Engineering Science A ENG3011

Kinematics

Kinematics
Kinematics is the study of relationships between positions, speed, acceleration which do not
consider the forces involved (ie. without regard to the causes of the motion.)

Displacement
A body moves from one position to another position. Displacement is a vector quantity
includes both magnitude (distance) and direction.

For example, a point was displaced 30 m due east and then 40 m due north, its final
displacement, being the sum of these two, would be 50 m 53 °8’ north of east. This would
indicate the resultant displacement of the point relative to the starting position.

Speed and Velocity

Speed is defined as the distance travelled in unit time. It has only magnitude but not
direction; it is thus a scalar.

Velocity is defined as the distance travelled in unit time in a given direction. Hence, it is a
vector.

Speed and velocity are both denoted by v and are given by the same equation

s
v (where s is the distance travelled in time t.)
t

Average velocity is to define velocities which cannot be maintained constant for a given
period of time.

Average velocity = Total displacement travelled / Total time taken

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Followings are the unit commonly used to present speed and velocity:
meter per second (m/s)
kilometer per hour (km/hr)

Conversion of units:
e.g. To convert 36 km/hr to be the unit of m/s

36  1000
Answer: = 10 m/s
60  60

Acceleration and Deceleration (or retardation)

Acceleration - when a body is moving with increasing velocity. Acceleration is defined as the
rate of increase of velocity and it is a vector, or defined as rate of change of velocity with
time.
Deceleration - when a body is moving with decreasing velocity. Decelerations are regarded
as accelerations with a minus sign.

Common units of acceleration and deceleration are:

meter per second per second (m/s2 or ms-2)
millimeter per second per second (mm/s2)

Velocity-Time Graph
If the velocity of a body at different times is plotted against the time, the graph obtained is a
velocity-time graph.

a) In the case of constant velocity where acceleration = 0

Constant velocity,
i.e. acceleration zero

b) In the case of uniform acceleration,

Uniform acceleration
Body starting from rest
m
Slope = n= constant
c) In the case of constant acceleration,

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Constant acceleration
Body having an initial velocity u

d) In the case of constant deceleration,

Constant deceleration
From an initial velocity u
q larger than 90°

e) Velocity-time graph for varying velocity

The acceleration at any point may be
obtained by constructing the tangent to
the curve at that point and finding its
slope.
If the angle q is greater 90°, the body is
undergoing deceleration.
Area under the curve is the distance
travelled by the body in t seconds

Acceleration-Time Graph
If the acceleration of a body at different
The area under the curve
times is plotted against the time, the graph
= the velocity of a body at t1.
obtained is an acceleration-time graph.

Area under the curve is the velocity of a

body at t1.

Equation of uniformly accelerated linear motion

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The motion satisfies the followings equations:

s = ½(u + v) t
v= u + a t
s = ut + ½ a t 2
v2=u2+2as

The notation is:

s Displacement
u Initial velocity
v Final velocity
a Acceleration
t Time

Example 1
A car staring from rest, attains a velocity of 10 m s -1 in 5 s. Calculate the acceleration and the
distance travelled in this time.

Solution
Given: u = 0, v = 10 m /s, t = 5 s
Using: v =u+at
10 = 0 + 5 a
a = 2 ms-2

Using: v2 = u2 + 2 a s
102 = 0 + 2 (2) s
s = 25 m

Thus, the acceleration of the car is 2 m /s2 and the distance travelled in this time is 25 m.

Example 2
When a racing car is speeding at 66 m /s , the brakes are applied and it slows down uniformly
to 22 m/s in 5 s. Determine (a) the deceleration produced by the application of the brakes, (b)
the distance covered during the 5th second.

(a) Given : u = 66 m /s, v = 22 m s-1, t = 5 s

Using : v=u+at
22 = 66 + 5a
a = - 8.8 m /s 2 (Negative sign indicates deceleration)
Thus, the deceleration produced by the application of the brakes is 8.8 ms-2.

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(b) The “5th second” means the time interval between t = 4 s and t = 5 s

Distance covered in the 5th second = distance covered in 5 s – distance covered in 4 s

Using : s = u t + 1/2 a t2
= [66(5) + ½(-8.8)(52)] － [66(4) + ½(-8.8)(42)]
= 26.4 m
Thus, the distance covered in the 5th second is 26.4 m.

Example 3
A particle moving with uniform acceleration passes three posts A, B, C on a straight line. The
distance of separation between A and B is 60 m, while that between B and C is 80 m. The
particle takes 6 s to go from A to B and 5 s to go from B to C. From these observations,
determine the acceleration of the particle and its distance from A when its velocity is 22 m /s.

Let ‘u’ be the initial velocity (velocity when passing A) of the particle and ‘a’ its acceleration.
Arrange the given data as follows:

A to B A to C
s = 60 m s = 60 + 80 = 140 m
t=6s t = 6 + 5 = 11 s

Using s = u t + ½ a t2, we have respectively,

60 = 6 u + ½ (a) 62 and 140 = 11 u + ½ (a) 112
or, 10 = u + 3 a and 140 = 11 u + 60.5 a

On solving the simultaneous equations,

12
m /s2
a = 11
8
and u = 6 m /s
11

12 2
Thus, the acceleration of the particle is m /s .
11

When the particle has attained the final velocity of 22 m/s, we have, with A as a reference
point as before,

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8
u = 6 m /s
11

v = 22 m/s
a = 12/11 m/s2

Using v2= u2 + 2 a s
8
(22)2 = ( 6 )2 + 2 (12/11) s
11

s = 201.1 m
Thus, the particle is 201.1 m from A when its velocity is 22 m/s.

Motion under gravity

When a body is allowed to fall freely to the ground, it moves with a uniform acceleration
produced by the gravitational attraction the earth. This acceleration varies from place to place
on the earth’s surface. Its value is approximately 9.81 ms-2. The small letter ‘g’ is the symbol
associated with the acceleration due to gravity.

The equations for motion due to gravity follow the same pattern as those for linear motion,
with the slight modification of introducing ‘g’ as the acceleration , instead of ‘a’. Hence the
motion equation applied to falling bodies become:

Equations

v=u－gt
s = u t － ½ g t2
v2=u2－2gs

Upward displacements and velocities are positive.

Downward displacements and velocities are negative

Example 4
A body is projected upwards with a velocity of 50 m/s from the top of a tower 100 m high.
(a) Find the time taken for a body to reach the ground?
(b) Find the velocity with which the body strikes the ground?

Given : u = + 50 m/s (upwards)

s = -100 m (ground is 100 m below top of tower)

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(a) using s = u t － ½ g t2
-100 = (50)t －(½)(9.81)t2

t2 －10.2 t －20.4 = 0
t = 11.1 s

(b) Using v 2 = u2 － 2 g s
v 2 = (50)2 －(2)(9.81)(-100)
= 4462
v = 66.8 m /s
Thus, body strikes the ground after 11.1 seconds, with a velocity of 66.8 m/s.

Example 5
An object is dropped from a helicopter ad strikes the ground 12 seconds later. Determine
(a) Find the height of the helicopter and
(b) Find the velocity with which the body strikes the ground.
(c) if a second object had been projected upwards from the ground with a velocity of 200
m/s at the same instant as the first object was dropped from the helicopter, where and
when they would meet?

Solution
Given u = 0 , t = 12 s

(a) using s = u t －½ g t2
s = 0 －½ (9.81) (12)2 = -706 m
(b) using v=u－gt
= 0 －(9.81)(12) = -118 m s-1

(c) let s1 = distance travelled by first object

s2 = distance travelled by second object

Equation of motion of first object:

s1 = - ½g t2 (since u = 0)

Equation of second object:

s2 = 200 t － ½ g t2 (u = +200 m /s)
The ground is -706 m from the helicopter, so that the second object, have travelled s 2 from
ground, is - (706－s2) from the helicopter. When the distance is equal to s 1, the two objects
will meet.

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- (706－s2) = s1
-706 ＋ 200 t －½ g t2 = - ½ g t2
200t = 706
t = 3.53 s

Distance from ground to point of meeting:

s2= 200t －½ g t2
= 200 (3.53) －½ (9.81) (3.53)2
= 645 m from the ground

Thus, the helicopter is 706 m high, and the object strikes the ground with a velocity of 118
m/s.
A second object projected upwards from the ground with a velocity of 200 m/s would meet
the first at a height of 645 m, 3.53 seconds after the instant of projection.

Relative Motion
The difference between the motions of two objects is termed “relative motion”. Relative
velocity is a term used when the velocity of one object is related to the velocity of another
reference object. Both of them can also be moving.

For example, an aircraft travelling due west at 400km/h just passes over another aircraft
travelling due north at 600km/h. What is the velocity and direction of the first aircraft relative
to the second?

(V12)2 = (V1)2 +(V2)2

(V12)2 = 4002 + 6002
V12 = 721.11 km/h

θ = tan-1(V1/V2) = tan-1 (600/400)

= 56.31o

Velocity of aircraft 1 is 721.11 km/h at 56.31o south of west relative to the aircraft 2.

Notation: V1 = the velocity of object 1 relative to earth (i.e. the velocity of object 1)
V2 = the velocity of object 2 relative to earth (i.e. the velocity of object 2)
V12 = the velocity of object 1 relative to object 2 (i.e. as if object 2 was at rest)

Concept of rotary motion

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Circular Motion - Angular Displacement

While an object moves in a circular path, the displacement of the object can be expressed as
an angle.
The displacement is measured in radians θ (theta).

1 revolution = 2π radian = 360o

Angular velocity
Angular velocity = the rate of change in angular displacement

It is properly expressed in terms of radians per second, using the notation ω (omega). In
practice, the number of revolution per second, or revolutions per minute (rpm), is often
quoted.

Since 1 revolution is equal to 2π, it follows that

N rpm = 2πN/60 rad s-1

Relationship between linear and angular motions

The magnitude of the linear velocity of any point attached to the link is related to the angular
velocity of the link. The relationship between linear and angular velocity is:

v  r
v

Where, v = magnitude of the linear velocity

r = distance from the center of rotation to the point of consideration
 = angular velocity

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Angular Acceleration
Angular acceleration is the rate of change of angular velocity using notation α (alpha).
Angular retardation is a negative angular acceleration.

Since �=𝒅�/𝒅�
�=(� − ��)/�
𝑟�=(𝑟� −𝑟��)/� = (𝑣 −𝑢)/� = a
� � =�

Therefore, linear velocity = angular velocity x radius

v=ωr

Similarly, Linear acceleration = angular acceleration x radius

� � =�
Linear Angular

v
Velocity
r v =ωr ω=

a
Acceleration a =αr α=
r

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Relationship between Angular Displacement, Velocity, Acceleration, and Time

Let ω0 = initial velocity in rad s-1
ω1 = final velocity in rad s-1 after t seconds
α = angluar acceleration in rad s-2
θ = angle turned through in radians
t = time in seconds

Similar to linear motor

ω1 = ω0＋αt
ω12 = ω02＋2αθ
θ = ω0t ＋½αt2
Example 6
An electric motor is rotating at 3000 rpm when it is brought to rest with uniform retardation
in 15 seconds.
(a) Calculate the value of this uniform retardation
(b) Find the number of revolutions made by the motor in coming to rest.

Convert angular velocity ω0 from rpm to rad s-1:

3000
× 2 π = 314.2 rad s-1
60
(a) given ω1 = 0, t = 15 s
using ω1 = ω0＋αt
0 = 314.2 ＋ 15α
α = －21 rad s-2

(b) angular displacement = average angular velocity × time

thus, θ = ½( ω0 +ω1 ) t
= ½ (314.2 + 0) (15)
= 2356 radians
= revolutions
= 375 revolutions

Thus, the motor has a retardation of 21 rad s-2, and makes 375 revolutions in coming to
rest.

Example 7
A large gear-wheel rotating at 40 rpm has an angular retardation of 1/60 rad s-2.
Calculate its angular velocity after 30 seconds, and the number of revolutions it makes (a) in
40 seconds, and (b) in coming to rest.

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Convert angular velocity from rpm to rad s-1:

40
× 2 π = 4.19 rad s-1
60

Given ω0 = 4.19 rad s-1, t = 30 s

1
α = - rad s-2
60

using ω1 = ω0＋αt
1
= 4.19 － (30)
60
= 3.69 rad s-1
60
= 3.69 ×
2
= 35.2 rpm

Revolutions made in 40 seconds: 1

Given ω0= 4.19 rad s-1, t= 40 s, α= － 60
rad s-2
Using θ = ω0t ＋½αt2
1 2
= (4.19) (40) － ½( )60 (40)
= 154.3 radians
154.3
=
2
= 24.6 revolutions
(b) Revolutions in coming to rest:
1
Given ω0= 4.19 rad s-1, ω1 = 0, α= － 60
rad s-2
Using ω12 = ω02＋2αθ
1
0 = (4.19)2＋2(－ )θ
60
(ω1 = 0)
θ = 527 radians, or 84 revolutions

Thus, the velocity after 30 s is 35.2 rpm. In 30 s the wheel makes 24.6 revolutions; and in
coming to rest, 84 revolutions.

Centripetal Acceleration
Consider a particle which is moving on a circular path of radius r, with a constant angular
velocity ω.

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When the body is at A it possesses an instantaneous linear velocity v, tangential to the circle.
Suppose that during the small interval of time δt, the body moves from A to B, the arc AB
subtending the small angle δθ at the centre of the circle O.

Now although the body is moving with a uniform speed in a circular path the direction of the
instantaneous linear velocity is continually changing and the body is therefore subject to
acceleration in the direction of the instantaneous change in linear velocity.

Referring to the velocity vector diagram, vector Oa represents the velocity at A while vector
Ob represents the velocity at B.
It will be seen that there is a vector change in velocity δv during the motion from A to B of
magnitude ab, acting in a radial direction.

Vector change in velocity = ab

Δv = v (δθ)

Now this change in velocity occurs in a time δt.

Therefore,
v q
Acceleration = =v( )
t t
q v
While t is very small: ＝ω =
t r
v v2
Thus, acceleration = v ( ) = = ω2 r
r r

The direction of this instantaneous acceleration ω2 r is towards the centre of the circle O and
is given the particular name centripetal acceleration. For uniform speed of rotation the

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centripetal acceleration is constant in magnitude.

Example 8
A spin drier of diameter 0.2 m is initially at rest and is started with a constant angular
acceleration of 2.5 rad s-2.
(a) Find the angular velocity in rpm after 4 s starting from rest.
While it runs at a steady 720 rpm,
(b) Find the tangential velocity for a point on the surface of the drum
(c) Find the centripetal acceleration of clothes.

Solution
(a) Given ω0 = 0, α = 2.5 rad s-2
Using ω1 = ω0＋αt
ω1 = 0 + (2.5) (4)
= 10 rad s-1
60
= 10 ×
2x
= 95.5 rpm

(b) Convert 720 rpm to rad s-1

720
ω= × 2π
2x
= 75.4 rad s-1
Tangential velocity on the surface of the drum:
=ωr
= 75.4 × 0.1
= 7.54 m s-1

(c) Centripetal acceleration

= ω2 r
= (75.4)2 × 0.1
= 568.5 m s-2

Thus, if the spin drier is initially at rest, after 4 s, the angular velocity of the drum is 95.5
rpm. At constant angular velocity of 720 rpm, the tangential velocity is 75.4 m s -1, and the

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centripetal acceleration is 568.5 m s-2

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