Solid Waste

Management
Engr. Mary Jane C. Calagui, PhD
ChE Department
Cagayan State University

February 2019
 Problems:
1. Plastic bags at food stores have become ubiquitous. Often recycling
advocates point to the plastic bags as the prototype of wastage and
pollution, as stuff that clogs up our landfills. In retalation, plastic bag
manufacturers have begun a public relations campaign to promote
their product. On one of the flyers, they say:
“The bag does not emit toxic fumes when properly
incinerated. When burned in waste-to-energy plants, the resulting
byproducts from combustion are carbon dioxide and water vapor, the
very same by-products that you and I produce when we breathe. The
bag is inert in landfills where it does not contribute to leaching
bacterial or explosive gas problems. The bag photodegrades in
sunlight to the point that normal environmental factors of wind and
rain will cause it to break into very small pieces, thereby addressing
the unsightly litter problem.”
Critique this statement. Is all of it true? If not, what part is not? Is
anything misleading?
2. We often see packaging labeled “ Made from 100% recycled
materials” or “Made from 50% recycled materials”. The
objective is of course to make you believe that the company is
environmentally conscious and caring and, thus, to make you
buy more of their products.

a. Why are such statements as the ones quoted above

potentially misleading?

b. All things considered, if the statements are true, why

ought you to buy their products in preference to
products with no recycled material?
12 Principles of Green
Engineering
 Principle No. 1 Inherent not
circumstantial
The initial design of the products must evaluate the inherent
nature of the selected material (toxicological and physicochemical
properties) and calculate the energy inputs required.

The ideal case will be to use materials and inputs of energy and
other reagents that are less hazardous, thus reducing the risks for
environmental impacts and the cost to monitor, control and
contain the environmental pollution caused by the rejection of the
product as waste.
 Principle No. 2. Prevention is
best than treatment
The initial design of industrial processes and products
contains the
intention to produce minimum waste (.zero-waste.) but
the notion is criticised
from other scientists as ignoring the laws of nature.

First Law of Thermodynamics –energy transfer to

heat & work
Second Law of Thermodynamics - Entropy
Principle No.3. Design strategy for separation and
purification.

Economic and technical limitations in separating

materials and components are among the greatest
obstacles to recovery, recycle and reuse of materials and
reagents. Green engineers studied how these obstacles
can be overcome. Avoiding permanent bonds between
two different materials is one solution.
Principle No. 4. Maximize mass, energy, space
and time efficiency

Large batch reactors in chemical manufacturing

is a typical example of how things were made in
the conventional way. These are considered now
“old” technology. Microreactors that operate
continuously at very low volume with efficient
mixing, high productivity and digitalized
information of the process are considered more
efficient.
 Principle No. 5. Output-pulled
versus input-pushed.
More energy or material (“input-pushed”) can
increase output, but the same output can be
achieved by new designing where chemical
processes are “pulled” (e.g. removing products
from reaction system) without additional
energy or material .
• Condensation Reactions
 Principle No. 6. Conserve
complexity
The higher the complexity of a product
the higher the expenditure on materials,
energy and time.
Ex: Computer chips vs paper bags
 Principle No. 7. Durability
rather than immortality

Durability and persistence after use are two

contrasting and must be balanced in the
designing stages by green engineers. The design
must aim at products that are durable enough
to withstand operating conditions during their
lifetime, and avoid premature disposal.
Ex: diapers
 Principle No 8. Green Engineering can
meet needs and minimize excess.

New materials, natural resources, energy and

technology were wasted in many
industrialised countries for overdesign and
unusual capabilities of various products. Many
products after their commercial life cycle
cause increasing environmental problems as
waste due to their complexity, extreme
persistence and difficulty in recycling.
Ex: chlorination of drinking water
 Principle No. 9. Minimize
material diversity.
Reducing multiple components in products
increases the possibility of useful reuse or
recyclability
 Principle No. 10. Integrate local
material and energy flows

Byproducts from one industrial unit can

become feedstocks for subsequent reaction
processes in other industrial operations.
Principle No. 11. Design for
commercial “afterlife”.

Principle No. 12. Renewable

rather than depleting.
 Unit III. Collection and Transport

Collection of commingled (unseparated) and separated (recyclables) solid

waste is a critical part of any solid waste management program.
Solid waste collection involves both the provision of a service and the selection
of appropriate technologies. The service aspect is set through an agreement
between waste generators and the waste collector or collection agency, and the
waste collection contractor or agency selects the technology to be used for col-
lection
Things to consider:
1.The logistics of solid waste management
2. The types of waste collection services
3. The types of collection systems, equipment, and personnel
requirements
4. The collection routes
5. The management of collection systems
6. The collection system economics
1. THE LOGISTICS OF SOLID WASTE
COLLECTION
The management of collection is most difficult and complex
in an urban environment because the generation of residential
and commercial-industrial solid waste and recyclables takes
place in every home, every apartment building, and every
commercial and industrial facility, as well as in the streets,
parks, and even vacant areas.

Total amount of money spent on solid waste management

(collection, transport, processing, recycling, and disposal),
approximately 50 to 70 percent is spent on the collection
activity.
 2. TYPES OF WASTE COLLECTION
SERVICES
The term collection includes not only the collection of solid wastes from the
various sources, but also the hauling of these wastes to the location where the
contents of the collection vehicles are emptied and the unloading of the
collection vehicle
Manual methods commonly used for the collection of
residential wastes include the following:
● The direct lifting and carrying of loaded containers to the
collection vehicle for emptying
● The rolling of loaded containers on their rims to the collection
vehicle for emptying
● The rolling of loaded containers equipped with wheels to the
collection vehicle for mechanically assisted emptying
● The use of small lifts for rolling loaded containers to the
collection vehicle.
Typical Collection Services for Commingled and Source-
Separated Solid Waste
 2.1 Collection of Commingled (Unseparated) Wastes

a side-loading vehicle
equipped with a right-
hand standup drive
mechanism

Rear-loading collection
vehicle. The rear- loaded
type of collection vehicle is
commonly used with two-
and three-person crews for
the collection of residential
wastes.
Mechanized collection vehicle with mechanical articulated
pickup mechanism
 Front-loading vehicle
equipped with internal
compactor.

Collection vehicle, with

collection mechanism
mounted on truck chassis,
that can be used to collect
two types of waste at the
same time
2.2 Collection of Wastes Separated at the Source
Typical examples of source-separated materials placed at
the curbside for collection. (a) From a residential area. (b)
Recyclable wastes along with commingled waste from
commercial establishments placed on sidewalk
Characteristics of Vehicles Used for the Collection of Wastes
Separated at the Source

1. Standard Packer Trucks - used for waste collection

can also be used for collection of recyclables.
Rear-loading packers have been used for
newspaper, cardboard, and magazines with trailers
attached to them for cans and glass.
Front-end loaders have been used to service large
containers containing newspaper recovered from
apartment buildings.
2. Closed-body recycling truck- consists of an enclosed
steel body installed on a lowered truck chassis, and a
low-entry walk-in cab with dual left- and right-hand
driving controls (allowing one- person operation).
The truck is equipped with a front-mounted telescopic
hoist and rear body hinge for dumping. Each
compartment is discharged separately by opening the
rear door, unlocking the appropriate divider, and tipping
the body.
3. Mobile container system - it is essentially a steel frame with
sets of hydraulic forks that can be used to transport large bins.

4. Open-bin recycling truck a specially designed vehicle

with two or three open-top, self-dumping bins. Source-
separated wastes are emptied into low-mounted troughs,
which are emptied mechanically into the open bins.
3. TYPES OF COLLECTION SYSTEMS,
EQUIPMENT, AND PERSONNEL
REQUIREMENTS
Types of Collection Systems
1.Hauled container systems
2. Stationary container systems
Schematic of operational sequence

Containers used for the storage of wastes are hauled to an MRF,

transfer station, or disposal site, emptied, and returned to their
original location.
Containers used for the storage of wastes are hauled to an MRF, transfer station, or
disposal site, emptied, and returned to a different location in the exchange mode of
operation. The exchange mode works best when the containers are of a similar size.
In the exchange mode, the driver must begin the collection route with an empty
container on the vehicle to be deposited at the first collection site.
Containers used for the storage of wastes remain at the point of
generation, except when they are moved to the curb or other location
to be emptied. The collection vehicle is driven from pickup location to
pickup location until it is loaded fully.
 4.0 COLLECTION ROUTES
Heuristic Guidelines for Laying out Collection Routes
● Existing policies and regulations related to such items as the point of collection
and frequency of collection must be identified.
● Existing systems, such as crew size and vehicle types, must be coordinated.
● Wherever possible, routes should be laid out so that they begin and end near
arterial
streets, using topographical and physical barriers as route boundaries.
● In hilly areas, routes should start at the top of the grade and proceed downhill as
the vehicle becomes loaded.
● Routes should be laid out so that the last container to be collected on the route is
located nearest to the disposal site.
● Wastes generated at traffic-congested locations should be collected as early in the
day as possible.
● Sources at which extremely large quantities of wastes are generated should be
serviced during the first part of the day.
● Scattered pickup points where small quantities of solid waste are generated that
receive the same collection frequency should, if possible, be serviced during one
trip or on the same day.
Layout of Collection Routes
The four general steps involved in establishing collection
routes include:
1. Preparation of location maps showing pertinent data and
information concerning the waste generation sources
2. Data analysis and, as required, preparation of information
summary tables
3. Preliminary layout of routes
4. Evaluation of the preliminary routes and the development
of balanced routes by successive trials
 5. MANAGEMENT OF
COLLECTION SYSTEMS
The objective of management is to preserve public health and
to maintain cost-effective service.

• Private-Entity Operations
the advantages of private operations include unrestricted access to capital
for equipment purchase, flexible use of workers on collection routes, and
competition in setting system costs for the service.

• Public-Entity Operations
the advantages of public operations include control of the waste
management system for public health considerations and public access to
data regarding system costs
 6. COLLECTION SYSTEM
ECONOMICS
The economics of collection include the costs of storage
containers placed at the point of waste generation, the cost of
providing collection service, and the costs of transfer stations
that process the materials for recovery, consolidation, and
movement to disposal sites
• Labor Requirements

• Collection Costs
 Functional Elements of a Solid Waste Management System

Transfer and transport The functional element of transfer and transport

involves two steps: (1) the
transfer of wastes from the smaller
collection vehicle to the larger transport
equipment, and (2) the subsequent transport of the wastes,
usually over long distances, to a processing or disposal site.
.
Views of the functional activities that comprise a solid waste management system: (a) waste gen-
eration; (b) waste handling and separation, storage, and processing at the source; (c) collection; (d)
separation, processing, and transformation of solid waste; (e) transfer and transport; and (f )
disposal.
Flow diagram for residential integrated waste management.
Problems on Refuse Collection Systems
1. Assume each household produces a 28 kg of refuse per
week. How many customers can a 20m3 truck that compacts
the refuse to 300 kg/m3 collect before it has to make a trip to
the landfill?
2. Suppose a crew of two people requires 2 minutes per stop,
at which they can service 4 customers. If each customer
generates 28 kg of refuse, how many customers can they
service if they did not have to go to the landfill?
3. Calculate the number of collection vehicles a community
would need if it has a total of 5000 customers that are to be
collected once per week.
Processing and Resource Recovery
A. Refuse Physical Characteristics
-particle size
- bulk density
- angle of repose
- material abrasiveness
- moisture content
B. Storage – first in first out system
C. Conveying
-rubber-belted conveyors- unshredded material, less abrasive
- live bottom feeders – move MSW out of holding bins
-pneumatic conveyors –collect raw bagged MSW in
hospitals/ large buildings
- vibratory feeders – small quantities of rigid material
- screw feeders – meter shredded refuse into a furnace
- drag chains – MSW applied to waste to energy plants
D. Compacting
Vm = Vs + Vv

e = Vv/Vs (void ratio)

n = Vv/Vm (porosity)

E. Shredding
F. Pulping
G. Roll Crushing
H. Granulating
 Unit IV.
Treatment of SW
A. Composting – is the biological decomposition of the
biodegradable organic fraction of MSW under
controlled conditions to a state sufficiently stable for
nuisance-free storage and handling and for safe use in
land applications (Golueke et al., 1955; Golueke, 1972;
Diaz et al., 1993).
Four basic functions of composting:

1) preparation,
2) decomposition
3) post-processing, and
4) marketing.
Typical process flow diagram for the composting of MSW.
Classification:

Aerobic vs. Anaerobic

Mesophylic vs. Thermophylic
Compost Phases :
Environmental Factors and Parameters
Nutrients and Substrate
Chemical Elements
Availability of Nutrients
Carbon-to-Nitrogen Ratio
Particle Size
Oxygen

Compost Systems
1) windrow and
2) in-vessel
windrow in-vessel
ENVIRONMENTAL, PUBLIC, AND INDUSTRIAL HEALTH
CONSIDERATIONS
• Water Resource
• Air Resource
• Odors
• Vectors
• Fires

Constraints on Use of the Compost

Constraints on the use of the compost with respect to the health and safety
of humans arise from the harmful substances that may be in the compost.
Examples of such harmful substances are heavy metals, toxic organic
compounds (including PCBs), glass shards, and pathogenic organisms.
B. Recycling- overused topic!
C. Incineration – “waste-to-energy combustion”
Advantages:
• The volume and weight of the waste are reduced to a fraction of
their original size.
• Waste reduction is immediate; it does not require long-term
residence in a landfill or holding pond.
• Waste can be incinerated on-site, without having to be carted to a
distant area.
• Air discharges can be effectively controlled for minimal impact on
the atmospheric environment.
• The ash residue is usually nonputrescible, or sterile
• Technology exists to completely destroy even the most hazardous
of materials in a complete and effective manner.
• Incineration requires a relatively small disposal area, compared
to the land area required for conventional landfill disposal.
• By using heat-recovery techniques the cost of operation can often
be reduced or offset through the use or sale of energy.
Disadvantages:
• The capital cost is high.
• Skilled operators are required.
• Not all materials are incinerable (e.g., construction and demolition
wastes).
• Supplemental fuel is required to initiate and at times to maintain the
incineration process.
 Incinerability can be defined more specifically by consideration of the following
factors:
1.Waste moisture content - The greater the moisture content, the more fuel is required to
destroy the waste. An aqueous waste with a moisture content greater than 95 percent
or a sludge waste with less than 15 percent solids content would be considered poor
candidates for incineration.

2. Heating value. Incineration is a thermal destruction process where the waste is

degraded to nonputrescible form by the application and maintenance of a source of
heat. Generally, a waste with a heating value less than 1000 Btu/lb as received, such
as concrete blocks or stone, is not applicable for incineration.

3. Inorganic salts. Wastes rich in inorganic, alkaline salts are troublesome to dispose of
in a conventional incineration system. A significant fraction of the salt can become
airborne. It will collect on furnace surfaces, creating a slag, or cake, which severely
reduces the ability of an incinerator to function properly.

4. High sulfur or halogen content. The presence of chlorides or sulfides in a waste will
nor- mally result in the generation of acid-forming compounds in the offgas.

5. Radioactive waste.
Types of Solid Waste Incinerators
1. Open burning
2. Single-chamber incinerators
3. Open-Pit Incinerators. Open-pit incinerators have been developed for
controlled incineration of explosive wastes, wastes which would create
an explosion hazard or high heat release in a conventional, enclosed
incinerator.
4. Multiple-Chamber incinerator – primary chamber is used for
combustion of solid waste. The secondary chamber provides the residence
time, and supplementary fuel, for combustion of the unburned gaseous
products and airborne combustible solids (soot) discharged from the
primary chamber.
5. Pyrolysis and Controlled Air Incineration
General Description. Pyrolysis is the destructive distillation of a solid,
carbonaceous, mate- rial in the presence of heat and in the absence of
stoichiometric oxygen. It is an exothermic reaction (i.e., heat must be applied
for the reaction to occur).
Ideally a pyrolytic reaction will occur as follows, using cellulose: heat
C6H10O5 → CH4 +2CO+3H2O+3C
Pyrolytic waste conversion
Starved air incinerator
Do remember the 3 T’s
of combustion!