International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics 69 (2019) 142–152

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International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ergon

Using Kano model to differentiate between future vehicle-driving services T

a b,∗ c
Min-Yuan Ma , Chun-Wei Chen , Yu-Ming Chang
a
Department of Industrial Design, National Cheng Kung University, No. 1, Dasyue Rd., East District, Tainan City, 701, Taiwan, ROC
b
Department of Crafts and Creative Design, National University of Kaohsiung, 700, Kaohsiung University Rd., Nanzih District, Kaohsiung, 811, Taiwan, ROC
c
Department of Creative Product Design, Southern Taiwan University, No. 1, Nantai St., Yongkang City, Tainan County, 710, Taiwan, ROC

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Services are constantly changing with the introduction of new technologies, which affect the service systems of
Kano model both conventional and autonomous driving. New theories and technologies are also key factors affecting the
Feature design and development trends of service models and solutions. Major automobile manufacturers aspire to
Customer satisfaction provide customers with unique services and experiences, resulting in a growing demand for systematic ap-
Car steering wheel
proaches to characterize customer behaviors and scientific methods to accurately interpret data stored in da-
Autonomous driving
tabases. This study proposes a scientific engineering and operation framework for driving services that enables
conventional automobile manufacturers to re-evaluate their service models and solutions as they expand into the
domain of autonomous driving, integrating customized consumer interactions and mass production efficiency to
develop new technologies, and subsequently applying these technologies to innovate their driving services, form
service innovation guidelines, and accelerate the development of smart applications for the automobile industry.
A Kano two-dimensional model of quality was employed. A Kano questionnaire was administered to analyze
consumers' perceived satisfaction concerning different service quality elements; the elements were then ranked
in the order of requiring improvement to determine the elements that are essential in conventional vehicles.
Finally, suggestions were proposed for improving the service quality of driving products and evaluating driver
satisfaction. A total of 56 valid questionnaires were collected from potential buyers of four-door sedans. The
questionnaire evaluated respondents’ perceived value and satisfaction of 30 product elements categorized into
two groups (specific functions and intangible value-added services) across eight major quality dimensions (basic
safety functions, multimedia entertainment systems, information and communication systems, value-added
systems, active matching, automatic service systems, hardware–software integration, and customer service and
support). In addition, Kano quality categories were statistically analyzed to elucidate whether significant dif-
ferences existed between groups. Using the Kano quality categories, 30 design elements were classified: 10 as
“attractive,” 7 as “one-dimensional,” 3 as “must-be,” 4 as “indifferent,” and 6 as “reverse.” Enterprises can
effectively reduce customer dissatisfaction and enhance customer satisfaction based on the quality category of
the product and the product improvement order proposed in this study.
Relevance to industry: This study determined that using the Kano quality categories, enterprises can effectively
reduce customer dissatisfaction and enhance customer satisfaction based on the quality category of the product
and the product improvement order proposed in this study.

1. Introduction
1.1. Background and study motivation
An automobile is an exceptional product that, aside from numerous
practical functions, also interacts intimately with its owner's family life
and reflects the personal economic status. However, the automobile
industry is facing drastic change. In the next ten years, the presence of
electric vehicles will continue to grow; more importantly, the auto-
mobile market will experience an even greater reform, which is au-
tonomous driving. Automotive companies need to consider what is at-
tractive to drivers and what consumers consider to be “driver-friendly”
(Dominici et al., 2016).
Due to the warming at the automotive market in the last years and
consequently the growth of vehicle production has been moved and
placed emphasis on the segment (Cagnin et al., 2016). Whether future

∗
Corresponding author. Department of Creative Design and Architecture, National University of Kaohsiung, 700, Kaohsiung University Rd., Nanzih District,
Kaohsiung, 811, Taiwan, ROC. Tel.: +886 915334637.
E-mail addresses: mamy@mail.ncku.edu.tw (M.-Y. Ma), willis.ccw@gmail.com (C.-W. Chen), ymchang@stust.edu.tw (Y.-M. Chang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ergon.2018.11.003
Received 6 July 2017; Received in revised form 26 October 2018; Accepted 27 November 2018
Available online 04 December 2018
0169-8141/ © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
M.-Y. Ma et al.
autonomous vehicles should be equipped with a steering wheel or a
user-controllable braking system is a question that has triggered sub-
stantial debate among conventional automobile manufacturers and
major Internet companies. The existing line of autonomous vehicles
developed by Google is equipped with a control system that enables the
driver to fully brake the vehicle in emergency situations. However,
these vehicles are not equipped with a steering wheel. Conventional
automobile manufacturer Audi stated that drivers should still follow
driving protocols amidst the prevalence of autonomous driving tech-
nologies and remain vigilant on the road, even with the absence of a
steering wheel and brake pedal. Audi works to improve the safety
elements of existing autonomous driving systems, such as monitoring
drivers’ conditions during autonomous driving. Tesla recommends that
drivers keep their hands on the steering wheel so that they can control
their vehicles where necessary. The University of Michigan conducted a
survey on autonomous and semi-autonomous driving systems in April
2016. Among the 618 respondents, 66% expressed reserved attitudes
towards completely autonomous driving. However, 94.5% of the re-
spondents opted for autonomous vehicles with steering wheels, 37%
expressed safety concerns towards fully autonomous vehicles, and 17%
expressed safety concerns towards semi-autonomous vehicles.
In recent years, as studies on advanced driver assistance systems
have garnered more attention, the behavior patterns and service ex-
periences of the driver have also started to be emphasized by relevant
scholars. An understanding of the pressure patterns that are appropriate
for the human body (that is, the patterns that reduce discomfort or
improve what is called comfort) can make product design and usage
very satisfying and fulfilling (Goonetilleke, 2000). To quote the Dansk
Design Center, the term “service design“ refers to the design of systems
and process around the idea of rendering a service to the user (Bedford
and Lee, 2008). Therefore, the primary task of service design is making
the service you deliver useful, usable, efficient, effective and desirable
(Design Council, 2010). In the field of service design, the touch point
has always been an essential concept; where automobiles are con-
cerned, the touch points consist of the items and scenarios in the service
system that interact with the driver. Increasing the number of touch
points generates more user experience, which facilitates enhancing the
value of the service system and customer satisfaction. However, from
the perspective of cognitive psychology, further analysis suggests that
ambiguity, uniqueness and dominance are three important aspects to
consider when designing and developing icons (Goonetilleke et al.,
2001). In the case of automobiles, service designers must address the
core service, operational service, and servicescape all together, to meet
drivers' preferences and expectations for journey-related service en-
counters (Grace and O'Cass, 2004). Therefore, the topic of how should
corporations develop diversified strategies (Nunes and Cespedes, 2003)
to understand the user behaviors (Kumar and Venkatesan, 2005) and
service experiences (Patrício et al., 2011) of their customers has mer-
ited further investigation.
Although service is a crucial factor affecting quality, most service
providers tend to perceive it as one-dimensional. The so-called one-
dimensional quality refers to the one-dimensional thinking that when a
quality element is known to satisfy the customer, the greater the degree
to which the product features this quality element, the more satisfied
the customers will be, and vice versa. However, the truth is that not all
quality elements are one-dimensional, some of them can be two-di-
mensional, which means that the full presence of certain quality ele-
ments would not necessarily satisfy the customers; sometimes, the
customers would even become displeased, or remain totally indifferent.
Thus, how to improve driving service quality, enhance customer sa-
tisfaction, create competitive edge, and reduce customer attrition are
key aspects of driving service that must be addressed.
1.2. Research question and motivation
People commonly believe that steering wheels will become obsolete
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International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics 69 (2019) 142–152
once reliable autonomous driving is realized. However, current auton-
omous driving systems can only be classified as an assisted-driving
function. Therefore, the functions of the steering wheel cannot be fully
delegated to the vehicle yet. The car part that a driver interacts with
most directly and frequently is neither the appearance nor power
system of the car, but rather its interior design, of which the steering
wheel is the most fundamental component. In addition to the shape of
the steering wheel, the gripping experience and the convenience during
operation are also crucial (Chang and Chen, 2016). This study predicts
that steering wheels will expand beyond their existing function for
navigation, such as becoming the point of contact for the vehicle to
monitor drivers. For example, Toyota unveiled a steering wheel
equipped with a built-in sensor to track drivers’ alertness and adjust the
environment of the vehicle accordingly.
With increasing concerns on customer needs in today's competitive
market, the issue of incorporating customer requirements into product
design arises the interest of both researchers and practitioners (Ji et al.,
2014). The concept of two-dimensional quality was introduced by
Noriaki Kano and his colleagues, who developed a highly effective
model to classify customer preference into five categories, namely one-
dimensional quality, attractive quality, indifferent quality, must-have
quality, and reverse quality. Thus, the two-dimensional concept in the
Kano model enables describing the relationships of customer satisfac-
tion with product quality or service quality. Kano's model, which stu-
dies the nature of customer needs, provides a way for a better classi-
fication of customer needs (Ji et al., 2014). Given this consumer-
centered mentality, consumers may not always seek a product with the
best attributes. Rather, they seek products that can satisfy their emo-
tional needs. Consumers evaluate products using multi-quality/multi-
principle strategies (Chen and Chuang, 2008). Using the Kano model to
define quality categories helps designers determine the true needs of
consumers and enable them to more accurately control quality and
satisfaction during product design and development (Chen and Li,
2008). The Kano model of quality addresses consumers' needs rather
than their preferences (Kano et al., 1984). Existing questions and an-
swering alternatives included in the Kano methodology must be
adapted to the nature of experiences (Högström, 2011). For this reason,
the present study adopted the Kano model for further classification of
the service quality in driving. Past studies on this topic have mostly
relied on statistical methods to identify the service qualities that no-
tably affect the customers, but they have usually been unable to de-
termine the degree to which customer satisfaction (or the lack of it) can
be improved once measures regarding the service qualities in question
have been implemented, and nor could they identify the exact service
qualities that actually matter for the customers. To overcome this
problem, a two-dimensional quality model was employed to effectively
allocate the resources of automobile manufacturers, thereby improving
the standard of driving service.
Does adding technical services to the specific function of driving
service products enhance product value and consumer satisfaction?
Experiment focuses on the functional requirements and service sa-
tisfaction aspects of qualityservices are constantly changing with the
introduction of new technologies. In this study, we applied research
results concerning consumers' “basic demands” for conventional driving
services to autonomous driving to identify the functions or services that
promote consumer satisfaction. The experimental results highlight the
indispensable feelings and services in conventional driving. These data
were then used to determine the associations between product func-
tions, services, and customer satisfaction, as well as how these asso-
ciations can be incorporated into the provision of desirable customer
service in autonomous driving and the identification of vital Kansei
quality factors (attractive elements) for enhancing customer satisfac-
tion. In addition, changes in the use of conventional vehicles, as well as
various intangible services of autonomous vehicles, were examined to
determine their functions in the provision of services and their effects
on customer demand and expectations. We further reviewed numerous
M.-Y. Ma et al.
Fig. 1. Functional requirements and service satisfaction research framework.
studies on customer satisfaction to prioritize the improvement of pro-
duct functions and uncover the underlying flaws in drivers’ service
experiences. These observations helped us envision the future eco-
system of autonomous driving services.
2. Methods of study and implementation
The research framework for Experiment is illustrated in Fig. 1. All
quality elements associated with driving service quality were identified,
and then, a questionnaire was formulated based on the Kano model of
quality and administered to the study respondents. The service quality
perceptions of the respondents were categorized based on a two-di-
mensional quality classification scheme. This scheme was devised to
overcome the flaws of the original one-dimensional scheme by in-
cluding a psychological dimension for quality evaluation. Interpreting
the correlation between product quality and consumer satisfaction in
two dimensions reveals that favorable product quality may not always
satisfy consumers, but sometimes leads to indifference or dissatisfac-
tion, instead.
2.1. Stimulation test sample selection
In the development of products, methods enabling the designer to
create an appropriate image for a product so that it may communicate
with the user are always critical issues (Chuang and Ma, 2001). To
avoid discrepancy regarding form vs content, the focus team, through
direct visual perception, classified the test samples according to the
visual characteristics of the images. To classify the 114 test samples by
form contrast(Chang and Chen, 2016), the KJ method was adopted.
This method is used for qualitative analysis based on intuition and for
innovating through teamwork. Because this method is used for ana-
lyzing how participants perceive the images, it enables the character-
istics of images to be more clearly understood (Yang, 2003). The main
objective of Experiment was from to examine service quality. The focus
group was invited to categorize the 45 stimuli samples into 12 clusters
based on design similarities. The most representative sample from each
cluster was selected for a total of 12 representative samples in Experi-
ment (Fig. 2). Then, data concerning the potential factors that may be
Fig. 2. Final samples for experiment (n = 12).
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International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics 69 (2019) 142–152
considered for operating a steering wheel were collected, including
built-in functionality. The data were compiled into a spreadsheet.
2.2. Establishing quality evaluation dimensions and evaluation
characteristics
The two-way Kano quality questionnaire was based on a number of
quality evaluation dimensions and characteristics that affect the per-
ceived satisfaction of drivers when they operate vehicles. In line with
Kano's model for examining consumer “demand” rather than “pre-
ference” (Kano et al., 1984), a focus group was organized to discuss the
steering wheel samples in Fig. 2 to identify the demand attributes and
characteristics. A total of 15 elements across four dimensions were
identified. The dimensions were basic safety functions, multimedia
entertainment, information and communication, and value-added sys-
tems. These elements were collectively named the “specific functions.”
To apply the aforementioned elements in future autonomous driving
environments, a number of experts were invited to participate in a
brainstorming session. All experts were between the ages of 25 and 50,
and had a driver's license and at least two years of driving experience. A
diffusion mode of creative thinking was applied to discuss future au-
tonomous driving scenarios, which included the concepts of “criticism
is ruled out,” “freewheeling is welcomed,” “go for quantity,” and
“hitchhike (improve) on ideas.” A total of 15 quality evaluation ele-
ments across four dimensions were identified. The dimensions were
active matching, automated system services, software–hardware in-
tegration, and customer service and support. These elements were
collectively named “Intangible Value-Added Services.”
A total of 30 elements were selected to evaluate, define, and explain
the positive and negative quality elements associated with demand.
Subsequently, 56 respondents were invited to score each element ac-
cording to their preferences. The elements were measured using a five-
point Likert scale (Table 1).
2.3. Two-way Kano quality satisfaction survey and quality determination
The questionnaire was based on a Kano two-dimensional model of
quality. The survey results were categorized into five dimensions,
namely, “attractive,” “one-dimensional,” “must-be,” “indifferent,” and
“reverse,” based on the respondents' opinions. Survey participants were
general office workers with two or more years of driving experience. A
literature review was performed to categorize the service quality of
steering wheels into two major groups, “specific functions” and “in-
tangible value-added services.” The questionnaire was designed based
on the Kano two-dimensional model of quality. Participants’ identities
were kept anonymous, with only the demographics of gender, years of
driving, and daily average driving time solicited. The questionnaire
items were the quality evaluation elements. The respondents answered
the items based on a two-dimension system, specifically, with or
without a specific quality element.
The survey comprised two parts. The first part was the two-way
Kano quality questionnaire to elucidate consumers' demands. The
second part evaluated the performance of the samples (steering wheel
M.-Y. Ma et al. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics 69 (2019) 142–152

Table 1
Quality elements associated with customer demand.
Group Dimension Element

Specific Functions Basic Safety Functions A1. Horn button

Multimedia Entertainment System
Information and Communication
System
Value-Added Systems
A2. Paddle shift controls
A3. Lane departure warning indicator
A4. Hazard warning indicator
A5. Airbag deployment indicator
A6. Fast U-turn
B1. Audio device play button
B2. Audio device scroll button
B3. Audio device volume buttons
C1. Pick up/end call buttons
C2. Navigator activation button
C3. Cruise control activation button
D1. Air conditioner control buttons
D2. Rear seat light control buttons
D3. Four-directional control pad

Iintangible Value-Added Active Matching
Services
Automatic Service System
Software–Hardware Integration
Customer Service and Support
E1. Automatic recording of drivers' habits and frequently used commands
E2. Steering wheel height and headrest adjustment based on facial recognition
F1. Arbitrary manual driving override
F2. Driver attention detection while the steering wheel is held
F3. Autopilot when hands leave steering wheel
F4. Easy return of steering wheel after turning
F5. Auto-complete lane change after initiating auto-turning
F6. Active cruise control support system
F7. Automatic lane departure warning support system (steering wheel vibrates to warn the driver when
leaving a marked lane without turning on indicators)
G1. App-enabled (drivers can input their preferred parameters into a dedicated app; the parameters are
automatically synced with the steering wheel activation control system)
G2. Fatigue detection based on facial recognition
G3. Fatigue relief (lights are activated to stimulate drivers' sympathetic nervous system when fatigue is
detected)
G4. Stress relief (light music, warm lights, and a pleasant fragrance are provided to stimulate drivers'
parasympathetic nerve system when stress is detected)
H1. Voice commands
H2. Audio reminders

Table 2
Kano two-way questionnaire format (using hardware–software integration
services as an example).
How do you find steering wheels with “autopilot when hands leave steering wheel?”
□ Delightful □ Necessary □ No Comment □ Tolerable □ Unacceptable
How do you find steering wheels without “autopilot when hands leave steering
wheel?”
□ Delighted □ Necessary □ No Comment □ Tolerable □ Unacceptable
designs) for each quality element (demand attribute) and overall sa-
tisfaction (Table 2). A total of 56 participants aged 25–50 (35 men and
21 women) were invited to participate in the two-way Kano quality
questionnaire, which comprised a series of “paired items” (with and
without a specific quality element) to survey the respondents’ opinions.
The Kano quality attribute determination matrix was used to determine
the quality classification of each demand element (Table 3).
Based on the aforementioned procedures, the objectives of
Experiment were as follows:
(1) to apply the respondents' feedback and the Kano two-dimensional
model of quality to classify the quality attributes of product design;
(2) to determine the respondents' perceived importance of the various
items and elucidate the customer satisfaction coefficients for the
various products;
(3) to determine the differences between the customer satisfaction
coefficients of the five product quality attributes; and
(4) to determine whether the Kano evaluation rules support or reject
the product classifications developed in this study.
2.4. Data analysis
2.4.1. Questionnaire content validation
Reliability refers to the scoring consistency among groups of parti-
cipants. In this study, Cronbach's alpha was used to measure item
consistency.
2.4.2. Data analysis and hypothesis testing
2.4.2.1. Basic descriptive statistical analysis. The descriptive statistics

Table 3
Decision matrix for determining quality attributes (three by three) (five-by-five).
Product demand Insufficient quality

Satisfied It must be that way It is indifferent I can live with it Dissatisfied

Sufficient quality Satisfied contradictory charming charming charming one-dimensional

It must be that way reverse indifference indifference indifference necessary
It is indifferent reverse indifference indifference indifference necessary
I can live with it reverse indifference indifference indifference necessary
Dissatisfied reverse reverse reverse reverse contradictory

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M.-Y. Ma et al.
comprised general sample size, driver demographics, questionnaire
response rate, mean values of quality elements, and standard
deviations. The objective of the descriptive statistical analysis was to
elucidate the characteristics of the returned samples, the importance of
the quality elements, participants’ perceived satisfaction, and the
classification of the Kano quality elements.
2.4.2.2. One-way analysis of variance. A one-way analysis of variance
(ANOVA) was conducted to determine the differences between the
average values of specific variables among various independent
populations. A small variance denotes that the effect of the variable is
consistent among the various independent populations. This method is
a common tool for measuring causal relationships.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Questionnaire reliability
The Cronbach's α coefficient was used in this study to measure the
internal consistency of the questionnaire items. Hair et al. (1998) as-
serted that although the alpha coefficient lacks a standard absolute
value, an alpha coefficient of 0.7 is universally accepted as the relia-
bility standard, and items with alpha coefficient lower than 0.35 should
be rejected. Wortzel (1979) maintained that a reliability coefficient of
0.6 is acceptable, but one between 0.7 and 0.98 is preferred, and that
coefficients lower than 0.35 should be rejected.
In this study, Cronbach's α coefficients concerning the importance
and perceived satisfaction of specific functions (i.e., basic safety func-
tions, multimedia entertainment, information and communication, and
value-added systems) and intangible value-added services (active
matching, automatic service system, software-hardware integration,
and customer service and support) were measured. Outcomes are ta-
bulated in Table 4. Apart from the product design construct, all the
remaining coefficients were 0.733 (exceeding the recommended level
of 0.6), suggesting that the questionnaire achieved excellent reliability.
3.2. Returned sample characteristics analysis
A total of 56 valid questionnaires were returned. Participants de-
mographics are given in Table 5; among them, 62.5% were men and
37.5% were women, and most of them were aged between 31 and 45
years (66%).
3.3. Kano quality elements classification and analysis
For the Kano two-dimensional quality analysis, the respondents
were instructed to express their perceived satisfaction for 30 quality
elements presented in two hypothetical scenarios (adequate or in-
adequate). Perceived satisfaction was measured using a five-point
Likert scale, where a higher score represented higher perceived sa-
tisfaction. The results were used to categorize the Kano two-dimen-
sional quality elements, as tabulated in Tables 6 and 7. Among the 30
design elements, 10 were classified as “Attractive,” seven were classi-
fied as “One-Dimensional,” three were classified as “Must-Be,” four
were classified as “Indifferent,” and six were classified as “Reverse”
(Table 8).
3.3.1. Attractive
“Horn button,” “paddle shift controls,” “fast U-turn,” “audio device
Table 4
Variable reliability: Cronbach's α.
Cronbach's Alpha N of Items
.733 30
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International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics 69 (2019) 142–152
Table 5
Respondent demographics (N = 56).
No. of respondents % Total sample Cumulative
size percentage
Gender
Male 35 62.5 56 100
Female 21 37.5
Age
25–30 8 14.3 56 100
31–35 12 21.4
36–40 13 23.2
41–45 12 21.4
46–50 11 19.6
play button,” “cruise control activation button,” “automatic recording
of drivers’ driving habits and frequently used commands,” “arbitrary
manual driving override,” “driver attention detection while the steering
wheel is held,” “easy return of steering wheel after turning,” and “voice
commands” were classified as attractive quality elements. A consider-
able proportion of the participants expressed that they would not be
dissatisfied even when the quality elements were inadequate; however,
they were satisfied when the elements were adequate.
3.3.2. One-dimensional
“Audio device scroll button,” “audio device volume button,” “pick
up/end call buttons,” “autopilot when hands leave steering wheel,”
“active cruise control support system,” “automatic lane deviation
warning support system,” and “fatigue detection based on facial re-
cognition” were classified as one-dimensional quality elements. The
participants expressed satisfaction when the quality elements were
adequate and dissatisfaction when the elements were inadequate.
3.3.3. Must-be
“Steering wheel height and headrest adjustment based on facial
recognition,” “auto-complete lane change after initiating auto-turning,”
and “app-enabled” were classified as must-be quality elements. A con-
siderable proportion of the participants expressed no satisfaction when
the quality elements were adequate but dissatisfaction when the ele-
ments were inadequate, suggesting that they valued these quality ele-
ments.
3.3.4. Indifferent
“Lane departure warning indicator,” “air conditioner control but-
tons,” “four-directional control pad,” and “audio reminders” were
classified as indifferent quality elements. The respondents expressed
neither satisfaction nor dissatisfaction for these elements.
3.3.5. Reverse
“Hazard warning indicator,” “airbag deployment indicator,” “navi-
gator activation button,” “rear seat light control buttons,” “fatigue re-
lief,” and “stress relief” were classified as reverse quality elements. A
considerable proportion of the respondents expressed dissatisfaction
when these quality elements were adequate and satisfaction when the
elements were inadequate.
The classification results of the Kano two-dimensional quality ele-
ments indicated significant differences among the five groups of quality
elements. Therefore, the hypothesis that product quality elements have
different classifications in the Kano model was supported.
3.4. Respondents’ perceived importance of vehicle functions
A five-point Likert scale was used to measure the participants' per-
ceived importance concerning the 30 quality elements, where a higher
score represented a higher perceived importance or satisfaction
M.-Y. Ma et al. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics 69 (2019) 142–152

Table 6
Kano quality element percentage and classification for specific functions.
Group Dimension Element (A) (O) (M) (I) (R) Kano Quality Classification

Specific Functions Basic Safety Functions A1. Horn button 44% 38% 9% 10% 0% A
A2. Paddle shift controls 42% 39% 9% 10% 0% A
A3. Lane departure warning indicator 0% 11% 13% 46% 30% I
A4. Hazard warning indicator 0% 5% 2% 41% 52% R
A5. Airbag deployment indicator 0% 6% 2% 34% 51% R
A6. Fast U-turn 43% 14% 41% 2% 0% A
Multimedia Entertainment System B1. Audio device play button 54% 7% 30% 9% 0% A
B2. Audio device scroll button 20% 42% 34% 4% 0% O
B3. Audio device volume buttons 7% 50% 38% 5% 0% O
Information and Communication System C1. Pick up/end call buttons 32% 52% 9% 7% 0% O
C2. Navigator activation button 0% 3% 4% 43% 51% R
C3. Cruise control activation button 48% 45% 5% 3% 0% A
Value-Added Systems D1. Air conditioner control buttons 0% 2% 24% 64% 10% I
D2. Rear seat light control buttons 0% 3% 4% 43% 50% R
D3. Four-directional control pad 0% 10% 26% 57% 7% I

(Table 9). The quality groups, in descending order of importance as
expressed by the participants, were automated system services, multi-
media entertainment, active matching, information and communica-
tion, customer service and support, basic safety functions, software-
hardware integration, and value-added systems. In this order, the
average scores of the first five groups were higher than the overall
average. The standard deviation values of the constructs were analyzed
to determine consensus. The level of dispersion of the eight groups of
standard deviation values was relatively low, suggesting that the re-
spondents’ opinions were consistent.
Table 10 indicates the respondents' perceived importance con-
cerning the various functional design elements. The five top-ranking
quality elements were “fatigue detection based on facial recognition” in
software-hardware integration, “cruise control activation button” in
information and communication, “automatic recording of drivers’
driving habits and frequently used commands” in active matching,
“arbitrary manual driving override” in automated system services, and
“horn button” in basic safety functions. The five bottom-ranking quality
elements were “rear seat light control buttons” in value-added systems,
“airbag deployment indicator” and “hazard warning indicator” in basic
safety functions, and “fatigue relief” and “stress relief” in soft-
ware–hardware integration. Although these factors seemed less im-
portant, an additional analysis was performed to determine whether
they were key elements affecting satisfaction.
3.5. Kano customer satisfaction coefficient calculation and matrix creation
Although the data collected from the Kano questionnaire enabled
the researchers of this study to classify the two-dimensional quality
elements of the product designs, they are inadequate to facilitate
managers in their efforts to enhance customer satisfaction. Therefore, a
customer satisfaction matrix was created to highlight the quality ele-
ments that can be incorporated into product designs to maximize cus-
tomer satisfaction. First, the two-dimensional quality elements classi-
fication results and the literature review results concerning the Kano
two-dimensional model of quality were applied to calculate the extent
of customer satisfaction and the extent of dissatisfaction coefficients
given by Eqs. (1) and (2) (Table 11):
(A + O)/(A + O + M + I) and
−(M + O)/(A + O + M + I),
where A: Attractive; O: One-dimensional; M: Must-be; and I: Indifferent.
The extents of customer dissatisfaction were then plotted on the X-
axis (Eq. (1)), and the extents of satisfaction coefficients on the Y-axis
(Eq. (2)), to create the customer satisfaction matrix.
The center line of the X-axis was the average extent of satisfaction of
the 30 quality elements, and the center line of the Y-axis was the
average extent of dissatisfaction (Fig. 3). The extent of satisfaction and
extent of dissatisfaction coefficients ranged between absolute values of
0 and 1. A customer satisfaction coefficient closer to 1 represents that
customers' perceived satisfaction increases significantly when the
quality element is improved, whereas an extent of dissatisfaction
coefficient plotted closer to −1 represents that customers’ perceived
dissatisfaction increases significantly if that quality element is not sa-
tisfied.
According to the preceding table, the following findings were de-
rived. Using the example of “E1. Automatic collection of drivers' driving
habits and frequently used commands,” we can ascertain that the
quality ratio of this element for the “attractive,” “one-dimensional,”
“must-be,” “indifferent,” and “reverse” constructs was 52%, 40%, 5%,
3%, and 0.0%, respectively (Table 11). This indicates that over half the
participants identified this quality element as attractive. From Eqs. (3)
and (4), the extents of satisfaction and dissatisfaction were found to be
0.92 and −0.45, respectively, implying that customers’ perceived sa-
tisfaction for adequate quality outweighed their perceived dissatisfac-
tion with inadequate quality and validating the reliability of classifying
this element under the “attractive” construct. These results are con-
sistent with the evaluation standard of M > O > A > I proposed by
Matzler and Hinterhuber (1998). In other words, during product design
or development, quality elements in the “must-be” construct must first
be satisfied to prevent a sharp increase in dissatisfaction. Then, at-
tractive design elements should be introduced to enhance customer
satisfaction.
In the customer satisfaction matrix (Fig. 3), the quality elements
plotted in the first quadrant (high extent of satisfaction, low extent of
dissatisfaction) are the key design elements for future vehicle devel-
opment. These elements include “cruise control activation button,”
“automatic recording of drivers’ driving habits and frequently used
commands,” “voice commands,” “driver attention detection while
holding the steering wheel,” and “arbitrary manual driving override.”
3.6. Demand for future automatic vehicle-driving services
The 30 quality characteristics were plotted on an XY diagram
(Fig. 4). In the Kano two-dimensional quality model, the horizontal axis
(1) represents the sufficiency of the quality characteristics, whereas the
vertical axis represents customer satisfaction. Of all the quality char-
(2)
acteristics, three were classified under the “must-be” category, in-
dicating characteristics that companies had to improve first; improve-
ments in this category could immediately lower customer
dissatisfaction. Seven quality characteristics were classified under the
“one-dimensional” category; improvements in this category would
elevate customer satisfaction and lower customer dissatisfaction. A
total of 10 quality characteristics were classified under the “attractive”

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 Table 7
Kano quality element percentage and classification for intangible value-added services.
Group Dimension Element (A) (O) (M) (I) (R) Kano Quality
M.-Y. Ma et al.

Classification

Iintangible Value-Added Active Matching E1. Automatic recording of drivers' habits and frequently used commands 52% 40% 5% 3% 0% A
Services E2. Steering wheel height and headrest adjustment based on facial recognition 0% 8% 54% 36% 2% M
Automatic Service System F1. Arbitrary manual driving override 52% 33% 10% 5% 0% A
F2. Driver attention detection while the steering wheel is held 52% 35% 11% 3% 0% A
F3. Autopilot when hands leave steering wheel 28% 61% 9% 2% 0% O
F4. Easy return of steering wheel after turning 57% 18% 22% 3% 0% A
F5. Auto-complete lane change after initiating auto-turning 5% 7% 58% 30% 0% M
F6. Active cruise control support system 35% 42% 20% 3% 0% O
F7. Automatic lane departure warning support system (steering wheel vibrates to warn the driver when 14% 50% 34% 2% 0% O
leaving a marked lane without turning on indicators)
Software–Hardware Integration G1. App-enabled (drivers can input their preferred parameters into a dedicated app; the parameters are 10% 43% 45% 2% 0% M
automatically synced with the steering wheel activation control system)
G2. Fatigue detection based on facial recognition 18% 55% 22% 5% 0% O
G3. Fatigue relief (lights are activated to stimulate drivers' sympathetic nervous system when fatigue is 0% 2% 3% 38% 57% R
detected)
G4. Stress relief (light music, warm lights, and a pleasant fragrance are provided to stimulate drivers' 0% 4% 9% 43% 44% R
parasympathetic nerve system when stress is detected)
Customer Service and Support H1. Voice commands 57% 34% 11% 2% 0% A
H2. Audio reminders 0% 5% 34% 57% 4% I

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Table 8
Kano quality element classification for the various quality elements.
Group A O M I R

Basic Safety Functions
Multimedia Entertainment System
Information and Communication
System
Value-Added Systems
Active Matching
Automatic Service System
Software–Hardware Integration
Customer Service and Support
‧ Paddle shift controls Lane departure warning ‧ Hazard warning
‧ Fast U-turn indicator indicator
‧ Airbag deployment
indicator
Audio device play button ‧ Audio device scroll button
‧ Audio device volume buttons
Cruise control activation button Pick up/end call buttons Navigator activation button
‧ Air conditioner control Rear seat light control
buttons buttons
‧ Cruise control activation
button
Automatic recording of drivers' habits and Steering wheel height and headrest
frequently used commands adjustment based on facial recognition
‧ Arbitrary manual driving override ‧ Autopilot when hands leave Auto-complete lane change after initiating
‧ Driver attention detection while the steering wheel auto-turning
steering wheel is held ‧ Active cruise control support
‧ Easy return of steering wheel after system
turning ‧ Automatic lane departure warning
support system
Fatigue detection based on facial App-enabled ‧ Fatigue relief
recognition ‧ Stress relief
Voice commands Audio reminders
International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics 69 (2019) 142–152
M.-Y. Ma et al. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics 69 (2019) 142–152

Table 9 improving service procedures.

Ranking of the quality constructs based on perceived importance.
Constructs Items Perceived Importance
4. Conclusions
Mean Standard Rank
Deviation The Kano model is an instrument to evaluate users' perception of
quality, enabling users' current expectations and demand to be de-
Basic Safety Functions 6 2.8988 0.6698 6
Multimedia Entertainment System 3 3.8214 0.6646 2 termined. This illustrates the value of user satisfaction and allows de-
Information and Communication 3 3.4405 0.5376 4 signers or companies to make related assessments, ultimately im-
System proving and elevating users’ overall satisfaction.
Value-Added Systems 3 1.9464 0.4833 8 This study used the vehicle-driving quality assessment model de-
Active Matching 2 3.5715 0.5114 3
veloped from a previous study, which contains 2 dimensions and 30
Automatic Service System 7 4.0153 0.6219 1
Software–Hardware Integration 4 2.7232 0.5189 7 quality characteristics. The Kano model was used to identify the quality
Customer Service and Support 2 3.3839 0.6307 5 attribute of each characteristic. The study results showed that the
quality attribute most commonly used to classify the characteristics was
“attractive,” followed by “one-dimensional,” “reverse,” “indifferent,”
category; improvements in this category could significantly enhance and “must-be.” This confirms users’ varying demand for quality attri-
customer satisfaction (Table 12). Finally, four quality characteristics butes. This study identified various vehicle-driving quality character-
were classified under the “indifferent” category; the diagram for this istics and evaluated which ones exhibit greater effects on user sa-
category is not shown, because customers are not concerned with the tisfaction. Such findings allow companies to implement customer
performance of these characteristics and companies may therefore segmentation and achieve higher customer satisfaction levels. The Kano
choose to not improve them. By referring to where quality character- model shows the following customer satisfaction results.
istics are located on a Kano model diagram, companies can prioritize From the perspective of human–machine interaction, consumers
the importance of quality characteristics, develop improvement stra- may not notice all the media they come into contact with. They also
tegies to elevate customer satisfaction, and identify the quality char- have affective experiences from intangible feedback. Many innovative
acteristics that they should pay attention to when developing or services will emerge amidst fierce market competition and as the

Table 10
Importance of each construct characteristic.
Group Dimension Element Importance

Mean Standard Rank

Deviation

Specific Functions Basic Safety Functions A1. Horn button 4.4464 .65836 5
A2. Paddle shift controls 4.4286 .65663 6
A3. Lane departure warning indicator 1.7143 .67995 21
A4. Hazard warning indicator 1.4464 .53664 24
A5. Airbag deployment indicator 1.3750 .52440 25
A6. Fast U-turn 3.9821 .96278 11
Multimedia Entertainment B1. Audio device play button 4.1429 .96160 10
System B2. Audio device scroll button 3.7857 .49412 12
B3. Audio device volume buttons 3.5357 .53815 14
Information and Communication C1. Pick up/end call buttons 4.3036 .50162 8
System C2. Navigator activation button 1.5000 .57208 22
C3. Cruise control activation button 4.5179 .53906 2
Value-Added Systems D1. Air conditioner control buttons 2.1607 .37059 20
D2. Rear seat light control buttons 1.4286 .49935 26
D3. Four-directional control pad 2.2500 .57997 19

Iintangible Value-Added Active Matching E1. Automatic recording of drivers' habits and frequently used commands 4.5000 .53936 3
Services E2. Steering wheel height and headrest adjustment based on facial 2.6429 .48349 17
recognition
Automatic Service System F1. Arbitrary manual driving override 4.4643 .60194 4
F2. Driver attention detection while the steering wheel is held 4.4107 .68162 7
F3. Autopilot when hands leave steering wheel 4.2143 .59435 9
F4. Easy return of steering wheel after turning 4.1429 .99870 10
F5. Auto-complete lane change after initiating auto-turning 2.7143 .49412 16
F6. Active cruise control support system 4.5000 .50452 3
F7. Automatic lane departure warning support system (steering wheel 3.6607 .47775 13
vibrates to warn the driver when leaving a marked lane without turning on
indicators)
Software–Hardware Integration G1. App-enabled (drivers can input their preferred parameters into a 3.4286 .49935 15
dedicated app; the parameters are automatically synced with the steering
wheel activation control system)
G2. Fatigue detection based on facial recognition 4.5536 .50162 1
G3. Fatigue relief (lights are activated to stimulate drivers' sympathetic 1.4464 .53664 24
nervous system when fatigue is detected)
G4. Stress relief (light music, warm lights, and a pleasant fragrance are 1.4643 .53815 23
provided to stimulate drivers' parasympathetic nerve system when stress is
detected)
Customer Service and Support H1. Voice commands 4.4107 .70780 7
H2. Audio reminders 2.3571 .55362 18

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M.-Y. Ma et al. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics 69 (2019) 142–152

Table 11
Customer satisfaction coefficients.
Group Dimension Element Kano Quality (CS) (DS)
Element

Specific Functions Basic Safety Functions
Multimedia Entertainment
System
Information and Communication
System
Value-Added Systems
A1. Horn button A 0.82 −0.47
A2. Paddle shift controls A 0.81 −0.48
A3. Lane departure warning indicator I 0.16 −0.34
A4. Hazard warning indicator R 0.10 −0.15
A5. Airbag deployment indicator R 0.14 −0.16
A6. Fast U-turn A 0.57 −0.55
B1. Audio device play button A 0.61 −0.37
B2. Audio device scroll button O 0.62 −0.76
B3. Audio device volume buttons O 0.57 −0.88
C1. Pick up/end call buttons O 0.84 −0.64
C2. Navigator activation button R 0.06 −0.14
C3. Cruise control activation button A 0.93 −0.50
D1. Air conditioner control buttons I 0.02 −0.29
D2. Rear seat light control buttons R 0.06 −0.14
D3. Four-directional control pad I 0.11 −0.39

Iintangible Value-Added Active Matching
Services
Automatic Service System
Software–Hardware Integration
Customer Service and Support
E1. Automatic recording of drivers' habits and frequently used commands A 0.92 −0.45
E2. Steering wheel height and headrest adjustment based on facial recognition M 0.08 −0.63
F1. Arbitrary manual driving override A 0.85 −0.43
F2. Driver attention detection while the steering wheel is held A 0.87 −0.46
F3. Autopilot when hands leave steering wheel O 0.89 −0.70
F4. Easy return of steering wheel after turning A 0.72 −0.40
F5. Auto-complete lane change after initiating auto-turning M 0.12 −0.65
F6. Active cruise control support system O 0.77 −0.62
F7. Automatic lane departure warning support system (steering wheel O 0.64 −0.84
vibrates to warn the driver when leaving a marked lane without turning on
indicators)
G1. App-enabled (drivers can input their preferred parameters into a M 0.53 −0.88
dedicated app; the parameters are automatically synced with the steering
wheel activation control system)
G2. Fatigue detection based on facial recognition O 0.73 −0.77
G3. Fatigue relief (lights are activated to stimulate drivers' sympathetic R 0.05 −0.15
nervous system when fatigue is detected)
G4. Stress relief (light music, warm lights, and a pleasant fragrance are R 0.07 −0.23
provided to stimulate drivers' parasympathetic nerve system when stress is
detected)
H1. Voice commands A 0.91 −0.45
H2. Audio reminders I 0.05 −0.40

Fig. 3. Customer satisfaction matrix.

driving service market continues to change. For example, with the ad-
vent of autonomous driving, designers are challenged with selecting
attractive Kansei qualities for their designs to meet consumer expecta-
tions and enhance “service” and “satisfaction.” This is one of the main
topics this study focuses on. In this context, we examined driving de-
vices that were technologically mature and emphasized technology
services using the Kano model of quality to elucidate consumers’ de-
mands for different Kansei elements (Fig. 5). Based on the “attractive”
Fig. 4. Customer satisfaction diagram obtained using the Kano model.
quality element of consumer demands, the classification results were
subsequently used to create the “Golden Circle of Product Services” self-
defined by this study.
Conflicts of interest
The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest.

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M.-Y. Ma et al. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics 69 (2019) 142–152

Table 12
Recommendations for vehicle-driving service demand.
C3 Cruise control activation button
E1 Automatic recording of drivers' habits and frequently used commands
H1 Voice commands
F2 Driver attention detection while the steering wheel is held
F1 Arbitrary manual driving override
A1 Horn button
A2 Paddle shift controls
F4 Easy return of steering wheel after turning
B1 Audio device play button
A6 Fast U-turn

F3 Autopilot when hands leave steering wheel

C1 Pick up/end call buttons
F6 Active cruise control support system
G2 Fatigue detection based on facial recognition
F7 Automatic lane departure warning support system (steering wheel vibrates to warn the driver when leaving a marked lane
without turning on indicators)
B2 Audio device scroll button
B3 Audio device volume buttons

G1 App-enabled (drivers can input their preferred parameters into a dedicated app; the parameters are automatically synced with the
steering wheel activation control system)
F5 Auto-complete lane change after initiating auto-turning
E2 Steering wheel height and headrest adjustment based on facial recognition

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Fig. 5. Golden circle for vehicle-driving product and services.
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