutyl Phithalate.
Section: Mixer M-3 Reference drawing: Process Flow Diagram
Deviations
Study Process
Node Parameters
words)
1. No Control valve 1. No waste gas going into 1. Install feed flow control
fails open. fuel gas line. valve and low flow alarm.
Feed
1A Flow NO 2. Feed pipelines 2. Same as above. 2. Same as above.
Pipeline
clogged.
3. Pump P-1 fails to 3. Same as above. 3. Same as above.

function.
1. No Control valve 1. Pressure builds up inside 1. Install high flow alarm.
1B HIGH fails close. pipeline. Operator to take action.
1. Partially plugged 1. Less waste gas going into 1. Install low flow alarm.
1C LOW
in feed pipeline fuel gas line. Operator to take action.
333
2. Feed pipelines leak. 2. Hazard to workers. 2. Same as above.

1. Pressure build up in 1. No mixing process 1. Install check valves.
mixer. occurs.
1D REVERSE and distillation column.
2. Pump P-1 fails to 2. Flooding inside 2. Same as above.

function. distillation column.
1. No control valve 1. Failure of mixer. 1. Install flow indicator at feed
fails open. pipelines.
Product
2A Flow NO
Pipeline
1. No control valve 1. Flooding inside absorber 1. Install low flow alarm.
2B HIGH
fails close. and distillation column. Operator to take action.
2C LOW
334

leak. indicator.
2D
THAN because of
impurities
335

Process: Condensing Overhead Distillation Product
Section: Cooler Before the Condenser Reference drawing: Process Flow Diagram
words)
1. No control valve 1. Loss of cooling, maleic 1. Select valve to fail open.
fails open. anhydride vapor cannot
be recovered.
1A Cooler Flow NO
2. Plugged tudes. 2. Same as above. 2. Install low flow cooling
water alarm. Operator to take
action.
1. No control valve 1. Excessive cooling, more 1. Install high flow cooling
1B HIGH fails close. heat needed to vaporize water alarm. Operator to take
mixture. action.
1. Partially plugged 1. Less maleic anhydride 1. Install low flow cooling
1C LOW tudes. can be recovered. water alarm. Operator to take
action.
1D PART OF 1. Partially plugged 1. Part of maleic anhydride 1. Install low flow cooling
336
tudes. still in vapor phase. water alarm. Operator to take

action.
1. High water supply 1. Inefficient cooling. 1. Install pressure relief valve.
temperature. Install high temperature
1E Temperature HIGH
alarm. Operator to take
action.
1. Low water supply 1. None 1. None
temperature
1F LOW
337

Process: Heating Up Bottom Distillation Product
Section: Reboiler After The Pump P-1 Reference drawing: Process Flow Diagram
words)
1. No control valve 1. Loss of heating, maleic 1. Select valve to fail open.
fails open. anhydride liquid cannot
be recovered.
1A Heater Flow NO
2. Install low flow heating water
2. Plugged tudes. 2. Same as above. alarm. Operator to take
action.
1. No control valve 1. Excessive heating, over 1. Install high flow heating
1B HIGH fails close. heat used to boil up the water alarm. Operator to take
mixture. action.
1. Partially plugged 1. Less maleic anhydride 1. Install low flow heating
1C LOW tudes. can be recovered. water alarm. Operator to take
action.
1. Partially plugged 1. Part of maleic anhydride 1. Install low flow heating
1D PART OF
tudes. still in liquid phase. water alarm. Operator to take
338
action.
1. High water supply 1. Over heating. Dagerous 1. Install pressure relief valve.
temperature. to workers. Install high temperature
1E Temperature HIGH
action.
1. Low heating water 1. Inefficient heating. 1. Install low flow heating
supply. water alarm. Operator to take
1F LOW
action.
339

Process: Product Material Storage
Section: Maleic Anhydride Storage Tank Reference drawing: Process Flow Diagram
words)
1. No feed to storage 1. High product at dryer. 1. Operator to take action.
tank.
Storage 2. No products at 2. Same as above. 2. Same as above.

1A Level NO
Tank dryer.
3. Hazard to workers. 3. Same as above.
3. Conveyer belt
jammed.
1. No products valve 1. Storage tank will flood. 1. Select valve to fail close.
that fail close. Install two storage tanks.
Install high level alarm.
1B HIGH
2. No packaging 2. Same as above. 2. Same as above.

process.
340
3. High production at 3. Same as above. 3. Same as above. Proceed to

dryer. packaging process.
1. High production at 1. Not dangerous. 1. None.
1C LOW
packaging process.
1. Not considered
1D Temperature NO
possible.
1. Over heating by 1. Hazard to workers. 1. Install high temperature
dryer. alarm.
1E HIGH
2. High temperature 2. Same as above. 2. Same as above.
of surrounding.
1. Less heating by 1. Maleic anhydride not 1. Install low temperature
dryer. fully in solid phase. alarm.
1F LOW
Conveyer belt will Operator to take action.
damage.
341
11.4.2 Hazards and Operability Review (HAZOP) after P&ID
Table 11.5: Hazards and Operability Review (HAZOP) Based On Process And Instrumentation Diagram.

Process: Reducing N-butane Feed Flow Pressure
Section: Expander EX-1 Reference drawing: Process And Instrumentation Diagram
words)
1. Clogged of feed 1. No reaction occurs. 1. Place filter in pipe.
pipeline.
2. Control valve fails 2. Same as above. 2. Set up a low flow alarm for
Feed
1A Flow NO to response. the expander.
pipeline

rupture.
1. Partially clogged 1. Less butane for reaction, 1. Install low flow alarm at
1B LOW
of feed pipeline. feed flow.
342

1. Control valve fails 1. Feed pipeline may crack. 1. Install high flow alarm for
open. Overflow of n-butane, operator to take action.
1C HIGH deviation from the set
oxygen.
1. Clogged of feed 1. Pressure builds up inside 1. Install pressure release
pipeline. the expander. valve.
Install high pressure alarm.
Product
2A Flow NO
Pipeline 2. Control valve fails 2. Same as above. 2. Same as above.
close.

rupture.
2B LOW
2. Product pipeline 2. Less feed flow of n- 2. Same as above.

343
partially plugged. butane to the reactor.

1. Control valve fails 1. Inefficiently reducing the 1. Install high flow alarm.
open. feed pressure. Operator to take action.
2C HIGH
expander. crack. Operator to take action.
1. Not considered
Pressure NO
3A possible.

inside expander.
1. Not considered
3C LOW possible.
344

Process: Incresing Oxygen Feed Flow Pressure
Section: Compressor CP-1 Reference drawing: Process And Instrumentation Diagram
words)
pipeline.
Feed 2. Control valve fails 2. Same as above. 2. Set up a low flow alarm.
1A Flow NO
pipeline close. Operator to take action.

rupture.
1. Partially clogged of 1. Less oxygen for reaction, 1. Install low flow alarm at
1B LOW feed pipeline. feed flow.
1. Control valve fails 1. Feed pipeline may crack. 1. Install high flow alarm for
1C HIGH open. Overflow of oxygen, operator to take action.
deviation from the set
345

oxygen.
1. Clogged of feed 1. No pressure builds up 1. Install low pressure alarm.
pipeline. inside the compressor. Operator to take action.
Product 2. Control valve fails 2. Same as above. 2. Same as above.

2A Flow NO
Pipeline close.

rupture.
1. Product pipeline 1. Inefficiently increasing 1. Install low flow alarm.
leak. pressure of gas oxygen Operator to take action.
feed flow.
2B LOW
2. Product pipeline 2. Less feed flow of oxygen 2. Same as above.

partially plugged. to the reactor.
1. Control valve fails 1. Inefficiently increasing 1. Install high flow alarm.
open. the feed pressure. Operator to take action.
2C HIGH

346
the product crack. Operator to take action.

pipeline.
1. Not considered
Pressure NO
3A possible.
condition. Operator to take action.
Expander may rupture
3B HIGH
and explode.

inside expander.
1. No feed valves fail 1. Inefficiently increasing 1. Install low pressure alarm.
open. pressure of gas oxygen Operator to take action.
feed flow.
3C LOW

clogged.
347

Process: Partial Oxidation between N-butane and Oxygen
Section: Packed Bed Reactor Reference drawing: Process And Intrumentation Diagram
words)
pipeline.
Feed 2. Control valve fails 3. Same as above. 2. Set up a low flow alarm for
1A Flow NO
pipeline close. the reactor.

rupture.
1. Feed compressor 1. Less oxygen for reaction, 1. Install low flow alarm at
and expander fail to deviation from the set reactor feed flow.
function. ratio of n-butane and Operator to take action.
1B LOW
oxygen.
2. Partially clogged 2. Same as above. 2. Same as above.

348
heating pipe.
1. Control valve fail 1. Feed pipeline may crack. 1. Install high flow alarm for
open. Overflow of n-butane and operator to take action.
1C HIGH oxygen feed, deviation
from the set ratio of n-
butane and oxygen.
AS WELL 1. Wrong material fed 1. No MA formation. 1. Check quality control
1D
AS into reactor. regularly.
1. Contamination of 1. Incomplete reaction. 1. Check for any feed pipeline
1E PART OF vapour n-butane leak.
and oxygen feed.
1. Clogged of feed 1. Pressure builds up inside 1. Install high pressure alarm.
pipeline. reactor. Operator to take action.
Product 2. Control valve fails 2. Same as above. 2. Same as above.

2A Flow NO
Pipeline close.

rupture.
2B LOW 1. Product pipeline 1. Hazard to workers. 1. Install low level alarm.
349
2. Product pipeline 2. Less products to 2. Same as above.

partially plugged. absorber.
1. Control valve fails 1. Level vapour products 1. Install low level alarm.
open. inside reactor decrease Operator to take action.
drastically.
2C HIGH

rector. crack. Operator to take action.
3A Reactor Level NO 1. Not applicable here.
1. High feed flow. 1. Reactant concentration 1. Install high level alarm.
build up, possible Operator to take action.
runaway on heating.
3B HIGH
2. Product pipeline 2. Same as above. 2. Same as above.

clogged.
1. Feed pipelines leak. 1. Over supply of heat. 1. Install low level and high
3C LOW
temperature alarm.
350

partially plugged.
1. Not considered
4A Temperature NO
possible.
1. Over heating from 1. Reaction not on optimum 1. Install high temperature
the heat released condition. alarm.
from the reaction. Failure of material of Operator to take action.
construction at high
temperature.
4B
HIGH
2. Cooling water feed 2, Same as above. 2. Same as above.
control vale fails to
open.

E-6.
1. Contamination of 1. Reaction not on optimum 1. Install low temperature
4C LOW
the feed material to condition. alarm.
351
the reactor. Operator to take action.

The reaction is not
completed.
E-6.
1. Not considered
Pressure NO
5A possible.
1. Product pipeline 1. Reaction not on optimum 1. Install high pressure alarm.
clogged. condition. Operator to take action.
Failure of relief Reactor may rupture and
5B HIGH valve. explode.
2. High presure inside 2. Same as above. 2. Same as above.

reactor.
1. Feed valves fails 1. Reaction not on optimum 1. Install low pressure alarm.
close. condition. Operator to take action.
5C LOW
clogged.
6A Reaction NO 1. No flow from either 3. No MA production. 3. Install low feeds flow
352
one of the feeds. alarm at feed pipeline.

2. Wrong material feed 4. Same as above. 4. Check feed materials
into reactor. Undesired reaction may randomly.
occur.
1. Not considered
6B HIGH
possible.
1. Not on optimum 1. Less MA production. 1. Check quality control
condition regularly.
6C LOW
2. Low purity of feeds 2. Low MA purity. 2. Same as above.
material.
1. Some impurities fed 1. Incomplete reaction. 1. Check quality control
PART OF
into reactor. regularly.
OTHER 1. Feed contamination. 1. Less MA production. 1. Check for any pipe leak.
THAN
353

Process: Absorption of Maleic Anhydride
Section: Absorber Reference drawing: Process And Instrumentation diagram.
Item Study Node Process Deviations Possible Causes Possible Consequences Action Required
Parameters (guide
words)
1A Feed flow Flow HIGH 1. Control valve 1. Pressure inside absorber 1. Install pressure release
absorber (from fails open. will increase and valve.
reactor) causing gasket to leak. Install high flow alarm.
1B LOW 1. Control 1. Incomplete absorption 1. Install low flow alarm.
valves fail process.
response to it.
2A Feed flow Flow HIGH 1. Control valve 1. Pressure inside 1. Install pressure release
absorber (from fails open. centrifuge will increase valve.
recycle stream and causing gasket to Install high flow alarm.
and feed stream leak. Operator to take action.
of organic
solvent)
2B LOW 1. Pump of 1. Incomplete absorption 1. Install low flow alarm.
354
absorbent process.
recycle
stream fails to
function
properly.
3A Product flow Flow LOW 1. Clogging of 1. Product pipeline may 1. Install low flow alarm
product flow. crack. for operator to take
action.
2. Product 2. Hazard to workers. 2. Same as above.

pipeline leak.
4A Waste flow Flow LOW 1. Clogging of 1. Product pipeline may 1. Install relief valve.
waste flow. crack. Install leak alarm for
operator to take action.
5A Absorber Pressure HIGH 1. High feed flow 1. Absorber might be 1. Install high pressure
ruptured. alarm.
5B LOW 1. Absorber 1. Incomplete absorption 1. Install pressure alarm.

failure. of mixture.
355
6A Level HIGH 1. High feed 1. Product pipeline may 1. Install relief valve.
flow. crack. Install high level alarm.
Clogged of Operator to take action.
product
pipeline.
2. All control 2. Same as above. 2. Same as above.

valves fails to
function
properly.
LOW 1. Low feed flow. 1. Incomplete absorption of 1. Install low level alarm.
mixture. Operator to take action.
2. All control 2. Same as above. 2. Same as above.

valves fails to
function
properly.
356
Project name: Production of Maleic Anhydride Date: 23//02/09 Page: 1 of 5

Process: Separating Liquid Maleic Anhydride and Waste Gas
Section: Distillation Column Reference drawing: Process And Instrumentation Diagram.
words)
1. Control valve 1. Heat and pressure build 1. Install flow indicator and
fails close. up inside the column, high pressure alarm.
rupture or explode may Operator to take action.
Feed
1A Flow NO occur.
Pipeline

clogged.
1. Partially plugged 1. Inefficient product from 1. Install low flow alarm
pipeline. phase separation and high pressure alarm.
process. Operator to take action.
1B LOW Heat and pressure build 2. Same as above.
up inside column,
2. Feed pipeline rupture or explode may
leak. occur.
357
2. Hazard to workers.
1. Control valve that 1. Pressure build up inside 1. Install high flow alarm.
fail open. phase separator, rupture Operator to take action.
1C HIGH
1. High pressure 1. No product from phase 1. Install check valve.

inside distillation separator.
1D REVERSE column than Pressure build up in
pressure in feed column, rupture or
pipeline. explode may occur.
1. Control valve 1. Pressure build up inside 1. Install high pressure
fails close. phase separator, rupture alarm at phase separator.
Product
2A Flow NO 2. Install flow indicator and
Pipeline
2. Feed pipeline 2. Same as above. low flow alarm.
clogged. Operator to take action.
1. Control valve 1. Inefficient product from 1. Install high flow alarm.

2B HIGH fails open. phase separation Operator to take action.
process.
358
2. Over pressure 2. Same as above. 2. Same as above.

inside distillation
column.
leak.
2. Same as above.
2C LOW
2. Product pipeline 2. Pressure build up inside
partially plugged. column, rupture or
explode may occur.
1. Product pipelines 1. Inefficient product from 1. Install high level alarm
clogged. phase separation and pressure relief valve.
process. Operator to take action.
Pressure build up inside
Distillation
3A Level HIGH phase separator, rupture 2. Same as above.
colum
2. Valve that control
product pipeline 2. Same as above.
valve fail open.
1. Partially plugged 1. Hazard to workers and 1. Install low level alarm.
3B LOW
of feed pipeline. environment. Operator to take action.
359
2. Leaking of feed 2. Same as above. 2. Same as above.

pipeline.
3. Leaking of 3. Same as above. 3. Same as above.

distillation
column.
1. Not considered
3C Temperature NO
possible.
1. Over heated of 1. Feed in gas phase, no 1. Install high temperature
feed stream due vapour mixture. alarm.
3D HIGH
to failure of
heater E-4.
1. Failure of heater 1. Feed still in liquid 1. Install low temperature
3E LOW E-4. phase, no vapour alarm.
mixture.
1. Not considered
3F Pressure NO
possible.
1. Product pipelines 1. Distillation column may 1. Install high pressure
3G HIGH clogged. rupture or explode. alarm and pressure relief
valve. Operator to take
360
action.
2. High feed flow. 2. Flooding in distillation 2. Install high flow alarm.

column.
3H LOW 1. Not dangerous.
361

Process: Crystallization of Maleic Anhydride
Section: Crystallizer Reference drawing: Process And Instrumentation Diagram.
Deviations
Study Process
Node Parameters
words)
1. Not
1A Crystallizer Level NO considered
possible.
1. Product flow 1. Crystallizing process 1. Install high level alarm.
from become inefficient and Operator to take action.
distillation affecting the product
1B HIGH column quality.
exceeds than
required
value.
1. Leakage of 1. Leakage of mixture of 1. Inspect and monitor
feed flow liquid and crystal maleic pipeline and tank
1C LOW
pipeline. anhydride. Formations of periodically.
crystal maleic anhydride Install low level alarm.
362
are lesser. Operator to take action.

2. Rupture of 2. Same as above. 2. Same as above.
crystallizer
tank.
1. Waste 1. Tank ruptures and 1. Install pressure relief
pipeline explodes, causing danger valve and high pressure
1D Pressure HIGH
clogged. to workers nearby. alarm.
1. Feed pipeline 1. Temperature decrease, no 1. Install low pressure
1E LOW clogged. evaporation occurs. alarm. Operator to take
action.
1. Not
1F Concentration NO considered
possible.
1. Loss of water 1. Not danger. 1. None.
1G HIGH in previous
unit.
1. Low purity of 1. No or less formation of 1. Check quality control
1H LOW feeds crystal maleic anhydride regularly.
material.
363

Process: Mixing the Waste Gas Product of Distillation Column and Absorber.
Section: Mixer M-2 Reference drawing: Process And Instrumentation Diagram.
Deviations
Study Process
Node Parameters
words)
1. Control valve fails 1. No waste gas going into 1. Install low flow alarm.
close. fuel gas line. Operator to take action.
Feed
1A Flow NO 2. Same as above.
Pipeline
2. Feed pipelines 2. Same as above.

clogged.
1. Control valve fails 1. Pressure builds up inside 1. Install high flow alarm.
1B HIGH open. pipeline. Operator to take action.
1. Partially plugged in 1. Less waste gas going into 1. Install low flow alarm.
1C LOW feed pipeline. fuel gas line. Operator to take action.
364
2. Feed pipelines 2. Hazard to workers. 2. Same as above.

leak.
in mixer. occurs.
1D REVERSE
and distillation column.
1. Control valve fails 1. Failure of mixer. 1. Install flow indicator at
close. feed pipelines. Operator
to take action.
Product
2A Flow NO
Pipeline
1. Control valve fails 1. Flooding inside absorber 1. Install low flow alarm.
2B HIGH
open. and distillation column. Operator to take action.
2C LOW
2. Install hazardous gases
indicator.
365
2. Product pipeline 2. Hazard to workers.

leak.
2D
THAN because of
impurities
366

Process: Mixing the Recycle Dibutyl Phithalate and Feed Dibutyl Phithalate.
Section: Mixer M-3 Reference drawing: Process And Instrumentation Diagram.
Deviations
Study Process
Node Parameters
words)
1. Control valve fails 1. No waste gas going into 1. Install low flow alarm.
close. fuel gas line. Operator to take action.
Feed 2. Feed pipelines 2. Same as above. 2. Same as above.

1A Flow NO
Pipeline clogged.
3. Pump P-1 fails to 3. Same as above. 3. Same as above.

function.
1. Control valve fails 1. Pressure builds up inside 1. Install high flow alarm.
1B HIGH open. pipeline. Operator to take action.
1. Partially plugged 1. Less waste gas going into 1. Install low flow alarm.
1C LOW in feed pipeline fuel gas line. Operator to take action.
367
2. Feed pipelines leak. 2. Hazard to workers. 2. Same as above.

in mixer. occurs.
1D REVERSE
2. Pump P-1 fails to and distillation column. 2. Same as above.
function. 2. Flooding inside
distillation column.
1. Control valve fails 1. Failure of mixer. 1. Install flow indicator at
close. feed pipelines.
Product
2A Flow NO 2. Same as above.
Pipeline
3. Feed pipelines 2. Same as above.

1. Control valve fails 1. Flooding inside absorber 1. Install low flow alarm.
2B HIGH
open. and distillation column. Operator to take action.
1. Partially plugged 1. Pressure build up in 1. Install low flow alarm.
2C LOW
in product mixer, rupture may occur. Operator to take action.
368
pipeline.

leak. indicator.
2D
THAN because of
impurities
369

Process: Condensing Overhead Distillation Product
Section: Cooler Before the Condenser Reference drawing: Process And Instrumentation Diagram.
words)
1. Control valve fails 1. Loss of cooling, maleic 1. Install low flow cooling
close. anhydride vapor cannot water alarm. Operator to
1A Cooler Flow NO be recovered. take action.
2. Plugged tudes. 2. Same as above. 2. Same as above.

1. Control valve fails 1. Excessive cooling, more 1. Install high flow
1B HIGH open. heat needed to vaporize cooling water alarm.
mixture. Operator to take action.
1. Partially plugged 1. Less maleic anhydride 1. Install low flow cooling
1C LOW tudes. can be recovered. water alarm. Operator
to take action.
1. Partially plugged 1. Part of maleic anhydride 1. Install low flow cooling
1D PART OF tudes. still in vapor phase. water alarm. Operator
to take action.
370
1. High water supply 1. Inefficient cooling. 1. Install pressure relief

temperature. valve.
1E Temperature HIGH Install high temperature
action.
1. Low water supply 1. None 1. None
temperature
1F LOW
371

Process: Heating Up Bottom Distillation Product
Section: Reboiler After The Pump P-1 Reference drawing: Process And Instrumentation Diagram.
words)
1. Control valve 1. Loss of heating, maleic 1. Install low flow
fails close. anhydride liquid cannot be heating water alarm.
recovered. Operator to take
1A Heater Flow NO
action.
2. Plugged tudes. 2. Same as above. 2. Same as above.

1. Control valve 1. Excessive heating, over heat 1. Install high flow
fails open. used to boil up the mixture. heating water alarm.
1B HIGH
Operator to take
action.
1. Partially plugged 1. Less maleic anhydride can 1. Install low flow
tudes. be recovered. heating water alarm.
1C LOW
Operator to take
action.
372
1. Partially plugged 1. Part of maleic anhydride still 1. Install low flow

tudes. in liquid phase. heating water alarm.
1D PART OF
Operator to take
action.
1. High water supply 1. Over heating. 1. Install pressure relief
temperature. Dagerous to workers. valve.
Install high
1E Temperature HIGH
temperature alarm.
Operator to take
action.
1. Low heating 1. Inefficient 1. Install low flow
water supply. heating. heating water alarm.
1F LOW
Operator to take
action.
373

Process: Product Material Storage
Section: Maleic Anhydride Storage Tank Reference drawing: Process And Instrumentation Diagram.
words)
1. No feed to 1. High product at dryer. 1. Operator to take action.
storage tank.
2. Same as above.
Storage 2. No products at 2. Same as above.
1A Level NO
Tank dryer. 3. Same as above.
3. Hazard to workers.
3. Conveyer belt
jammed.
1. Products valve 1. Storage tank will flood. 1. Install two storage tanks.
that fail open. Install high level alarm.
1B HIGH 2. No packaging 2. Same as above. 2. Same as above.

process.
374
3. High production 3. Same as above. 3. Same as above. Proceed

at dryer. to packaging process.
1. High production 1. Not dangerous. 1. None.
1C LOW at packaging
process.
1. Not considered
1D Temperature NO
possible.
1. Over heating by 1. Hazard to workers. 1. Install high temperature
dryer. alarm.
1E HIGH
2. High 2. Same as above. 2. Same as above.
temperature of
surrounding.
1. Less heating by 1. Maleic anhydride not 1. Install low temperature
dryer. fully in solid phase. alarm.
1F LOW
Conveyer belt will Operator to take action.
damage.
CHAPTER XII
PLANT SITE LAYOUT
12.1 INTRODUCTION
Production activity is a major activity in factory enterprises. That is the centralized

process of change from input to output. To achieve an objective process of change,
among other plants and machines must be arranged in such a way that organize the
operations of the production process one stage to another can be run smoothly, efficiently
and effective.
A suitable site must be obtained and all positions and equipment must be careful
in order to optimize the operating plant. The strategic position of the plant will enable the
course of the operation, security and future growth will go smoothly. Therefore,
profitability of a plant can be maximized to the highest level.
12.2 SITE LAYOUT
Operating units and the building must be well organized so that its use can be increased to
the extent that optimum. Buildings and services required in a plant are as follows.
i. The administration building
ii. Research and development laboratory
iii. Quality control centre
iv. Engineering workshop
v. Storage tank
376
vi. Warehousing or spare parts storage

vii. Utilities
viii. Warehousing or spare parts storage
ix. Fire station
x. Waste water treatment plant
xi. Guard house
xii. Employee base facilities
xiii. Car park
According to each facility and the requirements listed above, consideration should
be made to compile all these requirements where appropriate with optimizing the use of
the existing site. For example, the administration building should be placed near the main
entrance to facilitate the transaction and administrative workers commute. Besides that,
the devices are usually placed at a distance of at least 30 meters between each other,
while a larger distance may be required to major operating unit more
dangerous. Moreover, fire safety building also must be placed close to the dangerous
operating units.
The location of the principle ancillary buildings should then be decided. They
should be arranged so as to minimize the time spent by personnel in travelling between
buildings. Administration offices and laboratories, in which a relatively number of people
will be working, should be located well away from potentially hazardous processes.
Control room will normally be located adjacent to the processing units, but with
potentially hazardous processes may have to be sited at a safer distance.
The siting of the main process units will determine the layout of the plant roads,
pipe alleys and drains. Access roads will be needed to each building for construction, and
for operation and maintenance.
377
Utility buildings should be sited to give the most economical run of pipes to and
from the process units. Cooling towers should be sited so that under the prevailing wind
the plume of condensate spray drifts away from the plant area and adjacent properties.
The main storage areas should be placed between the loading and unloading
facilities and the process units they serve. Storage tanks containing hazardous materials
should be sited at least 70 m (200 ft) from the sited boundary.
12.3 PLANT LAYOUT
The economic construction and efficient operation of a process unit will depend on how
well the plant and equipment specified on the process flow-sheet is laid out. The principle
factors to be considered to construct Maleic Anhydride plant are:
12.3.1 Costs
The cost of construction can be minimized by adopting a layout that gives shortest run of
connecting pipes between equipment, and adopting the least amount of structural steel
work. However, this will not necessarily be the best arrangement for operation and
maintenance.
12.3.2 Process Requirement
All the required equipments have to be placed properly within process. Even the
installation of the auxiliaries should be done in such a way that it will occupy the least
space.
378
MAIN ROAD MAIN ENTRANCE
GUARD
HOUSE
POWER SUPPLY
ADMISTRATION
STORAGE TANKS ASSEMBLY POINT CAR PARK
CANTEEN
CONTROL ROOM CATALYST

WORKSHOP LAB
GUARD WAREHOUSE
HOUSE Wind direction 1
MAIN
ENTRANCE
WASTE-
WATER
TREATMENT
PLANT MTBE UNIT MTBE UNIT
AREA FOR EXPANSION

(MALEIC ANHYDRIDE PLANT)
OLEFLEX UNIT CENTRALLIZED UNIT
DIISO & BUTAMER DIISO & BUTAMER

UNIT UNIT
PLANT UTILITIES
Figure 12.1: Site layout for Maleic Anhydride production plant

379
12.3.3 Operation
Equipment that needs to have frequent operation should be located convenient to the
control room. Valves, sample points, and instruments should be located at convenient
position and height. Sufficient working space and headroom must be provided to allow
easy access to equipment.
12.3.4 Maintenance
Heat exchangers need to be sited so that the tube bundles can be easily withdrawn for
cleaning and tube replacement. Vessels that require frequent replacement of catalyst or
packing should be located on the outside of buildings. Equipment that requires
dismantling for maintenance, such as compressors and large pumps, should be placed
under cover.
12.3.5 Safety
Blast walls may be needed to isolate potentially hazardous equipment, and confine the
effects of an explosion. At least two escape routes for operator must be provided from
each level in the process building.
380
Figure 12.2: Plant layout for Maleic Anhydride production plant

381
REFERENCES
Book, Journal and others:
Anon. 2008. Fixed-Bed Catalytic Reactors. Nob Hill Publishing, LLC.
Anon. 2005. PERP Program- Maleic Anyhydride- New Report Alert. Nexant’s
ChemSystems.
Azlan Hasan. 2005. Appreciation of Pressure Vessel ASME Section VIII DIV.1. The
Institution of Engineers Malaysia.
Brown et al. 1997. Process for the preparation and recovery of maleic anhydride. United
States Patent 5,631,387: 1-18.
Buchanan, J.S. & Sundaresan, S. 1986. Kinetics & redox properties of vanadium
phosphate catalysts for butane oxidation. Applied Catalysis 26(1986): 211-226.
Chopey, N.P. 1994. Handbook of Chemical Engineering Calculations. 2nd edition. New
York: McGraw-Hill.
Crowl. D.A. & Louvar, J.F. 2002. Chemical Process Safety: Fundamentals And
Applications. 2nd edition. New Jersey: Prentice Hall PTR.
Fogler, H.S. 2006. Elements of Chemical Reaction Engineering. 4th edition. University of
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Geankoplis, C.J. 2003. Transport Processes and Separation Process Principles. 4th
edition. University of Minnesota: Pearson Education, Inc.
382
Guliants, V.V. & Benziger, J.B. 1999. Effect of promoters for n-butane oxidation to
maleic anhydride over vanadium–phosphorus-oxide catalysts: comparison with
supported vanadia catalysts. Catalysis Letters 62(1999): 87–91.
Guliants, V.V & Moises, A.C. 2005. Vanadium-Phosphorus-Oxides: from Fundamentals

of n-Butane Oxidation to Synthesis of New Phases. The Royal Society of
Chemistry.
Harry Silla. 2003. Chemical Process Engineering: Design and Economics. New York:
Marcel Dekker.
Joshuah, K. Stolaroff, D.W., Keith G.V. & Lowry. 2008. Carbon Dioxide Capture From
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Legal Research Board. 2007. Environmental Quality Act 1974 (ACT 127) & Subsidiary
Legislation. Malaysia: International Law Book Services.
Metcalf & Eddy. 2004. Wastewater Engineering Treatment and Reuse. 4th Edition. New
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Perry, R.H & Green, D.W. 1997. Perry’s Chemical Engineering Handbook. 7th Edition.
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Sinnott, R.K. 2005. Chemical Engineering Design. 4th Edition. British: Elsevier.
Slindard, W. A. & Baylis. 1977. Vapor phase oxidation of butane producing maleic
anhydride and acetic acid. U.S. Patent 4,052,417: 1-8.
383
Timothy, R. Felthouse, Joseph, C. Burnett, Ben Horrell, Michael J.M. & Yeong- Jen
Kuo. 2001. Maleic Anhydride, Maleic Acid, And Fumaric Acid. Huntsman
Petrochemical Corporation.
Wan Ramli Wan Daud. 2002. Prinsip Rekabentuk Proses Kimia. Bangi: Institusi Jurutera
Kimia Malaysia.
Internet:
Chemsystems, 2009. Maleic Anhydride (MAN).

http://www.chemsystems.com/reports/search/docs/abstracts/0708_8_abs.pdf.
[4th December 2009]
Chemical Engineering, 2009. Economic Indicator. http:// www.chem.com.

[ 15th April 2010]
Chemical Engineering Progress, 1998. Design Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers.

http://www- unix.ecs.umass.edu/~rlaurenc/Courses/che333/
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ICIS.com. 2010. Indicative Chemical Prices. http://www.icis.com/staticpages/a-e.htm.

[29th April 2010]
ICIS.com. 2009. Maleic Anhydride (MA) Uses and Market Data.

http://www.icis.com/v2/chemicals/9076025/maleic-anhydride/uses.html.
[14th October 2009]
Scribd.com. 2007. Absorber Design.

http://www.scribd.com/absorber/AbsorberDesign.htm. [1st February 2010]
384
SRI Consulting. 2009. World Consumption of Maleic Anhydride.

http://www.sriconsulting.com/SRI Consulting CEH Report Maleic
th
Anhydride.htm. [15 November 2009]
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385
APPENDIX
MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET
PRODUCT NAME: N-BUTANE
1. Chemical Product and Company Identification
BOC Gases, BOC Gases

Division of Division of
The BOC Group, Inc. BOC Canada Limited
575 Mountain Avenue 5975 Falbourne Street, Unit 2
Murray Hill, NJ 07974 Mississauga, Ontario L5R 3W6
TELEPHONE NUMBER: (908) 464-8100 TELEPHONE NUMBER: (905) 501-1700

24-HOUR EMERGENCY TELEPHONE NUMBER: 24-HOUR EMERGENCY TELEPHONE NUMBER:
CHEMTREC (800) 424-9300 (905) 501-0802
EMERGENCY RESPONSE PLAN NO: 20101

CHEMICAL NAME: N-Butane
COMMON NAMES/SYNONYMS: 1-Butane, Butane, Normal Butane
TDG (Canada) CLASSIFICATION: 2.1
WHMIS CLASSIFICATION: A, B1, D2B
PREPARED BY: Loss Control (908)464-8100/(905)501-1700

PREPARATION DATE: 6/1/95
REVIEW DATES: 6/7/96
2. Composition, Information on Ingredients
INGREDIENT % VOLUME PEL-OSHA1 TLV-ACGIH2 LD50 or LC50

Route/Species
n-Butane 100 Simple Asphyxiant 800 ppm LC50
FORMULA: C4H10 658 g/m3/4H
CAS: 106-97-8 (rat)
RTECS #:EJ4200000
1
As stated in 29 CFR 1910, Subpart Z (revised July 1, 1993)
2
As stated in the ACGIH 1994-95 Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents
3. Hazards Identification
EMERGENCY OVERVIEW
This product does not contain oxygen and may cause asphyxia if released in a confined area. Simple
hydrocarbons can cause irritation and central nervous system depression at high concentrations.
Extremely flammable.
MSDS: G-17
Revised: 6/7/96 Page 1 of 7
ROUTE OF ENTRY:
Skin Contact Skin Absorption Eye Contact Inhalation Ingestion
Yes No Yes Yes No
HEALTH EFFECTS:
Exposure Limits Irritant Sensitization
No Yes No
Teratogen Reproductive Hazard Mutagen
No No No
Synergistic Effects
None Reported
Carcinogenicity: -- NTP: No IARC: No OSHA: No
EYE EFFECTS:
Adverse effects are not anticipated as product is a gas at room temperature.
SKIN EFFECTS:
Adverse effects not anticipated.
INGESTION EFFECTS:
Ingestion is unlikely.
INHALATION EFFECTS:
Product is relatively nontoxic. Simple hydrocarbons can irritate the eyes, mucous membranes and respiratory
system at high concentrations.
Inhalation of high concentrations may cause dizziness, disorientation, incoordination, narcosis, nausea or
narcotic effects.
This product may displace oxygen if released in a confined space. Maintain oxygen levels above 19.5% at sea
level to prevent asphyxiation.
Effects of oxygen deficiency resulting from simple asphyxiants may include: rapid breathing, diminished mental
alertness, impaired muscular coordination, faulty judgement, depression of all sensations, emotional instability,
and fatigue. As asphyxiation progresses, nausea, vomiting, prostration, and loss of consciousness may result,
eventually leading to convulsions, coma, and death.
Oxygen deficiency during pregnancy has produced developmental abnormalities in humans and experimental
animals.
NFPA HAZARD CODES HMIS HAZARD CODES RATINGS SYSTEM
Health: 1 Health: 1 0 = No Hazard

Flammability: 4 Flammability: 4 1 = Slight Hazard
Reactivity: 0 Reactivity: 0 2 = Moderate Hazard
3 = Serious Hazard
4 = Severe Hazard
MSDS: G-17
4. First Aid Measures
EYES:
Never introduce oil or ointment into the eyes without medical advice! If pain is present, refer the victim to an
ophthalmologist for further treatment and follow up.
SKIN:
Remove contaminated clothing and flush affected area with cold water and soap. DO NOT USE HOT WATER.
INGESTION:
Not normally required. Seek immediate medical attention.
INHALATION:
PROMPT MEDICAL ATTENTION IS MANDATORY IN ALL CASES OF OVEREXPOSURE TO
PRODUCT. RESCUE PERSONNEL SHOULD BE EQUIPPED WITH SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING
APPARATUS. Conscious persons should be assisted to an uncontaminated area and inhale fresh air. Quick
removal from the contaminated area is most important. Unconscious persons should be moved to an
uncontaminated area, given assisted (artificial) respiration and supplemental oxygen. Further treatment should
be symptomatic and supportive.
5. Fire Fighting Measures
Conditions of Flammability: Flammable liquid and vapor

Flash point: Method: Autoignition
-101oF (-73.9oC) Closed Cup Temperature: 788oF (420oC)
LEL(%): 1.8 UEL(%): 8.4
Hazardous combustion products: Carbon monoxide, Carbon dioxide
Sensitivity to mechanical shock: None
Sensitivity to static discharge: Not Available
FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARDS:

Butane is heavier than air and may travel a considerable distance to an ignition source. Butane is a flammable
gas! Keep away from open flame and other sources of ignition. Do not allow smoking in storage areas or when
handling.
EXTINGUISHING MEDIA:
Water, carbon dioxide, dry chemical.
FIRE FIGHTING INSTRUCTIONS:

If possible, stop the flow of gas with a remote valve. Use water spray to cool fire exposed containers. If fire is
extinguished and flow of gas is continued, increase ventilation to prevent a build up of a flammable/explosive
atmosphere. Extinguish sources of ignition.
Be cautious of a Boiling Liquid Evaporating Vapor Explosion, BLEVE, if flame is impinging on surrounding
containers. Direct 500 GPM water stream onto containers above the liquid level with remote monitors. Limit
the number of personnel in proximity to the fire. Evacuate surrounding areas to at least 3000 feet in all
directions.
MSDS: G-17
6. Accidental Release Measures
Evacuate all personnel from affected area. Use appropriate protective equipment. Increase ventilation to
prevent build up of a flammable/explosive atmosphere. Extinguish all sources of ignition! If leak is in user’s
equipment, be certain to purge piping with inert gas prior to attempting repairs. If leak is in container or
container valve, contact the appropriate emergency telephone number listed in Section 1 or call your closest
BOC location.
7. Handling and Storage
Earth bond and ground all lines and equipment associated with the product system. Electrical equipment should
be non-sparking and explosion proof.
Use only in well-ventilated areas. Valve protection caps must remain in place unless container is secured with
valve outlet piped to use point. Do not drag, slide or roll cylinders. Use a suitable hand truck for cylinder
movement. Use a pressure regulator when connecting cylinder to lower pressure (<250 psig) piping or systems.
Do not heat cylinder by any means to increase the discharge rate of product from the cylinder. Use a check
valve or trap in the discharge line to prevent hazardous back flow into the cylinder.
Protect cylinders from physical damage. Store in cool, dry, well-ventilated area away from heavily trafficked
areas and emergency exits. Do not allow the temperature where cylinders are stored to exceed 130oF (54oC).
Cylinders should be stored upright and firmly secured to prevent falling or being knocked over. Full and empty
cylinders should be segregated. Use a "first in-first out" inventory system to prevent full cylinders from being
stored for excessive periods of time.
Post "No Smoking" signs in storage or use areas.
For additional recommendations consult Compressed Gas Association Pamphlet P-1.
Never carry a compressed gas cylinder or a container of a gas in cryogenic liquid form in an enclosed space such
as a car trunk, van or station wagon. A leak can result in a fire, explosion, asphyxiation or a toxic exposure.
8. Exposure Controls, Personal Protection
EXPOSURE LIMITS1:
Route/Species
N-BUTANE 100 Simple Asphyxiant 800 ppm LC50
FORMULA: C4H10 658 g/m3/4H
CAS: 106-97-8 (rat)
RTECS #: EJ4200000
1
Refer to individual state of provincial regulations, as applicable, for limits which may be more stringent than
those listed here.
2
3
As stated in the ACGIH 1994-1995 Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents.
MSDS: G-17
ENGINEERING CONTROLS:
Use local exhaust to prevent accumulation. Use general ventilation to prevent build up of flammable
concentrations. May use hood with forced ventilation when handling small quantities. If product is handled
routinely where the potential for leaks exists, all electrical equipment must be rated for use in potentially
flammable atmospheres. Consult the National Electrical Code for details.
EYE/FACE PROTECTION:
Safety goggles or glasses.
SKIN PROTECTION:
Protective gloves made of plastic or rubber.
RESPIRATORY PROTECTION:
Positive pressure air line with full-face mask and escape bottle or self-contained breathing apparatus should be
available for emergency use.
OTHER/GENERAL PROTECTION:
Safety shoes, safety shower, eyewash.
9. Physical and Chemical Properties
PARAMETER VALUE UNITS

Physical state (gas, liquid, solid) : Gas
Vapor pressure at 70oF : 31 psia
Vapor density at STP (Air = 1) : 2.07
Evaporation point : Not Available
o
Boiling point : 31.1 F
o
: -0.5 C
Freezing point : Not Available
: Not Available
pH : Not Available
Specific gravity : Not Available
Oil/water partition coefficient : Not Available
Solubility (H20) : Insoluble
Odor threshold : Not Applicable
Odor and appearance : A colorless, odorless gas.
10. Stability and Reactivity
STABILITY:
Stable
CONDITIONS TO AVOID (STABILITY):

High temperatures. Product will start to decompose at 815oF (435oC).
INCOMPATIBLE MATERIALS:
Oxidizers
MSDS: G-17
HAZARDOUS DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS:

Carbon monoxide
11. Toxicological Information
animals.
No chronic effects data given in the Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances (RTECS) or Sax,
Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials, 7th ed.
12. Ecological Information
No data given.
13. Disposal Considerations
Do not attempt to dispose of residual waste or unused quantities. Return in the shipping container PROPERLY
LABELED, WITH ANY VALVE OUTLET PLUGS OR CAPS SECURED AND VALVE PROTECTION CAP
IN PLACE to BOC Gases or authorized distributor for proper disposal.
14. Transport Information
PARAMETER United States DOT Canada TDG

PROPER SHIPPING NAME: Butane Butane
HAZARD CLASS: 2.1 2.1
IDENTIFICATION NUMBER: UN 1011 UN 1011
SHIPPING LABEL: FLAMMABLE GAS FLAMMABLE GAS
15. Regulatory Information
N-butane is listed under the accident prevention provisions of section 112(r) of the Clean Air Act (CAA) with a
threshold quantity (TQ) of 10,000 pounds.
SARA TITLE III NOTIFICATIONS AND INFORMATION
SARA TITLE III - HAZARD CLASSES:

Acute Health Hazard
Fire Hazard
Sudden Release of Pressure Hazard
16. Other Information

Compressed gas cylinders shall not be refilled without the express written permission of the owner. Shipment of
a compressed gas cylinder which has not been filled by the owner or with his/her (written) consent is a
violation of transportation regulations.
MSDS: G-17
DISCLAIMER OF EXPRESSED AND IMPLIED WARRANTIES:

Although reasonable care has been taken in the preparation of this document, we extend no warranties and make
no representations as to the accuracy or completeness of the information contained herein, and assume no
responsibility regarding the suitability of this information for the user’s intended purposes or for the
consequences of its use. Each individual should make a determination as to the suitability of the information for
their particular purpose(s).
MSDS: G-17
PRODUCT NAME: OXYGEN


CHEMTREC (800) 424-9300 (905) 501-0802

CHEMICAL NAME: Oxygen
COMMON NAMES/SYNONYMS: None
TDG (Canada) CLASSIFICATION: 2.2 (5.1)
WHMIS CLASSIFICATION: A, C


Route/Species
Oxygen 99.6 to 100.0 Not Available Not Available Not Available
FORMULA: O2
CAS: 7782-44-7
RTECS #: RS2060000
1
2
EMERGENCY OVERVIEW
Elevated oxygen levels may result in cough and other pulmonary changes. High concentrations of
oxygen (greater than 75%) causes symptoms of hyperoxia which included cramps, nausea, dizziness,
hypothermia, ambylopia, respiration difficulties, bradycardia, fainting spells and convulsions capable of
leading to death. Nonflammable. Oxidizer, will accelerate combustion.
ROUTE OF ENTRY:
No No No Yes No
MSDS: G-1
HEALTH EFFECTS:
No No No
No No Yes
Synergistic Effects
None known
EYE EFFECTS:
SKIN EFFECTS:
INGESTION EFFECTS:
INHALATION EFFECTS:
High concentrations of oxygen (greater than 75%) causes symptoms of hyperoxia which included cramps,
nausea, dizziness, hypothermia, ambylopia, respiration difficulties, bradycardia, fainting spells and convulsions
capable of leading to death. The property is that of hyperoxia which leads to pneumonia. Concentrations
between 25 and 75% present a risk of inflammation of organic matter in the body.
Oxygen concentrations between 20 to 95% have produced genetic changes in mammalian cell assay test systems.

3 = Serious Hazard
4 = Severe Hazard
EYES:
Never introduce ointment or oil into the eyes without medical advice. If pain is present, refer the victim to an
ophthalmologist for treatment and follow up.
SKIN:
Remove contaminated clothing and flush affected areas with lukewarm water. If irritation persists, seek medical
attention.
INGESTION:
Ingestion is not anticipated.
MSDS: G-1
INHALATION:
PROMPT MEDICAL ATTENTION IS MANDATORY IN ALL CASES OF OVEREXPOSURE TO
OXYGEN. RESCUE PERSONNEL SHOULD BE EQUIPPED WITH SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING
removal from the contaminated area is most important. Further treatment should be symptomatic and
supportive. Inform the treating physician that the patient could be experiencing hyperoxia.
Conditions of Flammability: Not flammable, Oxidizer

None Not Applicable Temperature: None
LEL(%): None UEL(%): None
Hazardous combustion products: None
Sensitivity to static discharge: None

High oxygen concentrations vigorously accelerate combustion.
Water spray to keep cylinders cool. Extinguishing agent appropriate for the combustible material.

If possible, stop the flow of oxygen which is supporting the fire.
Evacuate all personnel from affected area. Use appropriate protective equipment. If leak is in user’s equipment,
be certain to purge piping with inert gas prior to attempting repairs. If leak is in container or container valve,
contact the appropriate emergency telephone number listed in Section 1 or call your closest BOC location.
Electrical classification:
Nonhazardous
Dry product is noncorrosive and may be used with all materials of construction. Moisture causes metal oxides
which are formed with air to be hydrated so that they include volume and lose their protective role (rust
formation). Concentrations of SO2, C12, salt, etc. in the moisture enhances the rusting of metals in air.
Carbon steels and low alloy steels are acceptable for use at lower pressures.
For high pressure applications stainless steels are acceptable as are copper and its alloys, nickel and its alloys,
brass bronze, silicon alloys, Monel ®, Inconel ® and beryllium. Lead and silver or lead tin alloys are good
gasket materials. Teflon ®, Teflon ® composites, or Kel-F ® are preferred non-metallic gasket materials.
Check with the supplier to verify oxygen compatibility for the service conditions.
Oxygen should not be used as a substitute for compressed air in pneumatic equipment since this type generally
contains flammable lubricants.
MSDS: G-1
Stationary customer site vessels should operate in accordance with the manufacturer's and BOC’s instruction.
Do not attempt to repair, adjust or in any other way modify the operation of these vessels. If there is a
malfunction or other type of operations problem with the vessel, contact the closest BOC location immediately.
Valve protection caps must remain in place unless container is secured with valve outlet piped to use point. Do
not drag, slide or roll cylinders. Use a suitable hand truck for cylinder movement. Use a pressure reducing
regulator when connecting cylinder to lower pressure (<3000 psig) piping or systems. Do not heat cylinder by
any means to increase the discharge rate of product from the cylinder. Use a check valve or trap in the discharge
line to prevent hazardous back flow into the system.
cylinders should be segregated. Use a "first in-first out" inventory system to prevent full cylinders being stored
for excessive periods of time. Post "NO SMOKING OR OPEN FLAMES" signs in the storage area or use area.
There should be no sources of ignition in the storage or use area.
For additional storage recommendations, consult Compressed Gas Association's Pamphlets P-1, P-14 and Safety
Bulletin SB-2.
EXPOSURE LIMITS1:
Route/Species
Oxygen 99.6 to 100.0 Not Available Not Available Not Available
FORMULA: O2
CAS: 7782-44-7
RTECS #: RS2060000
1
those listed here.
2
3
Use local exhaust to prevent accumulation of high concentrations that increase the oxygen level in air to more
than 25%.
Safety goggles or glasses as appropriate for the job.
SKIN PROTECTION:
Protective gloves made of any suitable material appropriate for the job.
Safety shoes, safety shower.
MSDS: G-1

Vapor pressure : Above critical temp.
Vapor density (Air = 1) : 1.11
o
Boiling point : -297.3 F
o
: -182.9 C
o
Freezing point : -361.8 F
o
: -218.8 C
pH : Not Applicable
Specific gravity at STP : Not Available
Solubility (H20) : Slightly soluble
Odor and appearance : Colorless, odorless gas
STABILITY:
Stable.
All flammable materials.

None.
HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION:
Will not occur.
MUTAGENIC:
Oxygen concentrations between 20 to 95% have produced genetic changes in mammalian cell assay test systems.
No data given.
MSDS: G-1

PROPER SHIPPING NAME: Oxygen, compressed Oxygen, compressed
HAZARD CLASS: 2.2 2.2 (5.1)
SHIPPING LABEL: NONFLAMMABLE GAS, OXIDIZER NONFLAMMABLE GAS, OXIDIZER

Fire Hazard

MSDS: G-1
MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET – MSDS
ACCORDING DIRECTIVES 91/155/EEC – 93/112/EC
PRODUCT: MALEIC ANHYDRIDE

ISSUE DATE: 16/10/1991 REV. DATE: 31/08/06 MSDS Nº: 22-B REV. Nº: 5 PAGE: 1/8
HAZARDS DIAMMOND – NFPA 704
1 Fire 1 – risk in case of strong heating

Health 3 – very hzardous
1 0 Reactivity 1 – unstable under heating
-
1. IDENTIFICATION OF THE SUBSTANCE AND COMPANY
• Product name (label): Maleic Anhydride

• Name in English: Maleic Anhydride
• Supplier name, address and telephone number:
Elekeiroz S.A. (Várzea Paulista-SP Plant) - Rua Dr. Edgardo de Azevedo Soares, 392
CEP 13224-030
(00-55-11) 4596-8880 or (00-55-11) 4596-8788 or (00-55-11) 4596-8768(business hours)
(00-55-11) 4596-8800 or (00-55-11) 9961-4808 (24h)
Fax: (00-55-11) 4596-8881
E-mail (customer service):
elisabete.moskalenko@elekeiroz.com.br
carlos.villani@elekeiroz.com.br
2. COMPOSITION AND INFORMATION ON INGREDIENTS
• Commom chemical name of the substance:

Maleic Anhydride
• Synonims: Anhydride Cis-butenodioic Anhydride; 2,5-Furanedione; Toxylic Anhydride; 2,5-
Dioxihydrofurane; Anhydride of Acid Maleic
• Register in Chemical Abstract Service (nº C.A.S):
[108-31-6]
• Ingredients that contribute to risk:
Maleic Anhydride > 99,5%, corrosive, Nº C.A.S.: [108-31-6]
3. HAZARD IDENTIFICATION
• Hazards and most important effects of the product:

Corrosive substance, irritant to skin and mucous membranes. Can cause chemical burns, and
when there is contact with the molten product, it causes thermic burns.

4. FIRST-AID MEASURES
• Inhalation:
Remove the exposed person to non-contaminated area and apply artificial respiration.
• Contact with skin:

Wash immediately the skin with plenty of water and soap. Contaminated clothing and shoes
should be removed.
• Contact with eyes:

Wash the eyes with plenty of water during, at least, 15 minutes.
• Ingestion:
NO Induce vomiting. Keep the victim lying and warm. Do not give anything to drink if the
person is unconscious.
• Observation: in any situation, the victim should be sent to emergency medical treatment.
• Information to physician:
If there is contact of molten maleic anhydride with the skin, it will cause severe thermic burn.
The product will solidify and form a crust over the affected area. This crust should be removed
manually, and it should be administered treatment for thermic burns of same size and depth.
Intubation, if necessary. Signs and symptoms of mucous membranes irritation can occur in cases
of acute exposure to the product. Doubling vision, photofobia or sensation of seeing rings around
lights can come from repeated moderate exposures or brief acute exposure. Inhalation for
prolonged periods can cause bronchospasms in individuals with predisposition.
Ingestion: induce to vomit and, later, administer two soup spoons of activated carbon diluted in
water. In case of aggression to other apparatuses or systems, call an expert.
5. FIRE-FIGHTING MEASURES
• Proper extinguishing media:

Light fire: dry powder, CO2, and water fog or mechanical foam.
Intense fire: water fog or mechanical foam.
Dry powder cannot be used, because it contains Sodium. See item 10.
• Specific hazards:
Combustible product, but does not ignite easily. Flammable and toxic gases can accumulate
indoors. Fire can cause emission of irritant and toxic gases. Water resulting from firefighting and
dilution waters cannot be released directly to bodies of water.
• Specific methods and firemen protection:


Remove containers from the fire area, if this can be done without risk. Cool with water the side
parts of the containers exposed to flames, long time after the fire is extinguished. Evacuate
personnel in the affected area. People involved in firefighting should wear selfcontained
apparatus and full protection clothing.
6. ACCIDENTAL RELEASE MEASURES
• Special precautions:
Keep away bystanders, isolate the risk area, remove sources of ignition and forbid the entrance of
persons. Avoid dust formation (solid product). Keep on the wind and keep away from low areas. Do not
touch the spilled material. Contain the spill, if this can be done without risks. Avoid contact of the product
with skin, eyes and respiratory system, wearing personal protective equipment, mentioned in item 8.
• Environment precautions:
- Solid product spills: collect with a clean shovel, put in clean, dry vessels and close them.
Remove them from the spill area.
• Cleaning methods:
Follow the recommendations above mentioned.
7. HANDLING AND STORAGE
• Handling (technical measures)

Wear safety equipment, according to item 8. Avoid dust formation and buildup. Do not smoke or
take meals in the area. At the slightest sign of contact with the product, proceed according to
item 4, first aid measures.
• Storage (technical measures)

Solid:
Keep the product in well closed packages, in a dry and ventilated area. Do not reuse empty
packages. Because the product is hygroscopic, it is not advisable its storage for long periods, in
order to avoid acidity increasing and aggregation due to crystallization bridges. Put the product
in polypropilene packages.
Molten:
Store in 316 stainless steel tanks, grounded with inert atmosphere by using nitrogen and keep
temperature between 60 and 65ºC, but not higher than 80ºC.
General Recommendations:
Protect the area against physical damages and isolate from incompatible substances (see item
10). Empty containers/tanks of the product can be hazardous since they keep residues
(dusts/particulates). Protect the area and tanks against static electricity. Empty containers, only
under inert or non-flammable atmosphere, due to the risk of fire or explosion caused by static
electricity. Storage area should have adequate ventilation.

8. EXPOSURE CONTROLS AND PERSONAL PROTECTION
• Specific control parameters:

Governmental Decree 3214/78, Standard Regulating NR-15: there is no limit.
ACGIH-TLV/TWA (revision 2005) = 0,1 ppm / 40 week hours (for chemical substance)
Particulate non classified under other manner (PNOS) = 3,0 mg/m3 (dust)
• Environmental assessment
Non classified particulate under other manner (PNOS): monitor with PVC membrane, 5,0 micra,
provided with nylon cyclone. Analytical technique: gravimetry.
• Personal protective equipment:

- Solid product:
Full facial mask with supplied air to product condicionamento indoors. Full facial mask with
filter for organic vapours outdoors and during load and unload operations. Single canvas overalls
with long sleeves and hood. Latex or PVC gloves. Safety leather shoes with rubber impermeable
sole.
- Molten produc:
Full facial mask with filter for organic vapours, scrap trousers and jacket, scrap glooves and
safety leather shoes.
- Selfcontained apparatus, in case of emergency involving fire.
• Other information:
- closed areas should be provided with gases exhaustion equipment.
9. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
• Physical state:
Solid: white crystalline, strong odor
Liquid: colourless, strong odor
• pH: not available
• Specific temperatures where occur physical state changes:

• Boiling point (760 mmHg): 202.0ºC.
• Melting point: 53ºC
• Flash point:
Open cup: 110 ºC
Closed cup: 102ºC
• Auto-ignition temperature: 476.67ºC.

• Explosion limits:
Lower: 1.4% per air volume
Upper: 7.1% per air volume.
• Vapour pressure: ºC: 44 52 60 80 100
MmHg: 1 3 4 11 26
• Vapor density (air = 1): 3,4
• Liquid density: ºC: 25 40 52 60 80
mmHg:1.47 1.39 1.32 1.31 1.29
• Solubility (at 25ºC (g/100g of solvent):
Ketone: 227.0
Ethyl Acetate: 112.0
Chlorophorm: 52.5
Benzene: 50.0
Toluene: 23.4
Orto-xylene: 19.4
Carbon Tetrachloryde: 0.6
Kerosene: 0.25
Water: slow hydrolisis. 16.3 g/100ml (25ºC)
10. STABILITY AND REACTIVITY
• Specific conditions:
The product is considered stable under normal conditions of handling and storage. Reacts
exothermically with moisture producing Acid Maleic, which is corrosive to iron, carbon steel
and other metals (except stainless steel).
Does not present polymerization risk, but it can happen uncontrolled co-polymerization when mixed with
olefines and catalysts. A decomposition “explosive polymerization” can occur when in presence of
alkalys, alkaline metals and earthy-alkaline, ammoniac or amines, when heated above 150ºC. The
concentration of these impurities necessary to initiate the decomposition is below than 200 ppm. The
exothermic reaction will occur quickly and the released gas can cause equipment rupture, unless it is
provided with relief device.
• Incompatible substances:
- Explosion decomposition: alkaline metals, piridine
- Exothermic decomposition: amines, alkalis, quinoline, sodium potassium
- Contact with strong oxidizers can cause fire and explosion

• Conditions to avoid:
Moisture, heat, ignition sources, incompatible materials. Use of sodium or potassium carbonate
and sodium and ammonia hydroxide for cleaning and washing equipment that later will contain
maleic anhydride, due to explosion possibility.
• Hazardous decomposition products:

Carbon Monoxide, Carbon Dioxide can be formed from the heat of decomposition.
11. TOXICOLOGICAL INFORMATION
• Acute toxicity and local effects:

Contact with the skin: Phtalic Anhydride usually does not cause burning sensation immediately
after contact, specially if the skin is dry. However, it can cause reddiness and severe dermatitis if
it is not removed through washing. During tests with guinea pigs the product caused reddiness 48
hours after exposure and visible destruction of the skin 7 days later, at 4 hours exposure.
Contact with eyes: eyes are sensitive to dust and vapours of the product. A prolonged exposure
in a atmosphere rich in vapours can cause doubling vision, conjunctitivitis, temporary loss of
vision and, even, severe erosion of the cornea.
Inhalation: vapour and dust of maleic anhydride are very irritant and an acute exposure is not
voluntarily tolerated, causing strong headaches, nausea, nose bleeding, throat irritation, pulmonar
irritation, coughing, edema and bronchospasms.
Ingestion: it can cause throat pain, abdominal pain, vomit, and burns in the digestive tract.
• Chronic toxicity:
Repeated exposure can cause contact dermatitis, skin sensibilization, cronic eye irritation,
ulceration in nasal mucosa and occupational asthma.
• Medical conditions aggravated by overexposure:

People who suffer of chronic respiratory systems inflamation, sinusitis, chronic bronchitis and
asthma show more suscetibility to toxicity caused by successive exposures.
• Toxicological parameters:
Acute effect:
LD50: 481mg/kg (rat-oral);
LD50: 2620 mg/kg (rabbit-skin);
Rabbit, 1% (eyes) - severe

12. ECOLOGICAL INFORMATION
• Environmental effects, behavior and product impacts:

When released to ar, soil or water, the product probably will hydrolize forming Acid Maleic.
When released to soil, the material will biodegrade. When released to water, the material will
not significantly evaporate and, probably, will biodegrade quickly. When released to air, the
material will probably remain in aerosol form during short period of time, and will not form
wet deposits, being biodegradable due to the reaction of ozone and the production of hydroxile
radicals photochemically. The material does not have significant bioaccumulation.
13. DISPOSAL CONSIDERATIONS
• Treatment and disposal methods of the product, wastes and used packages:
Any wastes treatment should be in accordance to local and national regulation.
14. TRANSPORT INFORMATION
• National and international regulation:

Follow regulation for road transportation for hazardous products according to Decree no 96044,
05/18/88 and ANTT 420/04 (Brazil).
Follow regulation for railroad transportation for hazardous products according to decree no
98973, 02/21/90 (Brazil).
Follow Mercosul regulation for hazardous products transportation according to decree no 1797,
01/25/96.
• Road transportation (Brazil and MERCOSUL):

Proper shipping name: Maleic Anhydride
Hazard class: 8 (corrosive)
Hazard number: 80
UN number: 2215
Packing group: III
• US DOT (terrestrial USA)

Hazard class: 8
UN/NA: UN 2215
Packing Group: III
Label: Corrosive (8)

• IATA (international, aerial)

Hazard class: 8
Packing Group: III
Maleic Anhydride, molten: forbidden
• IMO/IMDG (international, maritime)

Hazard class: 8
Packing Group: III
Limited Quantities: 5 kg.
E m S: F-A, S-B
15. REGULATORY INFORMATION
EPA Regulations:
RCRA 40 CFR: Listed U147 Toxic Waste
CERCLA 40 CFR 302.4: Listed per CWA Section 311(b)(4), per RCRA Section 3001 5000 lb (2268 kg)
SARA 40 CFR 372.65: Listed
SARA EHS 40 CFR 355: Not listed
TSCA: Listed
EPA – Environmental Protection Agency

SARA - Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act
RCRA - Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
CERCLA - Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act
TSCA - Toxic Substances Control Act
Transportation: follow item 14.

Consult related national and international regulation.
Consult Brazilian Standards related to the product.
16. OTHER INFORMATION
References:
- MSDS - GENIUM PUBLISHING CORP. (ficha n.º FUR1000, revision july/04);
- ACGIH, 2005.
Observation:
The information contained in this MSDS are offered in good faith and, as a orientation instrument, without
incurring in expressed or implicit liability. In case of additional information or explanations, consult the
supplier.
PRODUCT NAME: CARBON MONOXIDE


CHEMTREC (800) 424-9300 (905) 501-0802

CHEMICAL NAME: Carbon Monoxide
COMMON NAMES/SYNONYMS: Carbonic Oxide, Exhaust Gas, Flue Gas
TDG (Canada) CLASSIFICATION: 2.3 (2.1)
WHMIS CLASSIFICATION: A, D1A, D2A, D2B, B1


Route/Species
Carbon Monoxide 100.0 50 ppm TWA 25 ppm TWA LC50
FORMULA: CO 1807 ppm/4H
CAS: 630-08-0 (rat)
RTECS #: FG3500000
1
2
EMERGENCY OVERVIEW
Inhaled Carbon Monoxide binds to the blood hemoglobin, greatly reducing the red blood cell’s ability to
transport oxygen to body tissues. Effects may include headaches, dizziness, convulsions, loss of
consciousness and death. Extremely flammable gas.
MSDS: G-112
ROUTE OF ENTRY:
No No No Yes No
HEALTH EFFECTS:
Yes No No
Yes Yes Yes
Synergistic Effects
None Reported
EYE EFFECTS:
None reported.
SKIN EFFECTS:
None reported.
INGESTION EFFECTS:
None reported.
INHALATION EFFECTS:
Inhaled carbon monoxide binds with blood hemoglobin to form carboxyhemoglobin. Carboxyhemoglobin can
not take part in normal oxygen transport, greatly reducing the blood’s ability to transport oxygen. Depending on
levels and duration of exposure, symptoms may include headache, dizziness, heart palpitations, weakness,
confusion, nausea, and even convulsions, eventual unconsciousness and death.
Some experimental evidence indicating teratogenic and reproductive effects.

3 = Serious Hazard
4 = Severe Hazard
EYES:
None required.
SKIN EFFECTS:
None required.
INGESTION:
None required.
MSDS: G-112
INGESTION EFFECTS:
None required.
INHALATION:
Conscious persons should be assisted to an uncontaminated area and be treated with supplemental oxygen.
Quick removal from the contaminated area is most important. Unconscious persons should be moved to an
uncontaminated area and be given artificial respiration and oxygen at the same time. The administering of the
oxygen at an elevated pressure (up to 2 to 2.5 atmospheres) has shown to be beneficial as has treatment in a
hyperbaric chamber. The physician should be informed that the patient has inhaled toxic quantities of carbon
monoxide. PROMPT MEDICAL ATTENTION IS MANDATORY IN ALL CASES OF OVEREXPOSURE
TO CARBON MONOXIDE. RESCUE PERSONNEL SHOULD BE EQUIPPED WITH SELF-CONTAINED
BREATHING APPARATUS AND BE COGNIZANT OF EXTREME FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD.
Conditions of Flammability: Flammable gas

Flash point: Method: Autoignition:
Not Available Not Applicable Temperature: 116 oF (639 oC)
LEL(%): 12.5 UEL(%): 74.0
Sensitivity to static discharge: Not Available

Having almost the same density as air, it will not diffuse by rising as with some lighter flammable gases such as
hydrogen or natural gas (methane). Flammable in air over a very wide range. It reacts violently with oxygen
difluoride and barium peroxide.
Water, dry chemical, carbon dioxide.

If possible, stop flow of gas; use water spray to cool surrounding containers.
Electrical Classification:
Class 1, Group C
Earth-ground and bond all lines and equipment associated with the carbon monoxide system. Electrical
equipment should be non sparking or explosion proof.
MSDS: G-112
Carbon Monoxide can be handled in all commonly used metals up to approximately 500 psig (3450 kPa).
Above that pressure it forms toxic and corrosive carbonyl compounds with some metals. Carbon steels,
aluminum alloys, copper and copper alloys, low carbon stainless steels and nickel-based alloys such as Hastelloy
A, B & C are recommended for higher pressure applications.
Protect cylinders from physical damage. Store in cool, dry, well-ventilated areas away from heavily trafficked
for excessive periods of time. Post "NO SMOKING OR OPEN FLAMES" signs in the storage area or use area.
There should be no sources of ignition in the storage area or use area.
Use only in well-ventilated areas. Valve protection caps must remain in place unless container is secured with
valve outlet piped to use point. Do not drag, slide or roll cylinders. Use a suitable hand truck for cylinder
movement. Use a pressure reducing regulator when connecting cylinder to lower pressure (<3000 psig) piping
or systems. Do not heat cylinder by any means to increase the discharge rate of product from the cylinder. Use
a check valve or trap in the discharge line to prevent hazardous back flow into the system.
Hood with forced ventilation. Use local exhaust to prevent accumulation above the exposure limit. Use general
mechanical ventilation in accordance with electrical codes.
EXPOSURE LIMITS1:
INGREDIENT % VOLUME 2 3 LD50 or LC50
PEL-OSHA TLV-ACGIH
Route/Species
Carbon Monoxide 100.0 50 ppm TWA 25 ppm TWA LC50
FORMULA: CO 1807 ppm/4H
CAS: 630-08-0 (rat)
RTECS #: FG3500000
1
those listed here.
2
3
Safety goggles or glasses.
SKIN PROTECTION:
Any material protective gloves.
Safety shoes.
MSDS: G-112

Vapor pressure : >220.4 psia
Vapor density (Air = 1) : Not Available
o
Boiling point : -312.7 F
o
: -191.5 C
o
o
: -205.1 C
pH : Not Available
Specific gravity : 0.96
Solubility (H20) : Very slight
Odor and appearance : Odorless; colorless gas
STABILITY:
Stable
Oxidizers

Carbon dioxide
Will not occur.
REPRODUCTIVE:
Inhalation of 150 ppm carbon monoxide for 24 hours by pregnant rats produced cardiovascular and behavioral
defects in offspring. Toxic effects to fertility were observed in female rats exposed to 1 mg/m3 for 24 hours.
Similar effects observed in other mammalian species.
MUTAGENIC:
Genetic changes observed in mammalian cell assay systems at exposures of 1500 to 2500 ppm for 10 minutes.
OTHER:
Degenerative changes to the brain in rats chronically exposed to 30 mg/m3.
No data given.
MSDS: G-112

PROPER SHIPPING NAME: Carbon Monoxide Carbon Monoxide
HAZARD CLASS: 2.3 2.3 (2.1)
SHIPPING LABEL: POISON GAS, FLAMMABLE GAS POISON GAS, FLAMMABLE GAS
Additional Marking Requirement: “Inhalation Hazard”

Additional Shipping Paper Description Requirement: “Poison-Inhalation Hazard, Zone D”

Acute Health Hazard
Chronic Health Hazard
Fire Hazard

responsibility regarding the suitability of this information for the user's intended purposes or for the
MSDS: G-112
PRODUCT NAME: CARBON DIOXIDE, GAS


CHEMTREC (800) 424-9300 (905) 501-0802

CHEMICAL NAME: Carbon Dioxide
COMMON NAMES/SYNONYMS: Carbonic Anhydride
TDG (Canada) CLASSIFICATION: 2.2
WHMIS CLASSIFICATION: A

Route/Species
Carbon Dioxide 99.8 TO 99.999 5000 ppm TWA 5000 ppm TWA Not Available
FORMULA: CO2 30,000 ppm STEL
CAS: 124-38-9
RTECS #: FF6400000
1
2
EMERGENCY OVERVIEW
Oxygen levels below 19.5% may cause asphyxia. Carbon dioxide exposure can cause nausea and
respiratory problems. High concentrations may cause vasodilation leading to circulatory collapse.
MSDS: G-8
ROUTE OF ENTRY:
Yes No Yes Yes Yes
HEALTH EFFECTS:
Yes No No
No No No
Synergistic Effects
None reported
EYE EFFECTS:
No adverse effects anticipated.
SKIN EFFECTS:
INGESTION EFFECTS:
INHALATION EFFECTS:
Carbon dioxide is the most powerful cerebral vasodilator known. Inhaling large concentrations causes rapid
circulatory insufficiency leading to coma and death. Asphyxiation is likely to occur before the effects of carbon
dioxide overexposure. Chronic, harmful effects are not known from repeated inhalation of low concentrations.
Low concentrations of carbon dioxide cause increased respiration and headache.
Effects of oxygen deficiency resulting from simple asphyxiants may include: rapid breathing, diminished mental
alertness, impaired muscular coordination, faulty judgement, depression of all sensations, emotional instability,
and fatigue. As asphyxiation progresses, nausea, vomiting, prostration, and loss of consciousness may result,
eventually leading to convulsions, coma, and death.
animals.

3 = Serious Hazard
4 = Severe Hazard
MSDS: G-8
EYES:
Never introduce oil or ointment into the eyes without medical advice! If pain is present, refer the victim to an
ophthalmologist for further treatment and follow up.
SKIN:
INGESTION:
Not anticipated.
INHALATION:
PROMPT MEDICAL ATTENTION IS MANDATORY IN ALL CASES OF OVEREXPOSURE TO CARBON
DIOXIDE. RESCUE PERSONNEL SHOULD BE EQUIPPED WITH SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING
removal from the contaminated area is most important. Unconscious persons should be moved to an
uncontaminated area, given mouth-to-mouth resuscitation and supplemental oxygen. Further treatment should
be symptomatic and supportive.
Conditions of Flammability: Nonflammable

None Not Applicable Temperature: None
LEL(%): None UEL(%): None
Sensitivity to static discharge: None

None. Nonflammable
Electrical Classification:
Non-Hazardous
MSDS: G-8
Dry carbon dioxide can be handled in most common structural materials. Moist carbon dioxide is generally
corrosive by its formation of carbonic acid. For applications with moist Carbon Dioxide, 316, 309 and 310
stainless steels may be used as well as Hastelloy ® A, B, & C, and Monel ®. Ferrous Nickel alloys are slightly
susceptible to corrosion. At normal temperatures carbon dioxide is compatible with most plastics and
elastomers.
Use only in well-ventilated areas. Carbon dioxide vapor is heavier than air and will accumulate in low areas.
Valve protection caps must remain in place unless container is secured with valve outlet piped to use point. Do
not drag, slide or roll cylinders. Use a suitable hand truck for cylinder movement. Use a pressure reducing
regulator when connecting cylinder to lower pressure (<3000 psig) piping or systems. Do not heat cylinder by
any means to increase the discharge rate of product from the cylinder. Use a check valve or trap in the
discharge line to prevent hazardous back flow into the system.
for excessive periods of time.
For additional storage recommendations, consult Compressed Gas Association’s Pamphlet P-1.
Maximum use for potable water 100 mg/l.
EXPOSURE LIMITS1:
Route/Species
Carbon Dioxide 99.8 TO 99.999 5000 ppm TWA 5000 ppm TWA Not Available
FORMULA: CO2 30,000 ppm STEL
CAS: 124-38-9
RTECS #: FF6400000
1
those listed here.
2
3
IDLH (Carbon Dioxide): 50,000 ppm
Use local exhaust to prevent accumulation of high concentrations so as to reduce the oxygen level in the air to
less than 19.5% and the carbon dioxide concentration below the exposure limit.
Safety goggles or glasses as appropriate for the job.
SKIN PROTECTION:
Protective gloves of any material appropriate for the job.
MSDS: G-8
Safety shoes.

Vapor pressure at 70 oF : 856 psia
Vapor density at 70 oF, 1 atm (Air = 1) : 1.53
o
Boiling point (CO2 Sublimes) : -109.3 F
o
: -78.5 C
o
o
: -56.6 C
pH : Not Available
Specific gravity : Not Available
Solubility (H20) : Very soluble
Odor and appearance : A colorless, odorless gas.
STABILITY:
Stable
Certain reactive metals, hydrides, moist cesium monoxide, or lithium acetylene carbide diammino may ignite.
Passing carbon dioxide over a mixture of sodium peroxide and aluminum or magnesium may explode.

Carbon monoxide and oxygen when heated above 3092 oF (1700oC). Carbonic acid is formed in the presence of
moisture.
Will not occur.
REPRODUCTIVE:
animals.
Exposure of female rats to 60,000 ppm carbon dioxide for 24 hours has produced toxic effects to the embryo and
fetus in pregnant rats. Toxic effects to the reproductive system have been observed in other mammalian species
at similar concentrations.
OTHER:
MSDS: G-8
Carbon dioxide is the most powerful cerebral vasodilator known. Inhaling large concentrations causes rapid
circulatory insufficiency leading to coma and death. Chronic, harmful effects are not known from repeated
inhalation of low (3 to 5 molar %) concentrations.
No data given.

PROPER SHIPPING NAME: Carbon Dioxide Carbon Dioxide
HAZARD CLASS: 2.2 2.2
SHIPPING LABEL: NONFLAMMABLE GAS NONFLAMMABLE GAS
SARA TITLE III HAZARD CLASSES:

Acute Health Hazard
MSDS: G-8

MSDS: G-8
1 / 5
REVISION DATE: 26.06.2009
DIBUTYL PHTHALATE MSDS

Dibutyl Phthalate
1 IDENTIFICATION OF THE SUBSTANCE/PREPARATION AND OF THE

COMPANY/UNDERTAKING
PRODUCT NAME Dibutyl Phthalate
SYNONYMS, TRADE NAMES Palatinol C, DBP
SUPPLIER Abbey Chemicals

27-30 North River Road
Great Yarmouth
Norfolk
NR30 1SH
Tel: +44 1493 850303
Fax: +44 1493 330909
www.abbey-chemicals.co.uk
Emergency Contact Number +44 1493 850303

(Office Hours)
SDS No. B027
2 HAZARDS IDENTIFICATION
May cause harm to the unborn child. Possible risk of impaired fertility. Very toxic to aquatic organisms.
CLASSIFICATION Rep 1;R61. Rep 3;R62. N;R50.
3 COMPOSITION/INFORMATION ON INGREDIENTS
EC No. 201-557-4
CAS-No. 84-74-2
4 FIRST-AID MEASURES
GENERAL INFORMATION
Immediately remove contaminated clothing.
INHALATION
Move the exposed person to fresh air at once. Get medical attention.
INGESTION
Rinse mouth thoroughly. Drink plenty of water. Get medical attention.
SKIN CONTACT
Wash skin thoroughly with soap and water.
EYE CONTACT
Immediately flush with plenty of water for up to 15 minutes. Remove any contact lenses and open eyes wide apart.
5 FIRE-FIGHTING MEASURES
EXTINGUISHING MEDIA
Extinguish with carbon dioxide or dry powder. Water spray, fog or mist.
2 / 5
Dibutyl Phthalate
SPECIAL FIRE FIGHTING PROCEDURES
Keep run-off water out of sewers and water sources. Dike for water control.
SPECIFIC HAZARDS
Carbon monoxide (CO). Carbon dioxide (CO2).
PROTECTIVE MEASURES IN FIRE
Self contained breathing apparatus and full protective clothing must be worn in case of fire.
6 ACCIDENTAL RELEASE MEASURES
PERSONAL PRECAUTIONS
Wear protective clothing as described in Section 8 of this safety data sheet. Avoid inhalation of vapours and
contact with skin and eyes.
ENVIRONMENTAL PRECAUTIONS
Do not discharge into drains, water courses or onto the ground.
7 HANDLING AND STORAGE
USAGE PRECAUTIONS
Avoid inhalation of vapours/spray and contact with skin and eyes. Provide good ventilation.
STORAGE PRECAUTIONS
Keep containers tightly closed. Store in closed original container in a dry place.
8 EXPOSURE CONTROLS/PERSONAL PROTECTION
Name Std TWA - 8 hrs STEL - 15 min Notes
Dibutyl Phthalate WEL 5 mg/m3 10 mg/m3
WEL = Workplace Exposure Limit.
PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
ENGINEERING MEASURES
Provide adequate ventilation. Observe Workplace Exposure Limits and minimise the risk of inhalation of
vapours.
RESPIRATORY EQUIPMENT
If ventilation is insufficient, suitable respiratory protection must be provided. Chemical respirator with organic
vapour cartridge.
HAND PROTECTION
Use suitable protective gloves if risk of skin contact. Butyl rubber gloves are recommended.
EYE PROTECTION
Wear tight-fitting goggles or face shield.
OTHER PROTECTION
Wear appropriate clothing to prevent any possibility of skin contact.
HYGIENE MEASURES
Wash hands after handling. Wash at the end of each work shift and before eating, smoking and using the toilet. When
using do not eat, drink or smoke.
3 / 5
Dibutyl Phthalate
9 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
APPEARANCE Liquid
COLOUR Colourless
ODOUR Slight odour
SOLUBILITY Slightly soluble in water. Soluble in Organic solvents.

BOILING POINT (°C) 180-186 @7 mBar MELTING POINT (°C) -69
RELATIVE DENSITY 1.045 @ 20°C VAPOUR PRESSURE <10 Pa @20°C
VISCOSITY 19-22 mPas @ 20°C FLASH POINT (°C) 188
AUTO IGNITION 390 FLAMMABILITY LIMIT - 0.5

TEMPERATURE (°C) LOWER(%)
FLAMMABILITY LIMIT - 1.8 PARTITION COEFFICIENT 4.6-4.9
UPPER(%) (N-Octanol/Water)
SOLUBILITY VALUE (g/100g 10mg/l
H2O@20°C)
10 STABILITY AND REACTIVITY
STABILITY
Stable under normal temperature conditions and recommended use.
MATERIALS TO AVOID
Strong oxidising substances.
HAZARDOUS DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS
Carbon monoxide (CO). Carbon dioxide (CO2).
11 TOXICOLOGICAL INFORMATION
TOXIC DOSE 1 - LD 50 6300 mg/kg (oral rat)
TOXIC CONC. - LC 50 >15 mg/l/4h (inh-rat)
INHALATION
May cause irritation to the respiratory system.
INGESTION
May cause discomfort if swallowed.
SKIN CONTACT
Liquid may irritate skin.
EYE CONTACT
May cause temporary eye irritation.
HEALTH WARNINGS
May cause harm to the unborn child. Possible risk of impaired fertility.
12 ECOLOGICAL INFORMATION
ECOTOXICITY
The product contains a substance which is toxic to aquatic organisms and which may cause long term adverse
effects in the aquatic environment.
LC 50, 96 Hrs, FISH mg/l 0.85
EC 50, 48 Hrs, DAPHNIA, mg/l 3.4
IC 50, 72 Hrs, ALGAE, mg/l 2.0
MOBILITY
The product has poor water-solubility.

4 / 5
Dibutyl Phthalate
BIOACCUMULATION
May accumulate in soil and water systems.
DEGRADABILITY
The product is easily biodegradable.
ACUTE FISH TOXICITY
Very toxic to aquatic organisms.
13 DISPOSAL CONSIDERATIONS
GENERAL INFORMATION
Waste to be treated as controlled waste. Disposal to licensed waste disposal site in accordance with local
Waste Disposal Authority.
DISPOSAL METHODS
Dispose of waste and residues in accordance with local authority requirements.
14 TRANSPORT INFORMATION
UK ROAD CLASS 9
PROPER SHIPPING NAME ENVIRONMENTALLY HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCE, LIQUID, N.O.S.(contains

DI-N-BUTYLPHTHALATE)
UN NO. ROAD 3082 UK ROAD PACK GR. III
9 ADR CLASS
ADR CLASS NO. Class 9: Miscellaneous
dangerous substances
and articles.
ADR PACK GROUP III HAZARD No. (ADR) 90
ADR LABEL NO. 9 HAZCHEM CODE 3Z
CEFIC TEC(R) NO. 90GM6-III RID CLASS NO. 9
RID PACK GROUP III UN NO. SEA 3082
IMDG CLASS 9 IMDG PACK GR. III
EMS F-A, S-F MFAG See Guide
UN NO. AIR 3082 AIR CLASS 9
AIR PACK GR. III
15 REGULATORY INFORMATION
LABELLING
Toxic Dangerous for the

environment
RISK PHRASES
R61 May cause harm to the unborn child.
R62 Possible risk of impaired fertility.
R50 Very toxic to aquatic organisms.

5 / 5
Dibutyl Phthalate
SAFETY PHRASES
S53 Avoid exposure - obtain special instructions before use.
S45 In case of accident or if you feel unwell, seek medical advice

immediately (show label where possible).
S61 Avoid release to the environment. Refer to special instructions/safety
data sheets.
EU DIRECTIVES
Dangerous Substance Directive 67/548/EEC.
STATUTORY INSTRUMENTS
Chemicals (Hazard Information and Packaging) Regulations. Control of Substances Hazardous to Health.
APPROVED CODE OF PRACTICE
Safety Data Sheets for Substances and Preparations. Classification and Labelling of Substances and
Preparations Dangerous for Supply.
GUIDANCE NOTES
Workplace Exposure Limits EH40. CHIP for everyone HSG(108).
16 OTHER INFORMATION
ISSUED BY
Abbey Chemicals
REVISION DATE 26.06.2009
REV. NO./REPL. SDS 08

GENERATED
SDS NO. B027
SAFETY DATA SHEET STATUS
Approved.
DATE 10.06.2008
SIGNATURE Thomas Tailford

Name S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7
Upstream Op E-1.Out Vlv-1.Out E-2.Out CP-1.Out M-1.Out
Downstream Op E-1.In CP-1.In Vlv-1.In E-2.In M-1.In1 M-1.In0 E-6.In
VapFrac 0.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
T [C] 72.0 25.0 90.0 90.0 39.0 154.0 131.1
P [kPa] 925.00 101.325 895.00 300.00 285.00 285.00 285.00
MoleFlow [kgmole/h] 274.00 4300.00 274.00 274.00 274.00 4300.00 4574.00
MassFlow/Composition Fraction kg/h Fraction kg/h Fraction kg/h Fraction kg/h Fraction kg/h Fraction kg/h Fraction kg/h
n-BUTANE 1.0000 15925.48 0.0000 0.00 1.0000 15925.48 1.0000 15925.48 1.0000 15925.48 0.0000 0.00 0.11377 15925.48
OXYGEN 0.0000 0.00 0.23292 28894.92 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.23292 28894.92 0.20642 28894.92
NITROGEN 0.0000 0.00 0.76708 95161.79 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.76708 95161.79 0.67981 95161.79
MALEIC ANHYDRIDE 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00
CARBON MONOXIDE 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00
CARBON DIOXIDE 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00
WATER 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00
DIBUTYL PHTHALATE 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00
Total 1.00 15925.48 1.00 124056.71 1.00 15925.48 1.00 15925.48 1.00 15925.48 1.00 124056.71 1.00 139982.19
VolumeFlow [m3/hr] 31.143 105200.317 924.366 2757.692 2495.166 53583.910 53945.237
StdLiqVolumeFlow [m3/hr] 28.318 363.835 28.318 28.318 28.318 363.835 392.154
StdGasVolumeFlow
1.5579E+5 2.4448E+6 1.5579E+5 1.5579E+5 1.5579E+5 2.4448E+6 2.6006E+6
[SCMD]
Energy [W] 4.380E+5 1.037E+7 1.923E+6 1.923E+6 1.495E+6 1.490E+7 1.639E+7
H [kJ/kmol] 5755.3 8679.3 25269.3 25269.3 19638.8 12471.0 12900.4
S [kJ/kmol-K] 160.820 171.107 199.842 208.930 192.673 173.071 176.378
MolecularWeight 58.12 28.85 58.12 58.12 58.12 28.85 30.60
MassDensity [kg/m3] 511.3734 1.1792 17.2285 5.7749 6.3825 2.3152 2.5949
Cp [kJ/kmol-K] 194.046 29.177 116.625 116.625 104.103 29.649 35.349
ThermalConductivity
0.0784 0.0250 0.0243 0.0237 0.0180 0.0340 0.0317
[W/m-K]
Viscosity [Pa-s] 1.0519E-4 1.8110E-5 9.8763E-6 9.2678E-6 8.1182E-6 2.3524E-5 2.0921E-5
molarV [m3/kmol] 0.114 24.465 3.374 10.065 9.106 12.461 11.794
ZFactor 0.0366 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
Name S7-1 S8 S9 S10 S10(Recycle) S10-1 S11
Upstream Op E-6.Out R-1.Out E-3.Out P-1.Out M-3.Out C-1.VapourDraw_0_overheadV
Downstream Op R-1.In E-3.In C-1.Feed_9_bottomFeed M-3.In0 M-3.In1 C-1.Feed overheadFeed M-2.In1
VapFrac 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.00
T [C] 350.0 350.0 132.0 30.0 30.1 30.1 98.2
P [kPa] 275.00 250.00 200.00 170.00 170.00 170.00 150.00
MassFlow/Compositio
Fraction kg/h Fraction kg/h Fraction kg/h Fraction kg/h Fraction kg/h Fraction kg/h Fraction kg/h
n
n-BUTANE 0.11377 15925.48 0.01138 1592.55 0.01138 1592.55 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0136 1582.54
OXYGEN 0.20642 28894.92 0.00286 399.99 0.00286 399.99 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.00344 399.86
NITROGEN 0.67981 95161.79 0.67981 95161.79 0.67981 95161.79 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.81738 95107.93
CARBON MONOXIDE 0.0000 0.00 0.00548 767.48 0.00548 767.48 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.00659 766.72
CARBON DIOXIDE 0.0000 0.00 0.00861 1205.86 0.00861 1205.86 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.01036 1205.15
WATER 0.0000 0.00 0.12871 18017.08 0.12871 18017.08 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.14823 17248.21
Total 1.00 139982.2 1.00 139982.2 1.00 139982.2 1.00 1480.0 1.00 91520.6 1.00 93000.4 1.00 116357.7
VolumeFlow [m3/hr] 86176.025 97916.802 79577.534 1.426 88.175 89.600 91537.478
StdLiqVolumeFlow
392.154 341.164 341.164 1.408 87.050 88.458 323.574
[m3/hr]
StdGasVolumeFlow
2.600E+6 2.686E+6 2.686E+6 3.023E+3 1.86E+5 1.899E+5 2.5286E+6
[SCMD]
Energy [W] 2.677E+7 2.782E+7 1.698E+7 -4.769E+4 -2.94E+6 -2.996E+6 1.391E+7
H [kJ/kmol] 21065.7 21201.1 12936.0 -32291.7 -32273.4 -32273.7 11261.3
S [kJ/kmol-K] 192.757 181.955 167.532 601.669 601.698 601.698 181.064
1037.947
MassDensity [kg/m3] 1.6244 1.4296 1.7591 1037.9868 1037.947 1.2711
8
Cp [kJ/kmol-K] 39.224 39.321 36.409 390.063 390.095 390.094 30.924
ThermalConductivity
0.0484 0.0462 0.0298 0.1369 0.1369 0.1369 0.0287
[W/m-K]
molarV [m3/kmol] 18.840 20.724 16.843 0.268 0.268 0.268 20.583
ZFactor 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.0181 0.0181 0.0181 1.0000
Name S12 S13 S14 S15 S16 S17 S18
C- C- C-
C-
Upstream Op E-4.Out 2.VapourDraw_0_condenser 2.LiquidDraw_0_condenser 2.LiquidDraw_9_reboiler M-2.Out E-5.Out
1.LiquidDraw_9_bottomL
V L L
Downstream Op E-4.In C-2.Feed_4_feed M-2.In0 E-5.In P-1.In
VapFrac 0.00 0.47672 1.00 0.00 0.00 1.00 0.00
T [C] 151.4 300.0 149.3 149.3 351.4 98.6 30.0
P [kPa] 160.00 140.00 110.00 110.00 130.00 110.00 110.00
MassFlow/Composition Fraction kg/h Fraction kg/h Fraction kg/h Fraction kg/h Fraction kg/h Fraction kg/h Fraction kg/h
n-BUTANE 0.00009 10.01 0.00009 10.01 0.01068 7.88 0.00009 2.13 0.0000 0.00 0.01358 1590.42 0.0000 0.00
OXYGEN 0.0000 0.13 0.0000 0.13 0.00017 0.13 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.00342 399.98 0.0000 0.00
NITROGEN 0.00046 53.86 0.00046 53.86 0.07217 53.29 0.00002 0.57 0.0000 0.00 0.81268 95161.22 0.0000 0.00
CARBON MONOXIDE 0.00001 0.75 0.00001 0.75 0.0010 0.74 0.0000 0.02 0.0000 0.00 0.00655 767.46 0.0000 0.00
CARBON DIOXIDE 0.00001 0.71 0.00001 0.71 0.00095 0.70 0.0000 0.01 0.0000 0.00 0.0103 1205.85 0.0000 0.00
WATER 0.00659 768.87 0.00659 768.87 0.40952 302.41 0.01914 466.46 0.0000 0.00 0.14988 17550.62 0.0000 0.00
Total 1.0000 116624.91 1.0000 116624.91 1.00 738.46 1.00 24365.84 1.00 91520.60 1.00 117096.17 1.00 91520.60
VolumeFlow [m3/hr] 121.118 10025.528 724.182 20.898 130.497 125606.02 88.173
StdLiqVolumeFlow [m3/hr] 106.047 106.047 0.760 18.237 87.050 324.334 87.050
3.4768E+ 1.8696E+
StdGasVolumeFlow [SCMD] 3.4768E+5 1.2894E+4 1.4783E+5 1.8696E+5 2.5415E+6
5 5
Energy [W] 6.987E+4 1.438E+7 1.028E+5 -1.909E+6 1.338E+7 1.401E+7 -2.950E+6
H [kJ/kmol] 411.3 84669.8 16320.5 -26432.6 146521.3 11287.0 -32293.5
S [kJ/kmol-K] 376.027 574.462 151.245 -194.022 1127.238 183.553 601.691
MassDensity [kg/m3] 962.9008 11.6328 1.0197 1165.9398 701.3260 0.9322 1037.9712
Cp [kJ/kmol-K] 371.629 423.884 52.562 208.555 721.129 31.026 390.041
ThermalConductivity [W/m-K] 0.1204 0.0720 0.0277 0.1284 0.0807 0.0286 0.1369
molarV [m3/kmol] 0.198 16.395 31.934 0.080 0.397 28.100 0.268
ZFactor 0.0090 0.4817 1.0000 0.0025 0.0099 1.0000 0.0117
ASME/ANSI B36.10/19
The steel pipe data chart below can be used to find pipe sizes, diameters, wall thickness, working pressures and more. The chart is based on ASME/ANSI B 36.10 Welded and Seamless Wrought Steel Pipe
and ASME/ANSI B36.19 Stainless Steel Pipe.
Regardless of schedule number, pipes of a particular size all have the same outside diameter (not withstanding manufacturing tolerances). As the schedule number increases, the wall thickness increases,
and the actual bore is reduced.
For example:
A 4 inches (100 mm) Schedule 40 pipe has an outside diameter of 4.500 inches (114.30 mm), a wall thickness of 0.237 inches (6.02 mm), giving a bore of 4.026 inches (102.26 mm)
A 4 inches (100 mm) Schedule 80 pipe has an outside diameter of 4.500 inches ( 114.30 mm), a wall thickness of 0.337 inches (8.56 mm), giving a bore of 3.826 inches (97.18 mm)
Wall Inside Elastic

Outside Moment of External
Pipe Size Identification Thickness - t Diameter - d Area of Metal Weight Pipe Weight Section
Diameter Inertia - - l - Surface
- - Modulus
Transverse Internal Area
(square feet
(square (pounds per
(inches) (inches) (inches) (inches) (inches4) Water per foot of (in3)
inches) foot)
Steel Stainless pipe)
Steel (pounds per
-a- -A-
Schedule No. foot)
Iron Pipe Schedule (square
(square feet)
Size No. inches)
. . 10S .049 .307 .0548 .0740 .00051 .00088 .19 .032 .106 .00437
1/8 0.405 STD 40 40S .068 .269 .0720 .0568 .00040 .00106 .24 .025 .106 .00523
XS 80 80S .095 .215 .0925 .0364 .00025 .00122 .31 .016 .106 .00602
. . 10S .065 .410 .0970 .1320 .00091 .00279 .33 .057 .141 .01032
1/4 0.540 STD 40 40S .088 .364 .1250 .1041 .00072 .00331 .42 .045 .141 .01227
XS 80 80S .119 .302 .1574 .0716 .00050 .00377 .54 .031 .141 .01395
. . 10S .065 .545 .1246 .2333 .00162 .00586 .42 .101 .178 .01736
3/8 0.675 STD 40 40S .091 .493 .1670 .1910 .00133 .00729 .57 .083 .178 .02160
XS 80 80S .126 .423 .2173 .1405 .00098 .00862 .74 .061 .178 .02554
. . 5S .065 .710 .1583 .3959 .00275 .01197 .54 .172 .220 .02849
. . 10S .083 .674 .1974 .3568 .00248 .01431 .67 .155 .220 .03407
STD 40 40S .109 .622 .2503 .3040 .00211 .01709 .85 .132 220 .04069
1/2 0.840
XS 80 80S .147 .546 .3200 .2340 .00163 .02008 1.09 .102 .220 .04780
. 160 . .187 .466 .3836 .1706 .00118 .02212 1.31 .074 220 .05267
XXS . . .294 .252 .5043 .050 .00035 .02424 1.71 .022 .220 .05772
Wall Inside Elastic
- - Modulus
(square feet
(square (pounds per
inches) foot)
Steel (pounds per
-a- -A-
Schedule No. foot)
(square feet)
Size No. inches)
. . 5S .065 .920 .2011 .6648 .00462 .02450 .69 .288 .275 .04667
. . 10S .083 .884 .2521 .6138 .00426 .02969 .86 .266 .275 .05655
STD 40 40S .113 .824 .3326 .5330 .00371 .03704 1.13 .231 .275 .07055
3/4 1.050
XS 80 80S .154 .742 .4335 .4330 .00300 .04479 1.47 .188 .275 .08531
. 160 . .219 .612 .5698 .2961 .00206 .05269 1.94 .128 .275 .10036
XXS . . .308 .434 .7180 .148 .00103 .05792 2.44 .064 .275 .11032
. . 5S .065 1.185 .2553 1.1029 .00766 .04999 .87 .478 .344 .07603
. . 10S .109 1.097 .4130 .9452 .00656 .07569 1.40 .409 .344 .11512
STD 40 40S .133 1.049 .4939 .8640 .00600 .08734 1.68 .375 .344 .1328
1 1.315
XS 80 80S .179 .957 .6388 .7190 .00499 .1056 2.17 .312 .344 .1606
. 160 . .250 .815 .8365 .5217 .00362 .1251 2.84 .230 .344 .1903
XXS . . .358 .599 1.0760 .282 .00196 .1405 3.66 .122 .344 .2136
. . 5S .065 1.530 .3257 1.839 .01277 .1038 1.11 .797 .435 .1250
. . 10S .109 1.442 .4717 1.633 .01134 .1605 1.81 .708 .435 .1934
STD 40 40S .140 1.380 .6685 1.495 .01040 .1947 2.27 .649 .435 .2346
1 1/4 1.660
XS 80 80S .191 1.278 .8815 1.283 .00891 .2418 3.00 .555 .435 .2913
. 160 . .250 1.160 1.1070 1.057 .00734 .2839 3.76 .458 .435 .3421
XXS . . .382 .896 1.534 .630 .00438 .3411 5.21 .273 .435 .4110
. . 5S .065 1.770 .3747 2.461 .01709 .1579 1.28 1.066 .497 .1662
. . 10S .109 1.682 .6133 2.222 .01543 .2468 2.09 .963 .497 .2598
STD 40 40S .145 1.610 .7995 2.036 .01414 .3099 2.72 .882 .497 .3262
1 1/2 1.900
XS 80 80S .200 1.500 1.068 1.767 .01225 .3912 3.63 .765 .497 .4118
. 160 . .281 1.338 1.429 1.406 .00976 .4824 4.86 .608 .497 .5078
XXS . . .400 1.100 1.885 .950 .00660 .5678 6.41 .42 .497 .5977
. . 5S .065 2.245 .4717 3.958 .02749 .3149 1.61 1.72 .622 .2652
. . 10S .109 2.157 .7760 3.654 .02538 .4992 2.64 1.58 .622 .4204
STD 40 40S .154 2.067 1.075 3.355 .02330 .6657 3.65 1.45 .622 .5606
2 2.375
XS 80 80S .218 1.939 1.477 2.953 .02050 .8679 5.02 1.28 .622 .7309
. 160 . .344 1.687 2.190 2.241 .01556 1.162 7.46 .97 .622 .979
XXS . . .436 1.503 2.656 1.774 .01232 1.311 9.03 .77 .622 1.104
Wall Inside Elastic
- - Modulus
(square feet
(square (pounds per
inches) foot)
Steel (pounds per
-a- -A-
Schedule No. foot)
(square feet)
Size No. inches)
. . 5S .083 2.709 .7280 5.764 .04002 .7100 2.48 2.50 .753 .4939
. . 10S .120 2.635 1.039 5.453 .03787 .9873 3.53 2.36 .753 .6868
STD 40 40S .203 2.469 1.704 4.788 .03322 1.530 5.79 2.07 .753 1.064
2 1/2 2.875
XS 80 80S .276 2.323 2.254 4.238 .02942 1.924 7.66 1.87 .753 1.339
. 160 . .375 2.125 2.945 3.546 .02463 2.353 10.01 1.54 .753 1.638
XXS . . .552 1.771 4.028 2.464 .01710 2.871 13.69 1.07 .753 1.997
. . 5S .083 3.334 .8910 8.730 .06063 1.301 3.03 3.78 .916 .7435
. . 10S .120 3.260 1.274 8.347 .05796 1.822 4.33 3.62 .916 1.041
STD 40 40S .216 3.068 2.228 7.393 .05130 3.017 7.58 3.20 .916 1.724
3 3.500
XS 80 80S .300 2.900 3.016 6.605 .04587 3.894 10.25 2.6 .916 2.225
. 160 . .438 2.624 4.205 5.408 .03755 5.032 14.32 2.35 .916 2.876
XXS . . .600 2.300 5.466 4.155 .02885 5.993 18.58 1.80 .916 3.424
. . 5S .083 3.834 1.021 11.545 .08017 1.960 3.48 5.00 1.047 .9799
. . 10S .120 3.760 1.463 11.104 .07711 2.755 4.97 4.81 1.047 1.378
3 1/2 4.000
STD 40 40S .226 3.548 2.680 9.886 .06870 4.788 9.11 4.29 1.047 2.394
XS 80 80S .318 3.364 3.678 8.888 .06170 6.280 12.50 3.84 1.047 3.140
. . 5S .083 4.334 1.152 14.75 .10245 2.810 3.92 6.39 1.178 1.249
. . 10S .120 4.260 1.651 14.25 .09898 3.963 5.61 6.18 1.178 1.761
STD 40 40S .237 4.026 3.174 12.73 .08840 7.233 10.79 5.50 1.178 3.214
4 4.500 XS 80 80S .337 3.826 4.407 11.50 .07986 9.610 14.98 4.98 1.178 4.271
. 120 . .438 3.624 5.595 10.31 .0716 11.65 19.0 4.47 1.178 5.178
. 160 . .531 3.438 6.621 9.28 .0645 13.27 22.51 4.02 1.178 5.898
XXS . . .674 3.152 8.101 7.80 .0542 15.28 27.54 3.38 1.178 6.791
. . 5S .109 5.345 1.868 22.44 .1558 6.947 6.36 9.72 1.456 2.498
. . 10S .134 5.295 2.285 22.02 .1529 8.425 7.77 9.54 1.456 3.029
STD 40 40S .258 5.047 4.300 20.01 .1390 15.16 14.62 8.67 1.456 5.451
5 5.563 XS 80 80S .375 4.813 6.112 18.19 .1263 20.67 20.78 7.88 1.456 7.431
. 120 . .500 4.563 7.953 16.35 .1136 25.73 27.04 7.09 1.456 9.250
. 160 . .625 4.313 9.696 14.61 .1015 30.03 32.96 6.33 1.456 10.796
XXS . . .750 4.063 11.340 12.97 .0901 33.63 38.55 5.61 1.456 12.090
Wall Inside Elastic
- - Modulus
(square feet
(square (pounds per
inches) foot)
Steel (pounds per
-a- -A-
Schedule No. foot)
(square feet)
Size No. inches)
. . 5S .109 6.407 2.231 32.24 .2239 11.85 7.60 13.97 1.734 3.576
. . 10S .134 6.357 2.733 31.74 .2204 14.40 9.29 13.75 1.734 4.346
STD 40 40S .280 6.065 5.581 28.89 .2006 28.14 18.97 12.51 1.734 8.496
6 6.625 XS 80 80S .432 5.761 8.405 26.07 .1810 40.49 28.57 11.29 1.734 12.22
. 120 . .562 5.501 10.70 23.77 .1650 49.61 36.39 10.30 1.734 14.98
. 160 . .718 5.187 13.32 21.15 .1469 58.97 45.35 9.16 1.734 17.81
XXS . . .864 4.897 15.64 18.84 .1308 66.33 53.16 8.16 1.734 20.02
. . 5S .109 8.407 2.916 55.51 .3855 26.44 9.93 24.06 2.258 6.131
. . 10S .148 8.329 3.941 54.48 .3784 35.41 13.40 23.61 2.258 8.212
. 20 . .250 8.125 6.57 51.85 .3601 57.72 22.36 22.47 2.258 13.39
. 30 . .277 8.071 7.26 51.16 .3553 63.35 24.70 22.17 2.258 14.69
STD 40 40S .322 7.981 8.40 50.03 .3474 72.49 28.55 21.70 2.258 16.81
. 60 . .406 7.813 10.48 47.94 .3329 88.73 35.64 20.77 2.258 20.58
8 8.625
XS 80 80S .500 7.625 12.76 45.66 .3171 105.7 43.39 19.78 2.258 24.51
. 100 . .594 7.437 14.96 43.46 .3018 121.3 50.95 18.83 2.258 28.14
. 120 . .719 7.187 17.84 40.59 .2819 140.5 60.71 17.59 2.258 32.58
. 140 . .812 7.001 19.93 38.50 .2673 153.7 67.76 16.68 2.258 35.65
XXS . . .875 6.875 21.30 37.12 .2578 162.0 72.42 16.10 2.258 37.56
. 160 . .906 6.813 21.97 36.46 .2532 165.9 74.69 15.80 2.258 38.48
. . 5S .134 10.482 4.36 86.29 .5992 63.0 15.19 37.39 2.814 11.71
. . 10S .165 10.420 5.49 85.28 .5922 76.9 18.65 36.95 2.814 14.30
. 20 . .250 10.250 8.24 82.52 .5731 113.7 28.04 35.76 2.814 21.15
. 30 . .307 10.136 10.07 80.69 .5603 137.4 34.24 34.96 2.814 25.57
STD 40 40S .365 10.020 11.90 78.86 .5475 160.7 40.48 34.20 2.814 29.90
10 10.750 XS 60 80S .500 9.750 16.10 74.66 .5185 212.0 54.74 32.35 2.814 39.43
. 80 . .594 9.562 18.92 71.84 .4989 244.8 64.43 31.13 2.814 45.54
. 100 . .719 9.312 22.63 68.13 .4732 286.1 77.03 29.53 2.814 53.22
. 120 . .844 9.062 26.24 64.53 .4481 324.2 89.29 27.96 2.814 60.32
. 140 . 1.000 8.750 30.63 60.13 .4176 367.8 104.13 26.06 2.814 68.43
. 160 . 1.125 8.500 34.02 56.75 .3941 399.3 115.64 24.59 2.814 74.29
Wall Inside Elastic
- - Modulus
(square feet
(square (pounds per
inches) foot)
Steel (pounds per
-a- -A-
Schedule No. foot)
(square feet)
Size No. inches)
. . 5S .156 12.438 6.17 121.50 .8438 122.4 20.98 52.65 3.338 19.2
. . 10S .180 12.390 7.11 120.57 .8373 140.4 24.17 52.25 3.338 22.0
. 20 . .250 12.250 9.82 117.86 .8185 191.8 33.38 51.07 3.338 30.2
. 30 . .330 12.090 12.87 114.80 .7972 248.4 43.77 49.74 3.338 39.0
STD . 40S .375 12.000 14.58 113.10 .7854 279.3 49.56 49.00 3.338 43.8
. 40 . .406 11.938 15.77 111.93 .7773 300.3 53.52 48.50 3.338 47.1
12 12.75 XS . 80S .500 11.750 19.24 108.43 .7528 361.5 65.42 46.92 3.338 56.7
. 60 . .562 11.626 21.52 106.16 .7372 400.4 73.15 46.00 3.338 62.8
. 80 . .688 11.374 26.03 101.64 .7058 475.1 88.63 44.04 3.338 74.6
. 100 . .844 11.062 31.53 96.14 .6677 561.6 107.32 41.66 3.338 88.1
. 120 . 1.000 10.750 36.91 90.76 .6303 641.6 125.49 39.33 3.338 100.7
. 140 . 1.125 10.500 41.08 86.59 .6013 700.5 139.67 37.52 3.338 109.9
. 160 . 1.312 10.126 47.14 80.53 .5592 781.1 160.27 34.89 3.338 122.6
. . 5S 156 13.688 6.78 147.15 1.0219 162.6 23.07 63.77 3.665 23.2
. . 10S .188 13.624 8.16 145.78 1.0124 194.6 27.73 63.17 3.665 27.8
. 10 . .250 13.500 10.80 143.14 .9940 255.3 36.71 62.03 3.665 36.6
. 20 . .312 13.376 13.42 140.52 .9758 314.4 45.61 60.89 3.665 45.0
STD 30 . .375 13.250 16.05 137.88 .9575 372.8 54.57 59.75 3.665 53.2
. 40 . .438 13.124 18.66 135.28 .9394 429.1 63.44 58.64 3.665 61.3
14 14.00 XS . . .500 13.000 21.21 132.73 .9217 483.8 72.09 57.46 3.665 69.1
. 60 . .594 12.812 24.98 128.96 .8956 562.3 85.05 55.86 3.665 80.3
. 80 . .750 12.500 31.22 122.72 .8522 678.3 106.13 53.18 3.665 98.2
. 100 . .938 12.124 38.45 115.49 .8020 824.4 130.85 50.04 3.665 117.8
. 120 . 1.094 11.812 44.32 109.62 .7612 929.6 150.79 47.45 3.665 132.8
. 140 . 1.250 11.500 50.07 103.87 .7213 1027.0 170.28 45.01 3.665 146.8
.. 160 . 1.406 11.188 55.63 98.31 .6827 1117.0 189.11 42.60 3.665 159.6
Wall Inside Elastic
- - Modulus
(square feet
(square (pounds per
inches) foot)
Steel (pounds per
-a- -A-
Schedule No. foot)
(square feet)
Size No. inches)
. . 5S .165 15.670 8.21 192.85 1.3393 257.3 27.90 83.57 4.189 32.2
. . 10S .188 15.624 9.34 191.72 1.3314 291.9 31.75 83.08 4.189 36.5
. 10 . .250 15.500 12.37 188.69 1.3103 383.7 42.05 81.74 4.189 48.0
. 20 . .312 15.376 15.38 185.69 1.2895 473.2 52.27 80.50 4.189 59.2
STD 30 . .375 15.250 18.41 182.65 1.2684 562.1 62.58 79.12 4.189 70.3
XS 40 . .500 15.000 24.35 176.72 1.2272 731.9 82.77 76.58 4.189 91.5
16 16.00
. 60 . .656 14.688 31.62 169.44 1.1766 932.4 107.50 73.42 4.189 116.6
. 80 . .844 14.312 40.14 160.92 1.175 1155.8 136.61 69.73 4.189 144.5
. 100 . 1.031 13.938 48.48 152.58 1.0596 1364.5 164.82 66.12 4.189 170.5
. 120 . 1.219 13.562 56.56 144.50 1.0035 1555.8 192.43 62.62 4.189 194.5
. 140 . 1.438 13.124 65.78 135.28 .9394 1760.3 223.64 58.64 4.189 220.0
. 160 . 1.594 12.812 72.10 128.96 .8956 1893.5 245.25 55.83 4.189 236.7
. . 5S .165 17.670 9.25 245.22 1.7029 367.6 31.43 106.26 4.712 40.8
. . 10S .188 17.624 10.52 243.95 1.6941 417.3 35.76 105.71 4.712 46.4
. 10 . .250 17.500 13.94 240.53 1.6703 549.1 47.39 104.21 4.712 61.1
. 20 . .312 17.376 17.34 237.13 1.6467 678.2 58.94 102.77 4.712 75.5
STD . . .375 17.250 20.76 233.71 1.6230 806.7 70.59 101.18 4.712 89.6
. 30 . .438 17.124 24.17 230.30 1.5990 930.3 82.15 99.84 4.712 103.4
XS . . .500 17.000 27.49 226.98 1.5763 1053.2 93.45 98.27 4.712 117.0
18 18.00
. 40 . .562 16.876 30.79 223.68 1.5533 1171.5 104.67 96.93 4.712 130.1
. 60 . .750 16.500 40.64 213.83 1.4849 1514.7 138.17 92.57 4.712 168.3
. 80 . .938 16.124 50.23 204.24 1.4183 1833.0 170.92 88.50 4.712 203.8
. 100 . 1.156 15.688 61.17 193.30 1.3423 2180.0 207.96 83.76 4.712 242.3
. 120 . 1.375 15.250 71.81 182.66 1.2684 2498.1 244.14 79.07 4.712 277.6
. 140 . 1.562 14.876 80.66 173.80 1.2070 2749.0 274.22 75.32 4.712 305.5
. 160 . 1.781 14.438 90.75 163.72 1.1369 3020.0 308.50 70.88 4.712 335.6
Wall Inside Elastic
- - Modulus
(square feet
(square (pounds per
inches) foot)
Steel (pounds per
-a- -A-
Schedule No. foot)
(square feet)
Size No. inches)
. . 5S .188 19.624 11.70 302.46 2.1004 574.2 39.78 131.06 5.236 57.4
. . 10S .218 19.564 13.55 300.61 2.0876 662.8 46.06 130.27 5.236 66.3
. 10 . .250 19.500 15.51 298.65 2.0740 765.4 52.73 129.42 5.236 75.6
STD 20 . .375 19.250 23.12 290.04 2.0142 1113.0 78.60 125.67 5.236 111.3
XS 30 . .500 19.000 30.63 283.53 1.9690 1457.0 104.13 122.87 5.236 145.7
. 40 . .594 18.812 36.15 278.00 1.9305 1703.0 123.11 120.46 5.236 170.4
20 20.00
. 60 . .812 18.376 48.95 265.21 1.8417 2257.0 166.40 114.92 5.236 225.7
. 80 . 1.031 17.938 61.44 252.72 1.7550 2772.0 208.87 109.51 5.236 277.1
. 100 . 1.281 17.438 75.33 238.83 1.6585 3315.2 256.10 103.39 5.236 331.5
. 120 . 1.500 17.000 87.18 226.98 1.5762 3754.0 296.37 98.35 5.236 375.5
. 140 . 1.750 16.500 100.33 213.82 1.4849 4216.0 341.09 92.66 5.236 421.7
. 160 . 1.969 16.062 111.49 202.67 1.4074 4585.5 379.17 87.74 5.236 458.5
. . 5S .188 21.624 12.88 367.25 2.5503 766.2 43.80 159.14 5.760 69.7
. . 10S .218 21.564 14.92 365.21 2.5362 884.8 50.71 158.26 5.760 80.4
. 10 . .250 21.500 17.08 363.05 2.5212 1010.3 58.07 157.32 5.760 91.8
STD 20 . .375 21.250 25.48 354.66 2.4629 1489.7 86.61 153.68 5.760 135.4
XS 30 . .500 21.000 33.77 346.36 2.4053 1952.5 114.81 150.09 5.760 117.5
22 22.00 . 60 . .875 20.250 58.07 322.06 2.2365 3244.9 197.41 139.56 5.760 295.0
. 80 . 1.125 19.75 73.78 306.35 2.1275 4030.4 250.81 132.76 5.760 366.4
. 100 . 1.375 19.25 89.09 291.04 2.0211 4758.5 302.88 126.12 5.760 432.6
. 120 . 1.625 18.75 104.02 276.12 1.9175 5432.0 353.61 119.65 5.760 493.8
. 140 . 1.875 18.25 118.55 261.59 1.8166 6053.7 403.00 113.36 5.760 550.3
. 160 . 2.125 17.75 132.68 247.45 1.71840 6626.4 451.06 107.23 5.760 602.4
Wall Inside Elastic
- - Modulus
(square feet
(square (pounds per
inches) foot)
Steel (pounds per
-a- -A-
Schedule No. foot)
(square feet)
Size No. inches)
. . 5S .218 23.564 16.29 436.10 3.0285 1151.6 55.37 188.98 6.283 96.0
. 10 10S .250 23.500 18.65 433.74 3.0121 1315.4 63.41 187.95 6.283 109.6
STD 20 . .375 23.250 27.83 424.56 2.9483 1942.0 94.62 183.95 6.283 161.9
XS . . .500 23.000 36.91 415.48 2.8853 2549.5 125.49 179.87 6.283 212.5
. 30 . .562 22.876 41.39 411.00 2.8542 2843.0 140.68 178.09 6.283 237.0
. 40 . .688 22.624 50.31 402.07 2.7921 3421.3 171.29 174.23 6.283 285.1
24 24.00
. 60 . .969 22.062 70.04 382.35 2.6552 4652.8 238.35 165.52 6.283 387.7
. 80 . 1.219 21.562 87.17 365.22 2.5362 5672.0 296.58 158.26 6.283 472.8
. 100 . 1.531 20.938 108.07 344.32 2.3911 6849.9 367.39 149.06 6.283 570.8
. 120 . 1.812 20.376 126.31 326.08 2.2645 7825.0 429.39 141.17 6.283 652.1
. 140 . 2.062 19.876 142.11 310.28 2.1547 8625.0 483.12 134.45 6.283 718.9
. 160 . 2.344 19.312 159.41 292.98 2.0346 9455.9 542.13 126.84 6.283 787.9
. 10 . .312 25.376 25.18 505.75 3.5122 2077.2 85.60 219.16 6.806 159.8
26 26.00 STD . . .375 25.250 30.19 500.74 3.4774 2478.4 102.63 216.99 6.806 190.6
XS 20 . .500 25.000 40.06 490.87 3.4088 3257.0 136.17 212.71 6.806 250.5
. 10 . .312 27.376 27.14 588.61 4.0876 2601.0 92.26 255.07 7.330 185.8
STD . . .375 27.250 32.54 583.21 4.0501 3105.1 110.64 252.73 7.330 221.8
28 28.00
XS 20 . .500 27.000 43.20 572.56 3.9761 4084.8 146.85 248.11 7.330 291.8
. 30 . .625 26.750 53.75 562.00 3.9028 5037.7 182.73 243.53 7.330 359.8
. . 5S .250 29.500 23.37 683.49 4.7465 2585.2 79.43 296.18 7.854 172.3
. 10 10S .312 29.376 29.10 677.76 4.7067 3206.3 98.93 293.70 7.854 213.8
30 30.00 STD . . .375 29.250 34.90 671.96 4.6664 3829.4 118.65 291.18 7.854 255.3
XS 20 . .500 29.000 46.34 660.52 4.5869 5042.2 157.53 286.22 7.854 336.1
. 30 . .625 28.750 57.68 649.18 4.5082 6224.0 196.08 281.31 7.854 414.9
Wall Inside Elastic
- - Modulus
(square feet
(square (pounds per
inches) foot)
Steel (pounds per
-a- -A-
Schedule No. foot)
(square feet)
Size No. inches)
. 10 . .312 31.376 31.06 773.19 5.3694 3898.9 105.59 335.05 8.378 243.7
STD . . .375 31.250 37.26 766.99 5.3263 4658.5 126.66 332.36 8.378 291.2
32 32.00 XS 20 . .500 31.000 49.48 754.77 5.2414 6138.6 168.21 327.06 8.378 383.7
. 30 . .625 30.750 61.60 742.64 5.1572 7583.4 209.43 321.81 8.378 474.0
. 40 . .688 30.624 67.68 736.57 5.1151 8298.3 230.08 319.18 8.378 518.6
. 10 . .344 33.312 36.37 871.55 6.0524 5150.5 123.65 377.67 8.901 303.0
STD . . .375 33.250 39.61 868.31 6.0299 5599.3 134.67 376.27 8.901 329.4
34 34.00 XS 20 . .500 33.000 52.62 855.30 5.9396 7383.5 178.89 370.63 8.901 434.3
. 30 . .625 32.750 65.53 842.39 5.8499 9127.6 222.78 365.03 8.901 536.9
. 40 . .688 32.624 72.00 835.92 5.8050 9991.6 244.77 362.23 8.901 587.7
. 10 . .312 35.376 34.98 982.90 6.8257 5569.5 118.92 425.92 9.425 309.4
STD . . .375 35.250 41.97 975.91 6.7771 6658.9 142.68 422.89 9.425 369.9
36 36.00 XS 20 . .500 35.000 55.76 962.11 6.6813 8786.2 189.57 416.91 9.425 488.1
. 30 . .625 34.750 69.46 948.42 6.5862 10868.4 236.13 417.22 9.425 603.8
. 40 . .750 34.500 83.06 934.82 6.4918 12906.1 282.35 405.09 9.425 717.0
STD . . .375 41.250 49.08 1336.3 . 10627 167 579.3 10.99 506.1
XS 20 . .500 41.000 65.18 1320.2 . 14037 222 572.3 10.99 668.4
42 42.00
. 30 . .625 40.720 81.28 1304.1 . 17373 276 565.4 10.99 827.3
. 40 . .750 40.500 97.23 1288.2 . 20689 330 558.4 10.99 985.2
1 in (inch) = 25.4 mm
STD, XS and XXS
To distinguish different weights of pipe, three long standing traditional designations are used:
standard wall - STD
extra strong wall - XS
double extra strong wall - XXS
The last two designations are sometimes referred to as extra heavy wall (XH), and double extra heavy wall (XXH).
Annual Return On Investment (ROI)
Production Expenditure Income/Revenue Gross Profit Depreciation Taxable Tax Payable

Year Rate (RM) (RM) (RM) Charges (RM) Income (RM) (RM) Net Profit (RM) Cash Flow (RM)
0 0 610,000,000 0 -610,000,000 0 0 0 -610,000,000 -610,000,000
1 0.5 242,700,000 300,000,000 57,300,000 19,520,000 37,780,000 9,445,000 47,855,000 67,375,000
2 0.8 307,080,000 480,000,000 172,920,000 19,520,000 153,400,000 38,350,000 134,570,000 154,090,000
3 0.9 328,540,000 540,000,000 211,460,000 19,520,000 191,940,000 47,985,000 163,475,000 182,995,000
4 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000
5 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000
6 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000
7 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000
8 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000
9 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000
10 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000
11 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000
12 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000
13 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000
14 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000
15 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000
16 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000
17 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000
18 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000
19 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000
20 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000
21 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000
22 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000
23 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000
24 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000
25 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000
26 0 135,400,000 0 -135,400,000 0 0 0 -135,400,000 -135,400,000
Total 4,578,260,000 5,066,260,000
Average 183,130,400 202,650,400
ROI 0.30
PBP 3.010110022
Net Return 61130400
Net Present Value (NPV)
Discount Discounted Cash Cumulative
Production Expenditure Income/Revenue Gross Profit Depreciation Taxable Tax Payable Factor at Flow or Present Discounted Cash
Year Rate (RM) (RM) (RM) Charges (RM) Income (RM) (RM) Net Profit (RM) Cash Flow (RM) i=marr Value (RM) Flow (RM)
0 0 610,000,000 0 -610,000,000 0 0 0 -610,000,000 -610,000,000 1.0000 -610,000,000 -610,000,000
1 0.5 242,700,000 300,000,000 57,300,000 19,520,000 37,780,000 9,445,000 47,855,000 67,375,000 0.8333 56,145,833 -553,854,167
2 0.8 307,080,000 480,000,000 172,920,000 19,520,000 153,400,000 38,350,000 134,570,000 154,090,000 0.6944 107,006,944 -446,847,222
3 0.9 328,540,000 540,000,000 211,460,000 19,520,000 191,940,000 47,985,000 163,475,000 182,995,000 0.5787 105,899,884 -340,947,338
4 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000 0.4823 102,189,429 -238,757,909
5 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000 0.4019 85,157,858 -153,600,051
6 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000 0.3349 70,964,881 -82,635,170
7 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000 0.2791 59,137,401 -23,497,769
8 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000 0.2326 49,281,168 25,783,398
9 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000 0.1938 41,067,640 66,851,038
10 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000 0.1615 34,223,033 101,074,071
11 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000 0.1346 28,519,194 129,593,265
12 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000 0.1122 23,765,995 153,359,260
13 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000 0.0935 19,804,996 173,164,256
14 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000 0.0779 16,504,163 189,668,420
15 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000 0.0649 13,753,469 203,421,889
16 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000 0.0541 11,461,225 214,883,114
17 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000 0.0451 9,551,020 224,434,134
18 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000 0.0376 7,959,184 232,393,318
19 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000 0.0313 6,632,653 239,025,971
20 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000 0.0261 5,527,211 244,553,182
21 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000 0.0217 4,606,009 249,159,191
22 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000 0.0181 3,838,341 252,997,532
23 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000 0.0151 3,198,617 256,196,149
24 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000 0.0126 2,665,515 258,861,664
25 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000 0.0105 2,221,262 261,082,926
26 0 135,400,000 0 -135,400,000 0 0 0 -135,400,000 -135,400,000 0.0087 -1,182,786 259,900,139
NPV 259,900,139
Discounted Cash Flow Rate of Return (DCFRR)
Discount Discounted Cash Cumulative

Production Expenditure Income/Revenue Gross Profit Depreciation Taxable Income Tax Payable Factor at Flow or Present Discounted Cash
Year Rate (RM) (RM) (RM) Charges (RM) (RM) (RM) Net Profit (RM) Cash Flow (RM) i=marr Value (RM) Flow (RM)
0 0 610,000,000 0 -610,000,000 0 0 0 -610,000,000 -610,000,000 1.0000 -610,000,000 -610,000,000
1 0.5 242,700,000 300,000,000 57,300,000 19,520,000 37,780,000 9,445,000 47,855,000 67,375,000 0.7853 52,912,469 -557,087,531
2 0.8 307,080,000 480,000,000 172,920,000 19,520,000 153,400,000 38,350,000 134,570,000 154,090,000 0.6168 95,037,052 -462,050,479
3 0.9 328,540,000 540,000,000 211,460,000 19,520,000 191,940,000 47,985,000 163,475,000 182,995,000 0.4844 88,637,393 -373,413,085
4 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000 0.3804 80,606,109 -292,806,976
5 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000 0.2987 63,303,425 -229,503,550
6 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000 0.2346 49,714,888 -179,788,663
7 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000 0.1843 39,043,228 -140,745,435
8 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000 0.1447 30,662,317 -110,083,119
9 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000 0.1136 24,080,429 -86,002,690
10 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000 0.0892 18,911,391 -67,091,300
11 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000 0.0701 14,851,924 -52,239,376
12 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000 0.0550 11,663,851 -40,575,525
13 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000 0.0432 9,160,121 -31,415,403
14 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000 0.0339 7,193,835 -24,221,568
15 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000 0.0267 5,649,626 -18,571,942
16 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000 0.0209 4,436,893 -14,135,049
17 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000 0.0164 3,484,482 -10,650,567
18 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000 0.0129 2,736,513 -7,914,054
19 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000 0.0101 2,149,100 -5,764,954
20 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000 0.0080 1,687,781 -4,077,173
21 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000 0.0063 1,325,486 -2,751,687
22 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000 0.0049 1,040,961 -1,710,726
23 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000 0.0039 817,511 -893,215
24 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000 0.0030 642,027 -251,188
25 1 350,000,000 600,000,000 250,000,000 19,520,000 230,480,000 57,620,000 192,380,000 211,900,000 0.0024 504,211 253,023
26 0 135,400,000 0 -135,400,000 0 0 0 -135,400,000 -135,400,000 0.0019 -253,023 0
NPV 0.00
DCFRR 0.27
Cumulative Discounted cash Flow, (RM) depending the interest rate,i
Year i=0.1 i=0.125 i=0.15 i=0.175 i=0.2 i=0.27

0 -610000000 -610000000 -610000000 -610000000 -610000000 -610000000
1 -548750000 -550111111.1 -551413043.5 -552659574.5 -553854166.7 -557087530.8
2 -421402892.6 -428360987.7 -434898865.8 -441050701.7 -446847222.2 -462050478.7
3 -283916040.6 -299837750.3 -314576682.8 -328246409.8 -340947338 -373413085.3
4 -139185489.4 -167549623.5 -193422170.1 -217078487.1 -238757909 -292806975.9
5 -7612261.023 -49960177.48 -88070419.88 -122467489.1 -153600051.4 -229503550.5
6 111999764.8 54563774.57 3539797.694 -41947490.79 -82635170.18 -179788662.9
7 220737970 147473954.2 83200856.45 26580167.34 -23497769.13 -140745435.3
8 319590883.9 230060780.5 152471342.3 84901578.52 25783398.41 -110083118.8
9 409457169.2 303471292.7 212706547.4 134536822.1 66851038.02 -86002690.11
10 491153792.2 368725081.4 265084986.7 176779582.5 101074071 -67091299.52
11 565423449.5 426728449.2 310631455.6 212730868 129593265.2 -52239375.62
12 632941319.8 478286998.2 350237080.7 243327706.8 153359260.4 -40575524.54
13 694321201.9 524116819.7 384676754.7 269367569.5 173164256.3 -31415403.4
14 750121094.7 564854438.7 414624297.3 291529154.8 189668419.6 -24221568.48
15 800848269.9 601065655.6 440665638.8 310390078.5 203421889 -18571942.23
16 846963883.8 633253404 463310283.5 326441928.5 214883113.5 -14135049.09
17 888887169.1 661864735.9 483001278.9 340103077.3 224434134 -10650567.13
18 926999246.7 687297030.9 500123883.6 351729587 232393317.7 -7914054.414
19 961646590 709903515.3 515013105 361624488.9 239025970.7 -5764953.932
20 993144174.8 729998168.2 527960254.1 370045682 244553181.6 -4077173.403
21 1021778343 747860081.8 539218644.7 377212654.8 249159190.7 -2751687.164
22 1047809405 763737338.4 549008549.5 383312206.1 252997531.6 -1710726.128
23 1071474006 777850455.3 557521510.2 388503313.7 256196149 -893214.9026
24 1092987280 790395448.2 564924084.7 392921277.5 258861663.5 -251188.3711
25 1112544802 801546552.9 571361106 396681246.7 261082925.6 253022.5246
26 1101184004 795212917.2 567784469.4 394636525.4 259900139.4 4.05507E-06
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PRODUCTION OF MALEIC ANHYDRIDE FROM OXIDATION OF n-BUTANE

Technical Report · December 2015

SAJJAD KHUDHUR ABBAS

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A design project submitted to the Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment

Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment

DR. NOR YULIANA BINTI YUHANA

Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment

SAJJAD KHUDHUR ABBAS P81540

A design project submitted to the Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment

DR. NOR YULIANA BINTI YUHANA

1.4.4 Plant Production Capacity 20

CHAPTER II PLANT SITE ANALYSIS

CHAPTER III CONCEPT DESIGN PROCESS

3.5.2 Heat Balance 47

CHAPTER IV HEAT INTEGRATION

CHAPTER V CONTROL AND PIPING SYSTEM

CHAPTER VI DETAIL PROCESS DESIGN

6.2.6 Plate Design 86

6.4.3 Overall Coefficient 106

CHAPTER VII MECHANICAL DESIGN

7.2.3 Determination of Minimum Wall Thickness, 134

Mechanical Design Of Heat Exchanger 178

CHAPTER VIII WASTE TREATMENT

8.5 Summary On Cod, Bod Removal Efficiency In Each Unit 220

CHAPTER IX UTILITY DESIGN

CHAPTER X ECONOMIC ANALYSIS

10.6.3 Waste Treatment Cost, CWT 280

CHAPTER XI SAFETY ANALYSIS

CHAPTER XII PLANT SITE LAYOUT

12.3.4 Maintenance 379

No. Figure Pages

6.5 Condenser 102

No. Table Pages

5.5 Optimum Pipe Sizing for Liquid Flow 74

7.4 Standard Blind Flange Design (All dimensions mm) 131

7.11 Parameters for openings of distillation column 160

10.11 Raw material cost 281

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO MALEIC ANHYDRIDE

Maleic anhydride is multifunctional chemical intermediates that find applications in

Figure 1.1 Structure of Maleic Anhydride

Maleic anhydride is used as a chemical intermediate in the synthesis of fumaric

Table 1.1 Properties of Maleic Anhydride

Below is the reaction of n-butane to produce maleic anhydride:

1.2 PRODUCT USAGE

Maleic anhydride is truly a remarkable molecule in that it possesses two types of

1.2.1 Unsaturated Polyester Resin (UPR)

There are many unsaturated polyester resin formulations. A typical unsaturated

1.2.2 Production of 1,4-butanediol

1.2.3 Lube Oil Additives

Maleic anhydride is used in a multitude of applications in which a vinyl copolymer is

1.2.5 Agricultural Chemicals

1.2.6 Formation of Fumaric Acid and Malic Acid

1.2.7 Others Application

Figure 1.2 Maleic Anhydride Derivatives (Chemsystem 2009)

1.3 SOURCES OF RAW MATERIAL AND PRODUCT

Raw material: n-butane and oxygen

Table 1.2: Properties of n-Butane

600 kg/m3, liquid (0°C, 1 atm)

Critical pressure 37.96 bar

Table 1.3: Properties of Oxygen