158

CHAPTER 8

FIBRE MORPHOLOGICAL FEATURES

The effects of aqueous swelling and stretching on the morphological

features of the cotton fibre such as convolutions and reversals are discussed in this
chapter.

8.1 CONVOLUTIONS AND CONVOLUTION ANGLE

Convolutions appear on cotton fibres when it dries for the first time in
order to relieve internal stresses developed during desiccation process. Table 8.1
gives the data on number of convolutions and convolution angle of raw and
aqueous stretched samples of six varieties of cotton from Gossypium hirsutum
species. The number of convolutions counted in one centimetre of cotton fibre has
ranged from 47 to 66 in raw cottons. The frequency of convolutions is drastically
reduced on tension - dried samples. Even slack-dried fibres have shown less
number of convolutions compared to the control. Very few convolutions are seen
on tension-dried samples of 10% stretch. Correspondingly the convolution angle
is also decreased in all water stretched cottons. It is found that there is a higher
decrease in convolution angle of tension dried samples than slack-dried samples.
High coefficient of variation is found in all cases as individual fibres within a
variety showed high variation.

It is evident from the above data that water swelling followed by stretch has
removed the convolutions partly. In tension-dried samples, the deconvolution effect
produced is permanent, as the fibre, due to annealing action of the water sets its
structure permanently. In slack-dried samples, the drying takes place in slack-
condition and thus the fibre tends to pick up convolutions again due to stress
relaxation during the process of drying. The changes between drying conditions
 159

TABLE 8.1 : DATA ON MORPHOLOGICAL FEATURES OF RAW AND

AQUEOUS SWOLLEN AND STRETCHED COTTON FIBRES

Distance
No. of Convolu­ No. of
Cotton variet^state convolutions CV% tion angle C.V% between
reversals CV%
reversals
parent 6 per cm
cm
SRT-l-Raw 62 28 13.5 44 27 22 0.037
(0.98) (0.007) (036)
8% S.D 43 20 6.11 19 26 17 0.038
(1.08) (0.002) (064)
8% T.D 23 30 2.99 36 25 36 0.040
(0.97) (0.002) (1.28)
10% S.D 37 20 5.95 27 24 13 0.042
(1.04) (0.003) (0.46)
10% T.D 11 30 1.8 30 22 19 0.045
(0.48) (0.001) (0.59)
Deviraj-Raw 66 25 11.82 46 25 21 0.040
(2.27) (0.008) (0.72)
8% S.D 40 25 (1.2) 538 28 23 19 0.043
(0.002) (1.28)
8% T.D 25 10 3.24 36 22 27 0.045
(0.33) (0.002) (0.86)
10% S.D 28 23 3.6 30 20 17 0.050
(0.91) (0.002) (0.59)
10% T.D 15 50 152 20 18 25 0.056
(0.74) (0.001) (0.58)
Deviraj-mercerized - - 21 14 0.048
10% T.D (0.49)
Jayalakshmi-Raw
47 41 9.53 40 26 31 0.038
(2.72) (0.004) (1.14)
8% S.D 34 16 4.49 22 24 22 0.042
(0.78) (0.001) (0.85)
8% T.D 18 25 (1.6) 106 38 22 24 0.045
(0.002) (0.91)
10% S.D 22 33 194 40 23 22 0.043
(1.03) (0.002) (0.73)
10% T.D 10 40 1.0 6 (0.00) 20 14 0.05
(0.57) (0.41)
 160

Distance
No. of Convolu­ No. of between
Cotton varietj/state convolutions GV% tion angle CV% reversals CV%
reversals
per cm e per cm
cm
B-1007-Raw 57 36 12.98 40 27 29 0.037
(2.28) (0.003) (1.13)
10% S.D 31 28 4.5 24 24 23 0.042
(1.22) (0.0(G) (0.78)
10% T.D 11 45 1.42 46 21 26 0.048
(0.86) (0.001) (0.72)
Sarada-Raw 60 9 (0.78) 11.8 32 25 35 0.045
(0.01) (1.09)
10% S.D 33 22 4.94 33 21 27 0.048
(1.01) (0.003) (0.8)
10% T.D 8 47 1.17 48 20 23 0.05
(0.84) (0.002) (0.64)
Bicanaire Narnia-Raw 66 19 (1.8) 12.14 43 29 30 0.03
(0.01) (1.2)
10% S.D 21 39 (1.2) 3.24 42 25 26 0.04
(0.002) (0.91)
10% T.D 9 44 (0.8) 1.26 47 22 17 0.045
(0.001) (0.48)

Note: Values in parentheses indicate the standard error.

S.D. - Slack-dried fibres.

T.D. - Tension-dried fibres.
 161

and cotton types and in between cotton types are found to be significant at 1%
level.

Several scientists have related convolution angle with x-ray and spiral
angles. They also found relation between convolution angle and strength of cotton
fibres. In this investigation too, comparision is made between the convolution angle
and various angles of orientation, (Figures 8.1 and 8.2) and between convolution
angle and strength (Figure 8.3) as the correlation coefficients on pooled data
(paired replicas) are found to be highest

The variation in the x-ray angle of different varieties of cotton has been
attributed to the variation in the convolution angle among the varieties. A
subtraction of mean convolution angle from the corresponding x-ray angle yields
a constant value of spiral angle of around 21° for most cottons. The aqueous
swelling and stretching treatment that has been given to few varieties of cotton has
led to a significant reduction in convolutions and it will be interesting to see the
effect of reduced convolution angle on x-ray angles and optical spiral angle.

Table 8.2 shows the true 40%, 50%, 75% and mean orientation X-ray
angles and optical spiral angle with convolutions angle subtracted from the original
angles obtained by X-ray and Becke-line method. It may be observed that though
the effect of convolutions is eliminated, the X-ray angles are still found to be less
than the optical spiral angles. The first conclusion that emerges from this
observation is that the data supports the general assumption that the Becke-line
technique leads to a spiral angle at or near the fibre surface and that X-ray
method'fields a statistical distribution of the orientation through out the cell wall
Le., the mean orientation angle for the whole wall. Another conclusion is that the
structure of cotton fibres confirms to a constant pitch arrangement If cotton
possesses a constant angle structure, the X-ray angle and the optical spiral angle
would be equal or nearly equal if experimental errors do not come into play.
Moreover it may be observed from the data that the successive increases in the
amounts of stretch casue a gradual narrowing of the difference between X-ray
 162
ANGLE (oC)
ORIENTATION
MEAN

CONVOLUTION ANGLE (S')

FIGURE 8-1. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CONVOLUTION ANGLE

AND MEAN ORIENTATION ANGLE

 163
BIREFRINGENCE

CONVOLUTION ANGLE (6*)

FIGURE8-2-RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CONVOLUTION ANGLE

AND BIREFRINGENCE
 164
TENACITY (g m s /te x )

CONVOLUTION ANGLE (9)

FIGURE 8-3-RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CONVOLUTION ANGLE

AND SINGLE FIBRE TENACITY

 165

TABLE 8.2 : TRUE ORIENTATION ANGLES OF RAW AND AQUEOUS

SWOLLEN AND STRETCHED FIBRES FREE FROM THE
EFFECT OF CONVOLUTION ANGLE (0°)

Cotton 40% X-ray 50% X-ray 75% X-ray Mean Optical Spiral
Variety/State angle - 0° angle - 0° angle - 0° orientation angle-0°
angle - 0°
SRT-1 - Raw 15.83 13.4 4.5 4.65 25.26
8% S.D. 20.36 17.74 8.51 10.74 2739
8% T.D. 18.55 15.23 8.76 12.13 2837
10% S.D. 20.2 17.11 8.37 10.9 29.83
10% T.D. 1532 12.56 7.2 10.61 2739
Deviraj - Raw 27.68 24.08 15.18 10.48 2737
8% S.D. 26.62 23.47 15.62 13.81 31.27
8% T.D. 25.61 22.14 14.45 14.44 31.22
10% S.D. 27.4 23.85 15.4 14.93 32.64
10% T.D. 20.17 17.48 10.17 13.16 26.27
Jayalakshmi • Raw 25.47 22.47 13.93 10.37 26.72
8% S.D. 23.97 20.51 13.21 12.77 27.07
8% T.D. 16.79 14.09 7.94 11.12 26.59
10% S.D. 20.06 18.06 11.56 12.07 25.71
10% T.D. 14.0 11.69 5.92 10.93 2136
B-1007 - Raw 20.02 16.02 7.02 6.75 24.17
10% S.D. 21.64 18.21 9.86 12.08 29.96
10% T.D. 19.45 17.08 10.32 11.5 27.77
Sarada - Raw 22.87 19.2 9.2 8.52 26.28
10% S.D. 2139 18.39 10.06 1232 313
10% T.D. 18.83 15.83 8.83 13.01 26.41
Bicanaire Namftaw 18.86 14.86 6.36 6.28 2633
10% S.D. 22.09 18.76 11.76 12.98 31.22
10% T.D. 18.07 15.74 8.74 12.55 2733

S. D. - Slack-dried Fibres
T. D. - Tension-dried Fibres
 166

angles and optical spiral angle. This effect is explainable on the score that as the
helices are opened out due to the imposed stretch, the range of spiral angles
covering the fibre cross-section, is gradually narrowed down and this brings the
value of the optical spiral angle of the outer layer in close proximity with that
representing the average spiral angle for the whole wall. The concept of a constant
pitch structure for cotton throws a new light on the theory of X-ray diffraction of
fibres with a spiral structure. Stephens has made a reference to the bearing that
a constant pitch structure would have on the X-ray diffraction pattern.

It would be worthwhile, to discuss in brief, the contentions of one school

of thought which holds that the spiral angles of all cottons is constant around 21°.
It has been shown quite conclusively that cotton has a constant pitch structure. It
has also been shown that the estimated spiral angle is largely dependent on this
method by which it is determined. The X-ray method leads to a mean spiral angle
of the crystallites over the whole cell wall, whereas the Becke-line method leads
to a higher estimate without doubt, at least to the outer wall layers. Corresponding
compensator and refractometer methods lead to a mean spiral angle for the whole
fibre, that is comparable with that given by X-ray methods.

It is Meredith (1946) who stated for the first time that the spiral angle
deduced from refractive indices is nearly the same for all varieties if the effect of
convolutions is corrected for. Later Betrabet et al (1963), Hebert (1967), Duckett
and Tripp (1967), Morosoff and Ingram (1970) and many others have supported
the view. More recently Iyer et al (1985) have shown a range of 7.7° that exists
between true spiral angles in air-dried cottons.

Similar relation may not be possible considering the data on aqueous

stretched fibres, because aqueous stretching will straighten the spirals to a certain
extent which is reflected in decrease in x-ray angles and optical spiral angle. The
decrease in all orientation angles may be attributed partially to the decrease in
convolution angles and partly to the straightening of spirals.
 167

The tensile properties of cotton fibres are affected by the presence of

convolutions [Hearle and Sparrow (1979)]. Cotton fibres having a high convolution
angle will have a lower initial modulus but will be more extensible, while those
with a low convolution angle will have a high initial modulus and be less extensible.
High negative correlation was found between the convolution angle and initial
modulus of water stretched and mercerized cottons to support the view expressed
by Hearle and Sparrow (1979). High negative correlation was found with breaking
load and tenacity. It should be noted that in the untreated fibres, the straightening
of the convolutions will lead to additional stresses which contribute to the cause
of breakage. But water treatment removes convolutions to a certain extent and
alleviates the internal stresses and thus brings down the effect of convolutions and
results in higher modulus. As the initial extension in any fibre is due to
deconvolution, the extensibility of these water stretched samples shows a decrease
due to non-availability of initial extension and thus highly correlated with the
convolution angle. These aspects are already discussed under Chapter 6.

Convolution angle is shown to correlate highly with ribbon width, wall

thickness, perimeter, degree of thickening, circularity, linear density, number of
reversals and breaking twist angle. A highly convoluted fibre increases the linear
density as convolutions contract the length of the fibre and there by result in
higher weight But the effect may not be high. The relations between convolutions
and circularity may be explained as follows:

The never dried fibre has a cylindrical shape without any convolutions.
When it dries up, it takes up a flattened structure and convolutions appear. When
such a flattened tube is wetted in water and stretched, the convolutions are
removed and the fibre tends to take up a cylindrical form and come closer to its
own shape before boll opening.
 168

8.2. STRUCTURAL REVERSALS

Reversals are the most complicated and much debated morphological

features of cotton fibres. The coefficient of variation is high for counting the
reversal frequency. The data on reversal frequency and the distance between the
reversals of aqueous stretched cottons are given in Table 8.1, from which it is clear
that the frequency of reversals is decreased with increase in stretch. As a result the
distance between reversals is increased. This may be attributed to the straightening
of reversals, which is shown by decreased spiral angle. The scanning electron
micrographs also confirm this finding. The effect of convolutions does not come
into picture here, as measurements are made on unconvoluted fibres. The
decrease in number of reversals is found to be significant at 1% level between
drying conditions and cotton types.

Reversal frequency is correlated positively with all orientation angles and

negatively with Hermans and optical orientation factors. High negative correlations
are found with all tensile parameters namely breaking load, tenacity, elongation
and secant modulus. Reversal frequency is also correlated with ribbon width,
perimeter, degree of thickening, circularity, number of convolutions and
convolution angle. The distance between reversals which is deduced from the
reversal frequency is correlated with all the parameters mentioned above but with
lower level of correlation.

The contribution of reversals for fibre strength is a much debated aspect

and a number of studies are reported in the literature review.

It may be worthwhile to find the cause for decrease in reversal frequency

as it helps to interpret its relation with orientation and strength parameters. From
the literature review, it is clear that convolutions reverse their direction at the
reversal point When a convoluted fibre is allowed to swell in water, convolutions
are removed and due to swelling, there is lateral expansion of the fibre, and as a
result, the extra length due to deconvolution is not shown. But when the swollen
 169
/ t«x)
NACITY ( gms
TE

FIGURE 84-RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN REVERSAL

FREQUENCY AND SINGLE FIBRE TENACITY
 170

fibre is stretched, lateral contraction occurs and the fibre elongates to the level of
stretch. Convolutions are not completely removed during this process and in slack-
dried samples they are picked up again during drying. Then, the extra length due
to stretch may be the result of partial deconvolution and straightening of fibrils.
The x-ray orientation and birefringence values clearly show that straightening of
fibrils has taken place in aqueous stretched samples. As a result, the frequency of
reversals on these stretched samples decreased, increasing the distance between
the reversals. The straightening of fibrils between reversals reduces the helix angle
and relieve the internal stresses between helices by wetting to a certain extent As
reversals are already the sources of high orientation, the collective force of the
fibrils increases thereby showing higher strength. This clearly shows the association
of reversals and its frequency with orientation and strength parameters and
convolutions (Figure 8.4).

83 CONCLUSION

Interesting changes are observed in the morphological features of cotton

fibres due to swelling and stretching in water. Frequency of convolutions is found
to decrease with a corresponding decrease in convolution angle. The convolutions
are drastically reduced in tension-dried samples especially in 10% stretch. The
relation of convolutions with initial modulus, tenacity and extension are discussed.
The constancy of the spiral angle without the effect of convolutions, as observed
by previous workers, is discussed and found that such a relation does not exist in
water stretched samples. Convolutions are correlated with other fibre properties.

Reversals are found to decrease on water stretched samples and as a result

the distance between the reversals is increased. This is attributed to the
straightening of spirals between the reversal points. Corrections are found with
other fibre properties.