Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
OTST 945-001
Spring 2016
by
PRECIS
God has revealed Himself and His will to His prophets in specific statements of truth, and
through His Spirit He has inspired the biblical writers to record the divine revelation as the
trustworthy and authoritative Word of God. The Spirit also illuminates the minds of those who
The need for such interpretation arises not because of the lack of Scripture's perspicuity,
but because of the finitude of humanity in contrast to the infinite God who is revealing Himself,
and because of the darkening of the human mind through sin. Both OT and NT provide
numerous historical examples of, and calls for, careful and faithful biblical interpretation, and the
necessity of the interpretive process is further mandated by our separation in time, distance,
The study of the basic principles and procedures for faithfully and accurately interpreting
Scripture is called biblical hermeneutics. The task of this discipline of study is to understand
what the human writers and the divine Author of Scripture intended to communicate and also how
There are four foundational principles for biblical interpretation that arise from Scriptural
evidence. The first was the battle cry of the Reformation, sola scriptura, "The Bible and the
Bible Only." This principle affirms that the Bible alone is the final norm of truth, taking
precedence and primacy over every other source of authority, and constituting the all-sufficient
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foundation and test and standard for all additional knowledge and experience.
A second principle is the totality of Scripture (tota Scriptura), which affirms that all
Scripture--the entirety of the OT and NT--is inspired by God, literally "God-breathed," and thus
fully authoritative. The Bible is an inseparable union of the divine and the human, and
therefore the Bible in its entirety equals, not just contains, the Word of God.
fundamental unity and harmony among the various parts of Scripture inspired by the same Spirit.
Because of this unity, the Bible is its own expositor, and everything the Bible records regarding a
given topic must be taken into account in studying that topic. The various parts of Scripture are
consistent with and illuminate each other. Their meaning is clear and straightforward, to be
A fourth general principle affirms that "Spiritual Things are Spiritually Discerned"
(Spiritalia spiritaliter examinatur). This means that the interpreter can rightly comprehend
Scripture only through the illumination of the Spirit of God who inspired the Scriptures. It also
implies the necessity for the Spirit's transformation of the interpreter's heart, so that there is
earnest prayer for understanding and willingness to accept by faith and obey what Scripture
Building upon the foundational principles of interpretation, a second major section of this
article discusses specific guidelines for interpreting biblical passages that either explicitly or
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implicitly arise from Scripture itself and encompass what is generally known as the
grammatico-historical method.
The first and most basic task in interpreting Scripture is to insure that what is studied is
indeed the Holy Scriptures--both in the original languages and in modern translation. This
requires attention to ascertain the original text of the Bible as far as possible and to make sure
The Bible has been carefully and painstakingly preserved down through the centuries to
the present day and the actual amount of variation among the many extant manuscripts is very
small. There are nonetheless, small variations among the many ancient biblical manuscripts,
arising either from scribal errors or intentional changes during the history of textual transmission.
The science (or art) of recovering the original biblical text is termed textual study (sometimes
called "textual criticism," or "lower criticism" to distinguish from the "higher criticism" of the
historical-critical method). The final norm for all textual study must be found within Scripture
itself and must be carried out in the context of the unity of Scripture.
After the original biblical text has been ascertained, its form and content must be
represented accurately and clearly in modern translation. There are many challenges in the
translation process, arising from the structural (grammatical and syntactical) differences between
the languages, lack of exact semantic equivalents, and the gaps of time, distance, culture, etc.
These challenges have led to several different translation types: the formal "word-for-word
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combination of formal and dynamic approaches; and the interpretive paraphrases. Each type
has Scriptural precedent and positive and negative features. Special cautions are in order with
historical context of the passage under study. The historical context includes the historical
background, the authorship, date, and life setting of the biblical passage. Following Scriptural
self-testimony, the historical context of biblical accounts is to be accepted at face value as true
and accurate--even more historically reliable than secular history because presented from the
reconstructs hypothetical life settings that contradict the plain declarations of the biblical text.
illumination provided by the literature of antiquity and archaeological discoveries, and involves
history, chronology, geography, and numerous other aspects of biblical culture and background.
Many apparent historical discrepancies between the biblical record and secular history have
evaporated in light of further study, but the events of Scripture are ultimately accepted because
Several biblical principles assist the interpreter in coming to grips with apparent
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discrepancies in parallel biblical accounts. One must recognize the different purposes of
different Bible writers; different perspectives of the different eye-witness accounts that form a
composite picture; the difference between verbal identity and historical reliability; accepted
conventions of writing history in the first century; different occurrences of some similar sayings
and miracles of Jesus; the possibility of minor transcriptional errors in Scripture; and the
inasmuch as the Bible is not only a history book but a literary work of art. In studying a given
passage, one must first recognize the delimitations of the passage in terms of paragraphs,
pericopae, or stanzas, so that one can determine how this segment fits into the flow of the larger
It is also necessary to understand what type of literature is being studied. This includes
the more general categories of prose and poetry, and more specific literary types (or genres).
The Bible itself explicitly identifies many of its specific literary types. The poetic sections of
Scripture (some 40% of the OT and scattered sections of the NT) are characterized by the
distinctive features of parallelism ("thought-rhyme"), meter ("measured lines") and other literary
conventions. The prose sections, and in particular biblical narrative, have been the object of
much recent intense study, revealing the intricate artistry involved in relating the narrative.
Each of the specific literary types has specific characteristics, and these characteristics (or added
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unique features) are often significant in interpreting the message that is transmitted through the
Also important in the literary context is the literary structure of a biblical passage, which
often provides a key to the flow of thought or central theological themes. The literary structure
of a prose section of Scripture may sometimes be seen most clearly through outlining the passage
by themes and sub-themes. Two common literary structuring devices in Scripture which build
upon the phenomenon of poetic parallelism are "panel writing" (or "block parallelism") and
chiasm ("reverse parallelism"); these techniques not only structure verses and paragraphs, but
also whole books and blocks of books in Scripture. One must be careful to allow the literary
structure of a passage or larger section of Scripture to emerge from within Scripture and not be
analysis of a biblical passage, with special attention to grammar and syntax (sentence
construction), and word study (meaning of individual words). While a thorough acquaintance
with the original biblical languages is ideal, a number of study tools are now available to
introduce the interpreter to the basic features of the unique grammatical-syntactical features of
Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek. A good study Bible following the formal "word-for-word"
translation method also provides a feel for the sentence construction and unusual or difficult
elements of grammar and syntax. It is helpful to diagram or outline the biblical passage to
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better grasp its flow of thought. Careful attention must also be paid to crucial individual words,
studying them in their immediate and wider contexts (by means of concordance, lexicons, and
A fifth specific hermeneutical guideline involves the theological context and analysis of a
passage. There are various methods of theological study of the Bible: the book-by-book
the perspective of the "grand central theme" of Scripture; and literary-structural study.
as in prophecy and typology; other parts point to an extended meaning beyond themselves, as in
symbolism and parables. Each of these kinds of theological material in Scripture calls for
special attention, and from within Scripture emerge principles for its interpretation.
application of the biblical materials. From the Scriptural self-testimony it becomes evident that
the contemporary application arises naturally out of its theological interpretation. Scripture is
to be regarded as transcultural and transtemporal, unless Scripture itself gives specific indication
limiting the universal and permanent applicability of the material. While biblical instruction
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speaks and is relevant to all cultures and times, it was also addressed to a particular culture and
time, and therefore time and place must be taken into account in its application. But here again
Scripture itself provides the controls as to when it is appropriate to reduce specific instruction to
a general principle.
The final goal of interpreting Scripture is to make practical application of each passage to
one's individual life. The interpreter must seek to understand how each passage applies to
him/her personally. The Scriptures should ultimately be read and accepted as if personally
addressed to the interpreter. They are God's living and active Word to his/her soul.
The third major section of this article moves from foundational principles and specific
guidelines to survey the history of biblical interpretation. Attention is given successively to the
Qumran, Philo); early Christian biblical hermeneutics (early church fathers, Alexandrian
allegorical school, and Antiochene literal-historical interpretation); the medieval four-fold sense
of Scripture; the Reformation return to the plain literal sense and the development of the
grammatico-historical method; the Enlightenment hermeneutic rooted in rationalism and the rise
historical criticism (and other critical approaches) and comparison/contrast with the
Final sections of this article provide a selected bibliography of helpful books and articles
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on hermeneutics and a selection of quotations from the writings of Ellen White on this subject.
Both of these final sections are arranged in the order and under the headings of the main outline
of this article.
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21; Rom 6:3-6; Eph 1:20; 2:6; Heb 4:3, 16; 6:19; 10:19-20; 12:22-24). The Scripture
should ultimately be read, and accepted as if I am the participant in the mighty saving
acts of God--"I am there!"--as if God's messages are personally addressed to me. They
The history of biblical hermeneutics must begin by examining the way the Bible
writers themselves interpreted antecedent Scripture. This has been the focus of much of
this article. We have seen that the later OT writers faithfully called the people of Israel
back to obedience to the standard of God's revelation in the Torah. The NT writers did
not take the OT out of context in their hermeneutic, but following the example of Jesus,
saw OT passages in the light of their larger canonical context. They present a sound
hermeneutical pattern to emulate. (See bibliography for recent studies examining the
The landmark dissertation of David Brewer has analyzed all the extant samples of
what he terms the Palestinian "scribes" (predecessors to the Rabbis before 70 A.D.).
His conclusions are extremely significant: "the predecessors to the rabbis before 70 CE
did not interpret Scripture out of context, did not look for any meaning in Scripture other
than the plain sense, and did not change the text to fit their interpretation, though the later
rabbis did all these things" (Brewer 1992:1). The attitude of this early scribal tradition
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toward Scripture may be summarized under five points: (a) Scripture is entirely
consistent with itself; (b) every detail is significant; (c) Scripture must be interpreted
according to its context; (d) there are no secondary meanings in Scripture; and (e) there is
only one valid form of the Hebrew text of Scripture (see Brewer 1992, 165-172).
In order to faithfully interpret Scripture, the early scribal tradition developed rules
of interpretation, which are neatly formulated in the seven hermeneutical rules of Hillel
(died A.D. 9). Brewer discusses each of these rules in detail, with examples from the
scribal literature. A number of these rules can be found utilized in the NT, and we have
stated them (in different words) as part of our discussion of general principles and
specific guidelines (see also Horn 1974, 20-23 and Kaiser 1981, 52-55 for brief
The later rabbis, after 70 A.D., continued the pešat or "plain, literal" interpretation
of Scripture, but also began to mix this with a ôd or "secret, allegorical" approach. The
thirteen rules of Rabbi Ishmael (ca. A. D. 60-121) were the impetus to developing the
Midrashic method (from derûš "searched") to expound the Jewish Halachah (civil and
religious law) which included embellishments of the text that departed from its plain
sense, and the thirty-two rules of Rabbi Eliezer (second century A.D.) were employed in
the interpretation of Haggadah (popular homilies). These later rules included techniques
of interpretation that involved embellishing the biblical text and departure from its plain
(pešat) sense. The later Rabbis found multiple meanings in a single text: the plain
meaning, the hint which points to a hidden meaning, the secondary or allegorical
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meaning, and a mystical meaning hidden in the letters (see Brewer 1992, 172-174,
Longenecker 1975, 32-45, and Kaiser 1981, 52-53 for further discussion).
Not all pre-70 A.D. Jewish exegesis stayed with the plain meaning of the text. In
the Essene community of Qumran, the community leader, the Teacher of Righteousness,
was the inspired interpreter of the Prophets, and he explained the "mysteries" of the
the surviving samples of Qumran raz pešer a typical approach would be a quotation of a
biblical passage, followed by the words "This means" or "Its pešer is" and a strict
identification of the present situation of the Essene community with the text of Scripture.
words in the prophetic writings, all was made to refer to the Qumran community. The
prophets were seen as having written riddles or cryptograms for the time of the
eschatological fulfillment which they thought was already in process (see especially Patte
The Jewish scholar Philo (25 B.C.- 40 A.D.) popularized the allegorical approach
toward Scripture, based upon a platonic model of reality in which the inferior transitory
world of the senses is a reflection of the superior world of eternal ideas. In his
allegorical approach to Scripture, wherever there were difficulties in the biblical text (if it
made no sense to him or seemed unworthy of Scripture), then he gave up the literal sense
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for an allegorical interpretation. The literal sense was the historical husk which must be
stripped away in order to arrive at the kernel, the hidden spiritual meaning (see Davidson
The basic hermeneutical assumption of Philo was that the interpreter is inspired as
well as the biblical author, and thus in the long run the interpreter is the final arbiter of
the allegorical meaning of the text. If the text does not conform to the prevailing
world-view, then it is the interpreter's responsibility to reinterpret the text. The final
A few of the early church fathers may be briefly mentioned who are noted for
caused a hermeneutic to be developed during the early second century, as he rejected the
OT as binding Scripture for Christians. The OT was alien to Christian faith. Marcion
developed the law-grace dualism, in which the OT presented a picture of law, vengeance,
hate, and wrath, while the NT represented grace and love. This principle was even
carried into the NT: only Luke was regarded as a true gospel and other portions of the NT
were rejected.
Many of the early church fathers wrote against Marcion's heresy. Tertullian used
typology as the basis of defending the unity of Scripture, although at times his
Irenaeus, bishop of Lyons (ca. 130- 201 A.D.) utilized the principle of analogia
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fide "rule of faith" to defend orthodox Christian doctrine. The rule of faith of which
Irenaeus spoke was that as preserved in the churches (i.e., tradition), and thus he became
the father of authoritative exegesis. The final norm was not Scripture alone, but
2. Alexandrian Hermeneutics
A.D.), the allegorism of Philo "was baptized into Christ." Clement developed 5 senses
of Scripture: the historical, the doctrinal, the prophetic, the philosophical, and the
mystical. Origen of Alexandria (185-254 A.D.) claimed that the text of Scripture has
three meanings patterned after the analogy with the three-fold nature of man: (a) the
bodily, or literal meaning, which is least important; (b) the psychical, or the moral
(ethical) meaning; and (c) the spiritual, or allegorical/mystical, which is most important
and only accessible to the most mature interpreters. This three-fold sense, building
upon platonic/Philonic dualism tended to strip away the historical husk to arrive at the
allegorical kernel.
3. Antiochene Hermeneutics
was founded upon the same basic presuppositions as we have set forth from Scripture in
this article, and their exegesis followed essentially the same specific guidelines as those
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we have found utilized by the biblical writers in their hermeneutic of antecedent Scripture
By means of the concept of theoria the Antiochene interpreters were able to uphold
the historical-literal sense of Scripture and at the same time see the deeper typological
focus of many OT passages. Kaiser summarizes the Antiochene perspective: "God gave
the prophets. . . a vision (theoria, from theorein, 'to look at, gaze at') of the future in
which the recipient saw as intimate parts of one meaning the word for his own historical
day with its needs (historia) and that word for the future. Both the literal historical
sense and the fulfillment were conceived as one piece. Both were intimate parts of one
D. Medieval Hermeneutics
officially eliminated in favor of, the allegorical approach popularized by the Alexandrian
school. John Cassionus (ca. 425 A.D.) expanded Origen's three-fold sense of Scripture
to four: (a) historical (the literal meaning); (b) tropological (the moral meaning, from
tropos "way of life"); (c) allegorical (or mystical or Christological); and (d) anagogical
(the eschatological or heavenly, from anag "to lead up"). For a 1000 years the
Quadriga (the "four-horse chariot" of the allegorical method) held sway in the Roman
Catholic Church, although there was always a minority that, often despite persecution,
accepted the full and sole authority of the Scriptures in their plain and literal sense.
The Reformation interpreters of the 16th century broke with the allegorical
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through the Bible, and called for understanding its plain sense. In his Table Talk of 1540,
he recalled: "When I was a monk, I was an expert at allegorizing Scripture, but now my
best skill is only to give the literal, simple sense of Scripture, from which comes power,
Scriptura "The Bible only," as the final authority over tradition and human philosophy.
As we have seen, Luther did not invent this biblical principle, but powerfully applied it
until it. Sola Scriptura (along with the other two sola's, sola fide "by faith alone" and
sola gratia "by grace alone") became the "battle cry" of the Reformation.
scriptura sui ipsius interpres, which we have also seen has solid biblical foundations.
Thirdly, Luther also applied what became known as the Christocentric principle.
His key phrase "what drives to Christ," was zu Christo treibet. What began as a
laudable principle to see how Scripture points, urges, drives to Christ, became a
dangerous one as Luther came to the conclusion that not all of Scripture did indeed drive
to Christ. The principle led to the relegation of some parts of Scripture as less important
and spirit (law and gospel, works and grace). Much of the OT was seen as letter and
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much of the NT was spirit, although not all in the NT was gospel nor all in the OT was
law.
Both of these last two principles deny the principle of the totality of Scripture (tota
Scriptura) and lead to subjectivism. Who decides what in Scripture drives to Christ,
what is law and what is gospel? The interpreter's own experience ultimately becomes
All the other Reformers accepted the first two principles of Luther, including
Zwingli, Calvin, and the Anabaptist radical reformation. These Reformers consistently
upheld the Bible and the Bible alone as the standard of truth, and sought to utilize
(Erasmus and others), led to a robust Protestant hermeneutic that has carried on through
had able proponents since Reformation times (Ernst Hengstenberg, Franz Delitzsch et al)
including the 19th century exegetical giants (Ernst Hengstenberg, Franz Delitzsch, et al)
1. Historical Development
There is not space to trace all the religious and intellectual movements that led up
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to and permeated the Enlightenment of the 18th century. In the 17th century Protestant
interpretation fossilized into a rigid Protestant Orthodoxy with emphasis upon the precise
formulations of right doctrine in creeds, and drove many to seek freedom from the
stifling authoritarianism of the Church. Some followed the path of Pietism with its
emphasis upon the individual spiritual life. But many others, in the wake of the
Copernican Revolution and the struggle between science and religion, decided to throw
Catholic priest) became the founder of biblical criticism. In his attempt to undermine
Protestantism at its roots, he aimed to destroy the authority of the Bible (in the hope that
then Protestants would turn to the authority of the Catholic Church). Applying the
principles of the Jewish skeptical philosopher Spinoza, Simon criticized the inspiration of
Scripture, rejecting the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch in favor of a long process of
redaction and compilation. His book (1678) was so radical that the Catholic Church
But within a few years, in the wake of the rise of rationalism ("reason the final
criterion for truth") a number of scholars began to view Scripture in the same way as any
other book. The watershed of the Enlightenment came with Johann Semler (1721-1791)
and his four volume German work Treatise on the Free Investigation of the Canon
(1771-1775; he also translated Richard Simon's work 70 years after it was written).
Semler argued for the separation between the Bible and the Word of God: the Bible only
contains, but does not equal God's word. The Bible was viewed from a purely historical
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perspective, to be studied like any other ancient document (like Homer). The divine
totally "from below," without reference to its divine element. This approach steadily
gained ground throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, and became known as higher
criticism or the historical-critical method. The goal of this method was to verify the
truthfulness and understand the meaning of the biblical data using the principles and
criticism, analogy, and correlation-- are articulated in a classic essay by Ernst Troeltsch,
and these are still recognized as constitutive for the method by modern historical critics.
The one principle that is most characteristic of the method, without which it cannot
remain the historical-critical method, is the principle of criticism. The word "criticism"
here is used in its technical sense of Descartes' "methodological doubt," and refers to the
autonomy of the investigator to interrogate and evaluate the Scriptural witness, to judge
text.
assumes that present experience is the criterion for evaluating the probability that events
mentioned Scripture actually occurred, inasmuch as all events are in principle similar.
In other words, the interpreter is to judge what happened in biblical times by what is
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happening today; and if one does not see a given phenomenon happening today, in all
probability it did not happen then. Since no special creation, no world-wide flood is
occurring now, it most probably did not happen then. The same is true with miracles,
resurrection from the dead, etc,; these must be explained away as non-historical.
The principle of correlation states that history is a closed system of cause and effect
with no room for supernatural intervention. Events are so correlated and interrelated
that a change in any given phenomenon necessitates a change also in its cause and effect.
Historical explanations therefore rests on a chain of natural causes and effects. This is
not to say that all historical critics deny the existence of God or the supernatural; but
methodologically, historical criticism has no room for the supernatural. Scholars using
it are required to bracket out the supernatural and look for natural causes and effects.
The triumph of historical criticism was assured at the end of the nineteenth century
history, and most recently, canon criticism. Each of these procedures calls for brief
attention.
sources that underlie the biblical text. Wellhausen popularized the showcase of this
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approach for the Pentateuch, which became known as the New Documentary Hypothesis.
The Pentateuch was not viewed as written by Moses, as Scripture explicitly claims, but
rather was seen as a composite of four later documents or sources: (1) the Jahwist (J),
using the divine name Yahweh, written in the Southern Kingdom of Judah about 880
B.C.; (2) the Elohist (E), using the divine name Elohim, written in the Northern Kingdom
of Israel about 770 B.C.; (3) the Deuteronomist (D), written in the time of Josiah, 621
B.C.; and (4) the Priestly (P), which began in the time of the Babylonian exile, and
continued until the time of the final redaction (compiling and editing) about 450 B.C.
that the sources were human products of the life setting (Sitz im Leben) of the
Various internal arguments for composite sources in the Pentateuch were employed
by source critics: the use of different divine names, variations in language and style,
alleged contradictions and anachronisms, and supposed doublets and repetitions. All of
these arguments have been analyzed in detail by conservative scholars, and found to be
unconvincing. Even critical scholars today are in disarray over many aspects of the
Documentary Hypothesis, although despite the shaking of its foundations it still has not
been abandoned.
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additional assumption denying any real predictive prophecy--have led to the hypothetical
three major sources (Isaiah of Jerusalem [1-39], Deutero-Isaiah [40-55], and Trito-Isaiah
[56-66]) and the book of Zechariah into two sections (Zech 1-8 and 9-11). Again,
studies from those accepting the Scripture's own claims for the authorship of these books
possible sources underlying the first three Gospels, and the interrelationships among
these Gospels. Several modern solutions have been suggested for the synoptic problem.
Developed already in the late 18th century, the Griesbach hypothesis presupposed the
priority of Matthew, with Luke utilizing Matthew as a source and Mark utilizing both
argued for the priority of Mark, followed by Matthew and then Luke. This hypothesis
was modified a few years later to include two primitive, apostolic sources: Mark and the
Logia (also called the "Q" source [from the German Quelle "source"]).
accepted source-critical theory, although there have been numerous reactions against it in
the latter part of the twentieth century. Further developments include a four-source
hypothesis (B. H. Streeter, 1924,) who adds to Mark and Q an L source [material unique
Bultmannian scholar turned evangelical, has forcefully rejected the entire source-critical
endeavor on the Gospels, and argued that there is no synoptic problem after all; none of
the gospels are dependant upon each other, but go back directly to the apostolic
in the NT, retained many of the same naturalistic presuppositions used in source
criticism, but focused upon the pre-literary stage of oral traditions behind the written
sources. Form critics assumed that the Biblical material came into existence in much
the same way as conventional folk-literature of modern times, and so adopted the basic
principles of secular form-critics like the Grimm brothers who were studying German
fairy tales.
Building upon the presuppositions of source criticism, form critics assumed that the
sociological forces of the community (in its life setting) shaped the form and content of
the traditions, and that this material developed in a unilinear evolutionary pattern from
short and simple units to longer and more complex traditions. The specific form-critical
task was to analyze the different forms or genres of biblical literature (e.g., the different
literary forms in the Psalms), to dissect them into their conjectured original smaller oral
units, and then hypothetically reconstruct the life setting that brought forth these forms.
In this process of reconstruction the form critic often took little stock in the plain
statements of Scripture regarding the life setting behind the material (for example the
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superscriptions of the Psalms), since these were seen as added much later and therefore
Neither the early source critics nor form critics of the early twentieth century paid
much attention to the role of the redactors or editors who spliced the pre-existing material
together into the final canonical form; they were viewed as "scissors-and-paste" men,
compilers who left little or none of their own stamp upon the material. But this was to
change by the middle of the 20th century, with the rise of a new procedure in historical
history").
(1954, Luke), and W. Marxen (1956, Mark)--as they began to focus upon the evangelists
as full-fledged theologians. The aim of the redaction critic was to discover and describe
the unique life settings (the sociological and theological motivations) of the biblical
redactor/writer which caused them to shape, modify, or even create material for the final
product which they wrote. The basic assumption underlying this approach is that each
biblical writer has a unique theology and life setting which differs from, and often
contradicts, his sources and other redactors. The end result of this procedure is to
fracture the unity of Scripture, as it is seen to contain not one, but many (often
contradictory) theologies.
Traditionsgeschichte). Pioneered by Gerhard von Rad already in the 1930's for the OT,
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it built upon source and form criticism, attempting to trace the pre-compositional history
of traditions from stage to stage as passed down by word of mouth from generation to
generation to the final written form. As redaction criticism became popular, tradition
history came to encompass the entire history of the tradition, from oral traditions, to
written sources, to final shaping by the creative redactor. The underlying assumption in
this approach is that each new generation interpretively reshaped the material.
represents the logical conclusion to the attempt to hypothetically reconstruct the historical
development of the biblical text. Pioneered by James Sanders in the 1970's and 1980's,
this approach builds upon the others that have gone before, but focuses particularly upon
the life setting (sociological and theological forces) in the synagogue and church that
forces can explain the process--in this case, the process of canonization--without recourse
There is a major recent paradigm shift in critical biblical studies toward various
deny the results of historical-criticism, nor abandon the central principle of criticism, but
rather bracket out the historical questions concerning of the historical development of the
Many of these literary-critical hermeneutical approaches focus upon the final form
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of the biblical text as a literary work of art. These include such (overlapping)
Alter), close reading (Meir Weiss), and narrative criticism. Common to all of these is
the concern for the text as a finished work of art. The literary productions of the Bible
are usually divorced from history and regarded as works of fiction or myth, with their
Another recent synchronic approach (i.e., an approach which deals with the final
form of the text) is structuralism. Biblical structuralism builds upon modern linguistic
theory fathered by the French theorist Claude Levi-Strauss, and has been developed in the
USA by such scholars as Daniel Patte. Its main purpose is to "decode" the text to
deterministically impose themselves upon the writer. The divine absolute in this
Saussure and Charles S. Pierce, which focuses upon the linguistic codes that form the
framework within which the message of the text is given (much like the musical staff and
clef in music where the specific notes may be placed). The concern of these approaches
is upon neither the history nor the meaning of the text, but upon the layers of linguistic
Scripture that retain the critical presuppositions of the historical-critical method, but
focus attention upon other goals than hypothetically reconstructing the historical
development of the biblical text. Some of these modern approaches build upon new
trends that have been mentioned in previous paragraphs. Major examples include the
(Derrida).
All of these latter approaches tend to have some external norm--be it philosophy,
replaces the sola Scriptura principle and relativizes Scripture. No longer is there a
black reading, an Asian reading, a Lutheran reading, an Adventist reading, etc. All are
seen to have their own validity as the reader's horizon merges with the horizon of the
biblical text. (See the bibliography for works which discuss in detail the major recent
prediction involved many human authors many human authors are superintended by
or redactors; Scripture therefore cannot be one divine author; therefore Scripture can
compared with Scripture ("proof-texts") be compared with Scripture to arrive at
to arrive at a unified biblical teaching. biblical doctrine. (Luke 24:27; 1 Cor
2:13)
6. "Time-conditioned" or 6. Timeless nature of Scripture:
"culturally-conditioned" nature of God speaks through the prophet to a
Scripture; the historical context is specific culture, yet the message
responsible for the production of transcends cultural backgrounds as
Scripture. timeless truth. (John 10:35)
7. The human and divine elements 7. The divine and human elements
of Scripture must be distinguished and in Scripture cannot be distinguished or
separated: the Bible contains but does not separated: the Bible equals the Word of
equal the Word of God. God. (2 Tim 3:16, 17)
D. Basic Hermeneutical Procedures: D. Basic Hermeneutical Procedures:
1. Literary (source) criticism: 1. Literary analysis: Examination
The attempt to hypothetically reconstruct of the literary characteristics of the
and understand the process of literary biblical materials in their canonical form,
development leading to the present form accepting as a unity those units of
of the text, based on the assumption that Scripture that are presented as such, and
sources are a product of the life setting of accepting at face value the specific
the community which produced them Scriptural statements regarding the origins
(often in opposition to specific Scriptural and nature of the biblical materials.
statements regarding the origin and nature
of the sources.)
2. Form criticism: The attempt to 2. Form analysis: An attempt to
provide a conjectured reconstruction of describe and classify the various types of
the process of pre-literary (oral) literature found in (the canonical form of)
development behind the various literary Scripture, accepting at face value the life
form, based upon the assumption that the setting for each form as indicated by the
biblical material has an oral pre-history biblical data.
like conventional folk-literature and like
folk-literature arises on the basis of
traditions which are formed according to
the laws inherent in the development of
folk traditions.
3. Redaction criticism: The 3. Theological analysis of Biblical
attempt to discover and describe the life books: A study of the particular
setting, sociological and theological theological emphasis of each Bible writer
motivations which determined the basis (according to his own mind set and
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upon which the redactor selected, capacity to understand), seen within the
modified, reconstructed, edited, altered or larger context of the unity of the whole
added to traditional materials in order to Scripture that allows the Bible to be its
make them say what was appropriate own interpreter and the various
within his new life setting according to theological emphases to be in harmony
new theological concerns; assumes that with each other.
each redactor has a unique theology and
life setting which differs from (and may
contradict) his sources and other
redactors.
4. Tradition history: The attempt 4. Diachronic (thematic)
to trace the precompositional history of analysis: The attempt to trace the
traditions from stage to stage as passed development of various themes and
down by word of mouth from generation motives chronologically (through the
to generation to the final written form; Bible in its canonical form); based upon
based upon the assumption that each the Scriptural position that God gives
generation interpretively reshaped the added (progressive) revelation to later
material. generations, which, however, is in full
harmony with all previous revelation.
5. Canon criticism: The attempt to 5. History of the canon:
reconstruct the life setting (sociological Examination of the process of
and theological forces) in the synagogue canonization of Scripture, assuming that
and the Early Church that determined the the criteria for canonicity are inherent in
present shape and contents of the biblical the biblical materials as inspired by God,
canon; assumes that human forces explain and that the Holy Spirit guided the Jewish
the canonization process. and Christian communities to recognize
these canonical books which preserved
the witness of the OT prophets and the
NT apostles.
Notice the differences in definition, objective, and basic presuppositions. With regard
represents the basic orientation point of the method: "human reason and the supremacy of
reason as the ultimate criterion of truth" (McKnight 1988, 45). Presuppositions 2-4
indicate the crucial underlying principles of the method (see the classic formulation of
these by Troeltsch 1913); and the last three indicate the method leads to the destruction of
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presuppositions based upon biblical evidence. With regard to the principle of criticism
in particular, Gerhard Maier, a noted German scholar who broke with the
historical-critical method, writes (1977:23): "a critical method must fail, because it
critique, but obedience; it is not correction of the text--not even on the basis of a partially
As to the basic hermeneutical procedures, note how both methods analyze historical
context, literary features, genre or literary type, theology of the writer, the development
of themes, and the process of canonization. But the historical-biblical approach rejects
the principle of criticism; it analyzes, but refuses to critique the Bible; it accepts the text
of Scripture at face value as true, and refuses to engage in the three-fold process of
dissection, conjecture, and hypothetical reconstruction (often contrary to the claims of the
features and still retain the method. However, this not really possible, because
presuppositions and method are inextricably interwoven. The basis of the historical
critical method is secular historical science, which by its very nature methodologically
excludes the supernatural and instead seeks natural causes for historical events.
criticism, according to which nothing is accepted at face value but everything must be
correction and therefore the human interpreter is the final determiner of truth, and his
reason or experience the final test of the authenticity of a passage. As long as this basic
principle is retained even to the slightest degree, the danger of the historical-critical
method has not been averted, even though the supernatural element in theory may be
criticism is really the litmus test of whether or not critical methodology is being
employed.
Those who follow the historical-biblical method apply the same study tools utilized
throughout this article. But while utilizing the gains brought about by the
historical-critical method in sharpening various study tools for analysis of the biblical
The Millerite movement had its inception in the preaching of William Miller, and
Miller developed a simple set of 13 rules for interpreting the Bible (see the reprint of
these in Damsteegt 1977:299-300). These hermeneutical principles all build upon the
attention to the interpretation of prophecy. The early Adventist pioneers all used these
principles. In 1884 Ellen White could write: "Those who are engaged in proclaiming
the third angel's message are searching the Scriptures upon the same plan that Father
Miller adopted" (RH 11/25/1884). After quoting the first four of these rules, that
summarize basic hermeneutical principles, she adds: "in our study of the Bible we shall
Ellen White's writings strongly uphold all the basic presuppositions and specific
(historical-Biblical) method and as set forth in this article. (See the selected quotations
in section V).
method, then known as "higher criticism," and demonstrates a keen sensitivity to its
essential constitutive elements and the dangers of its use: "The work of higher criticism,
in dissecting, conjecturing, reconstructing [note the three basic elements of the method,
as seen above] is destroying faith in the Bible as a divine revelation. It is robbing God's
word of power to control, uplift, and inspire human lives" (Acts of the Apostles, p. 474).
George Reid (1991, 69-70) has indicated how prior to 1950 the "traditional"
method. Since 1950 some voices within Adventism have advocated a shift toward a
modified historical-critical method that accepts the supernatural but also retains the
principle of criticism. But in 1986 the Annual Council of SDA's voted to accept the
report of the Methods of Bible Study Committee, which rejected the use of the
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historical-method. According to the report, "Even a modified use of this method that
retains the principle of criticism which subordinates the Bible to human reason is
The Seventh-day Adventist Church affirms the hermeneutic of the biblical writers,
of Antioch and the Reformation, and rejects the allegorical method of Alexandria and
which has been abandoned by virtually all of Christendom today except the SDA church.
Seventh-day Adventists are the hermeneutical heirs of the Reformation. And like the
"radical [back to the roots] reformers" of the 16th century, they continually seek to go
"back to the roots," to base all their presuppositions, their principles of interpretation,
their faith, and practice upon the absolute authority of God's infallible Word.