Biology

(Based on the Review paper)

Skeletal System
Bone Function
1. Movement: Skeletal system provides points of attachment for muscles. Your legs and arms
move when the muscles pull on the bones.
2. Support: The backbone is the main support center for the upper body. It holds your head up and
protects your spinal cord.
3. Protection: The bones of your skull protect your brain. Your ribs protect your lungs and heart
from injury.
4. Makes blood: Red and white blood cells are formed by tissue called bone marrow, which is in
the center of the bone.
5. Storage (not mainly): Bones store minerals, such as calcium and phosphorus, to be used by the
body.

Organs the skeletal system protect

a) Skull : Brains, eyes, part of the respiration system and part of the digestion system
b) Ribs : Heart, lungs and liver

Skeletal System: Spine

(Axial)
 Cervical / Tulang leher: 7 Bones
 Thoracic / Tulang punggung : 12 Bones
 Lumbar / Tulang pinggang : 5 Bones
 Sacral / Tulang pinggul : 5 Bones
 Coccyx / Tulang ekor : 4 Bones
Plant Structure and Function
The function of parts of plants
a) Leaf: The leaves are where photosynthesis. The leaves uses chlorophyll and sunlight to change
carbon dioxide and water to sugar. It gives out oxygen and water.
b) Root: Roots anchor the plant in the soil, absorb water and minerals and adapted to store
carbohydrates (Usually stored as starch in parenchyma cells : i.g Potato, Carrot, Turnip, etc.)
c) Flower: The flower is used as the reproductive organ of the plant and produces seeds.
d) Xylem: (in picture)
e) Phloem: (in picture)
f) Epidermis: (in picture)

Leaf

Stem
Root

Digestive System

The function of the Digestive

system
Digestion is the breakdown of food in order to utilize
nutrients. We utilize nutrients to:

 Provide us with energy for our daily activities

 Maintain a healthy body
 Grow new cells and tissues
 Repair worn out tissues
Types of digestion
There are 2 types of Digestion, which are:

 Mechanical: Breaking down the food physically (from hard shape into smooth shape)
before mixing it with enzymes.
 Chemical: Breaking down the food chemically (from complex into simple shape) by
means of enzyme dissolved in the juices of the alimentary canal.

Movement and Absorption

 Peristaltic movement: Involuntary muscle contractions (squeezing action)in the esophagus to
move food along the alimentary canal
 Absorption of nutrients: The nutrients are absorbed into the bloodstream from the small
intestine, or mainly the duodenum and jejunum. Absorption happens best in the jejunum
because of the amount of villi there are (increasing the surface area).

Enzymes
No Type of enzyme Produced by Function
Change Product
1 Amylase (Ptialin) Mouth (saliva) Starch(Amylum) Maltose(sugar)
2 Pepsin Stomach Protein Peptone
3 Renin Precipitate milk and fat
4 HCl Kills harmful bacteria
5 Lipase Pancreas Fat Fatty acid and
glycerol
6 Amylase Maltose Glucose
7 Tripsin (protease) Protein(peptone) Amino Acids

Body Mass Index (BMI)

Circulation System

The function of the Circulation system

 Transport of nutrients, gases and waste products.
 Protection from infection and blood loss.
 Maintenance of constant body temperature (thermoregulation)
 Maintaining fluid balance within the body.

Process of the Circulation system

Blood enters the Right atrium and passes through the Right ventricle. The Right ventricle pumps the
blood to the Lungs where it becomes oxygenated. The oxygenated blood is brought back to the heart by
the pulmonary veins which enter the left atrium. From there, the blood flows to the left ventricle. The
left ventricle pumps the blood to the body which distributes the oxygen-rich blood throughout the rest
of the body.

Right Atrium -> Right ventricle -> Pulmonary artery -> Lungs (converts deoxygenated blood to
oxygenated) -> Pulmonary vein -> Left Atrium -> Left Ventricle -> Aorta -> Body (Uses oxygen and
converts to deoxygenated) -> Vena cava

Definitions
 Plasma: The liquid component of blood, which transports blood solids, nutrients, hormones,
and other materials.
 Pericardium: The outer layer of the heart that has the function to protect.
 Leukemia: A disease in which extra white blood cells are produced, and could lead to cancer.
 Hypertension: A condition in which blood pressure is constantly higher than normal (higher
than 120/80, 120 being systolic and 80 being diastolic), which can lead to heart attack, stroke,
or kidney failure.
 Hemophilia: An inherited bleeding disorder where the blood doesn't clot properly. It is caused
when blood does not have enough clotting factor. A clotting factor is a protein that combines
with platelets to make the blood sticky.

The function of blood components

 Red Blood cells (Erythrocyte): Carry oxygen to cells and Carbon Dioxide away from them (Has
hemoglobin to make it red).
 White Blood cells (Leucocyte): Help fight disease and infection by attacking germs that enter
the body.
  Platelets (Thrombocyte): Help blood form a clot at the side of the wound. A clot seals a cut and
prevents excessive blood loss.

Red blood cells vs White blood cells

The 2 Circulation systems

 Pulmonary circulation: Transports deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the Lungs,
where blood picks up a new oxygen supply. Then it returns oxygenated blood to the left atrium.
 Systemic circulation: Oxygenated blood exits the left atrium through the aorta and provides a
functional blood supply, oxygen and nutrients to other parts of the body. It also picks up
Carbon dioxide and waste products.

Pulmonary vs Systemic