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CONTENTS

Preface xv Application Spotlight: What Nuclear Blasts and

Raindrops Have in Common 31
Summary 30
CHAPTER O NE References and Suggested Reading 30
Problems 32
INTRODUCTION AND BASIC CONCEPTS 1

1–1 Introduction 2 C H A P T E R T WO
What Is a Fluid? 2
Application Areas of Fluid Mechanics 4
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 35
1–2 The No-Slip Condition 6 2–1 Introduction 36
1–3 A Brief History of Fluid Mechanics 7 Continuum 36
1–4 Classification of Fluid Flows 9 2–2 Density and Specific Gravity 37
Viscous versus Inviscid Regions of Flow 9
Density of Ideal Gases 38
Internal versus External Flow 10
Compressible versus Incompressible Flow 10 2–3 Vapor Pressure and Cavitation 39
Laminar versus Turbulent Flow 11
Natural (or Unforced) versus Forced Flow 11
2–4 Energy and Specific Heats 41
Steady versus Unsteady Flow 11 2–5 Coefficient of Compressibility 42
One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows 12
Coefficient of Volume Expansion 44
1–5 System and Control Volume 14 2–6 Viscosity 46
1–6 Importance of Dimensions and Units 15 2–7 Surface Tension and Capillary Effect 51
Some SI and English Units 16
Capillary Effect 53
Dimensional Homogeneity 18
Unity Conversion Ratios 20 Summary 55
References and Suggested Reading 56
1–7 Mathematical Modeling of Engineering
Problems 21 Application Spotlight: Cavitation 57
Modeling in Engineering 21 Problems 58

1–8 Problem-Solving Technique 22

Step 1: Problem Statement 22 CHAPTER THREE
Step 2: Schematic 23
Step 3: Assumptions and Approximations 23 PRESSURE AND FLUID STATICS 65
Step 4: Physical Laws 23
Step 5: Properties 23 3–1 Pressure 66
Step 6: Calculations 23
Step 7: Reasoning, Verification, and Discussion 23 Pressure at a Point 67
Variation of Pressure with Depth 68
1–9 Engineering Software Packages 24
3–2 The Manometer 71
Engineering Equation Solver (EES) 25
FLUENT 26 Other Pressure Measurement Devices 74

1–10 Accuracy, Precision, and Significant Digits 26 3–3 The Barometer and Atmospheric Pressure 75
3–4 Introduction to Fluid Statics 78
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3–5 Hydrostatic Forces on Submerged Plane C H A P T E R F I VE

Surfaces 79
Special Case: Submerged Rectangular Plate 82
MASS, BERNOULLI, AND ENERGY
3–6 Hydrostatic Forces on Submerged Curved EQUATIONS 171
Surfaces 85
5–1 Introduction 172
3–7 Buoyancy and Stability 89
Conservation of Mass 172
Stability of Immersed and Floating Bodies 92 Conservation of Momentum 172
3–8 Fluids in Rigid-Body Motion 95 Conservation of Energy 172

Special Case 1: Fluids at Rest 96 5–2 Conservation of Mass 173

Special Case 2: Free Fall of a Fluid Body 97 Mass and Volume Flow Rates 173
Acceleration on a Straight Path 97 Conservation of Mass Principle 175
Rotation in a Cylindrical Container 99 Moving or Deforming Control Volumes 177
Summary 102 Mass Balance for Steady-Flow Processes 177
References and Suggested Reading 103 Special Case: Incompressible Flow 178
Problems 103 5–3 Mechanical Energy and Efficiency 180
5–4 The Bernoulli Equation 185
C H A P T E R F O UR Acceleration of a Fluid Particle 186
Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation 186
FLUID KINEMATICS 121 Force Balance across Streamlines 188
Unsteady, Compressible Flow 189
Static, Dynamic, and Stagnation Pressures 189
4–1 Lagrangian and Eulerian Descriptions 122 Limitations on the Use of the Bernoulli Equation 190
Acceleration Field 124 Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) and Energy Grade
Material Derivative 127 Line (EGL) 192
4–2 Fundamentals of Flow Visualization 129 5–5 Applications of the Bernoulli Equation 194
Streamlines and Streamtubes 129 5–6 General Energy Equation 201
Pathlines 130
Energy Transfer by Heat, Q 202
Streaklines 132
Energy Transfer by Work, W 202
Timelines 134
Refractive Flow Visualization Techniques 135 5–7 Energy Analysis of Steady Flows 206
Surface Flow Visualization Techniques 136
Special Case: Incompressible Flow with No Mechanical Work
4–3 Plots of Fluid Flow Data 136 Devices and Negligible Friction 208
Kinetic Energy Correction Factor, a 208
Profile Plots 137
Vector Plots 137 Summary 215
Contour Plots 138 References and Suggested Reading 216
Problems 216
4–4 Other Kinematic Descriptions 139
Types of Motion or Deformation of Fluid Elements 139
Vorticity and Rotationality 144
Comparison of Two Circular Flows 147
CHAPTER S I X
4–5 The Reynolds Transport Theorem 148 MOMENTUM ANALYSIS OF FLOW
Alternate Derivation of the Reynolds Transport SYSTEMS 227
Theorem 153
Relationship between Material Derivative and RTT 155 6–1 Newton’s Laws and Conservation
Application Spotlight: Fluidic Actuators 157 of Momentum 228
Summary 156 6–2 Choosing a Control Volume 229
References and Suggested Reading 158
6–3 Forces Acting on a Control Volume 230
Problems 158
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FLUID MECHANICS

6–4 The Linear Momentum Equation 233 8–3 The Entrance Region 325
Special Cases 235 Entry Lengths 326
Momentum-Flux Correction Factor, b 235
Steady Flow 238
8–4 Laminar Flow in Pipes 327
Steady Flow with One Inlet and One Outlet 238 Pressure Drop and Head Loss 329
Flow with No External Forces 238 Inclined Pipes 331
Laminar Flow in Noncircular Pipes 332
6–5 Review of Rotational Motion and Angular
Momentum 248 8–5 Turbulent Flow in Pipes 335
6–6 The Angular Momentum Equation 250 Turbulent Shear Stress 336
Turbulent Velocity Profile 338
Special Cases 252 The Moody Chart 340
Flow with No External Moments 253 Types of Fluid Flow Problems 343
Radial-Flow Devices 254
8–6 Minor Losses 347
Summary 259
References and Suggested Reading 259 8–7 Piping Networks and Pump Selection 354
Problems 260 Piping Systems with Pumps and Turbines 356
8–8 Flow Rate and Velocity Measurement 364
CHAPTER SEVEN Pitot and Pitot-Static Probes 365
Obstruction Flowmeters: Orifice, Venturi, and Nozzle
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND MODELING 269 Meters 366
Positive Displacement Flowmeters 369
Turbine Flowmeters 370
7–1 Dimensions and Units 270 Variable-Area Flowmeters (Rotameters) 372
7–2 Dimensional Homogeneity 271 Ultrasonic Flowmeters 373
Electromagnetic Flowmeters 375
Nondimensionalization of Equations 272
Vortex Flowmeters 376
7–3 Dimensional Analysis and Similarity 277 Thermal (Hot-Wire and Hot-Film) Anemometers 377
Laser Doppler Velocimetry 378
7–4 The Method of Repeating Variables and the Particle Image Velocimetry 380
Buckingham Pi Theorem 281
Application Spotlight: How Orifice Plate
Historical Spotlight: Persons Honored by Flowmeters Work, or Do Not Work 383
Nondimensional Parameters 289
Summary 384
7–5 Experimental Testing and Incomplete References and Suggested Reading 385
Similarity 297 Problems 386
Setup of an Experiment and Correlation of Experimental
Data 297
Incomplete Similarity 298 C H A P T E R N I NE
Wind Tunnel Testing 298
Flows with Free Surfaces 301 DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS OF FLUID FLOW 399
Application Spotlight: How a Fly Flies 304
9–1 Introduction 400
Summary 305
References and Suggested Reading 305 9–2 Conservation of Mass—The Continuity
Problems 305 Equation 400
Derivation Using the Divergence Theorem 401
Derivation Using an Infinitesimal Control Volume 402
CHAPTER EIGHT Alternative Form of the Continuity Equation 405
Continuity Equation in Cylindrical Coordinates 406
FLOW IN PIPES 321 Special Cases of the Continuity Equation 406
9–3 The Stream Function 412
8–1 Introduction 322
The Stream Function in Cartesian Coordinates 412
8–2 Laminar and Turbulent Flows 323 The Stream Function in Cylindrical Coordinates 419
Reynolds Number 324 The Compressible Stream Function 420
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9–4 Conservation of Linear Momentum—Cauchy’s 10–6 The Boundary Layer Approximation 510
Equation 421 The Boundary Layer Equations 515
Derivation Using the Divergence Theorem 421 The Boundary Layer Procedure 520
Derivation Using an Infinitesimal Control Volume 422 Displacement Thickness 524
Alternative Form of Cauchy’s Equation 425 Momentum Thickness 527
Derivation Using Newton’s Second Law 425 Turbulent Flat Plate Boundary Layer 528
Boundary Layers with Pressure Gradients 534
9–5 The Navier–Stokes Equation 426 The Momentum Integral Technique for Boundary
Introduction 426 Layers 539
Newtonian versus Non-Newtonian Fluids 427 Application Spotlight: Droplet Formation 549
Derivation of the Navier–Stokes Equation for Incompressible,
Isothermal Flow 428 Summary 547
Continuity and Navier–Stokes Equations in Cartesian References and Suggested Reading 548
Coordinates 430 Problems 550
Continuity and Navier–Stokes Equations in Cylindrical
Coordinates 431
9–6 Differential Analysis of Fluid Flow CHAPTER ELEVEN
Problems 432 FLOW OVER BODIES: DRAG AND LIFT 561
Calculation of the Pressure Field for a Known Velocity
Field 432 11–1 Introduction 562
Exact Solutions of the Continuity and Navier–Stokes
Equations 437 11–2 Drag and Lift 563
Summary 455 11–3 Friction and Pressure Drag 567
References and Suggested Reading 456 Reducing Drag by Streamlining 568
Problems 456 Flow Separation 569
11–4 Drag Coefficients of Common Geometries 571
Biological Systems and Drag 572
CHAPTER T E N Drag Coefficients of Vehicles 574
APPROXIMATE SOLUTIONS OF THE Superposition 577

NAVIER–STOKES EQUATION 471
10–1 Introduction 472
10–2 Nondimensionalized Equations
of Motion 473
10–3 The Creeping Flow Approximation
Drag on a Sphere in Creeping Flow 479
10–4 Approximation for Inviscid Regions
of Flow 481
Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation in Inviscid
Regions of Flow 482
10–5 The Irrotational Flow Approximation
Continuity Equation 485
Momentum Equation 487
Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation in Irrotational
Regions of Flow 487
Two-Dimensional Irrotational Regions of Flow 490
Superposition in Irrotational Regions of Flow 494
Elementary Planar Irrotational Flows 494
Irrotational Flows Formed by Superposition 501
11–5 Parallel Flow over Flat Plates 579
Friction Coefficient 580
11–6 Flow over Cylinders and Spheres 583
Effect of Surface Roughness 586
11–7 Lift 587
476
End Effects of Wing Tips 591
Lift Generated by Spinning 594
Application Spotlight: Drag Reduction 600
Summary 598
References and Suggested Reading 599
Problems 601
485
C H A P T E R T W ELVE
COMPRESSIBLE FLOW 611
12–1 Stagnation Properties 612
12–2 Speed of Sound and Mach Number 615
12–3 One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow 617
Variation of Fluid Velocity with Flow Area 620
Property Relations for Isentropic Flow of Ideal Gases 622
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FLUID MECHANICS

12–4 Isentropic Flow through Nozzles 624 Summary 723

References and Suggested Reading 724
Converging Nozzles 625 Problems 725
Converging–Diverging Nozzles 629
12–5 Shock Waves and Expansion Waves 633
Normal Shocks 633 CHAPTER FOURTEEN
Oblique Shocks 640
Prandtl–Meyer Expansion Waves 644 TURBOMACHINERY 735
12–6 Duct Flow with Heat Transfer and Negligible
14–1 Classifications and Terminology 736
Friction (Rayleigh Flow) 648
14–2 Pumps 738
Property Relations for Rayleigh Flow 654
Choked Rayleigh Flow 655 Pump Performance Curves and Matching a Pump
to a Piping System 739
12–7 Adiabatic Duct Flow with Friction Pump Cavitation and Net Positive Suction Head 745
(Fanno Flow) 657 Pumps in Series and Parallel 748
Property Relations for Fanno Flow 660 Positive-Displacement Pumps 751
Choked Fanno Flow 663 Dynamic Pumps 754
Centrifugal Pumps 754
Application Spotlight: Shock-Wave/ Axial Pumps 764
Boundary-Layer Interactions 667 14–3 Pump Scaling Laws 773
Summary 668
Dimensional Analysis 773
References and Suggested Reading 669
Pump Specific Speed 775
Problems 669
Affinity Laws 777
14–4 Turbines 781
CHAPTER THIRTEEN Positive-Displacement Turbines 782
Dynamic Turbines 782
OPEN-CHANNEL FLOW 679 Impulse Turbines 783
Reaction Turbines 785
13–1 Classification of Open-Channel Flows 680 14–5 Turbine Scaling Laws 795
Uniform and Varied Flows 680 Dimensionless Turbine Parameters 795
Laminar and Turbulent Flows in Channels 681 Turbine Specific Speed 797
13–2 Froude Number and Wave Speed 683 Gas and Steam Turbines 800

Speed of Surface Waves 685 Application Spotlight: Rotary Fuel

Atomizers 802
13–3 Specific Energy 687
Summary 803
13–4 Continuity and Energy Equations 690 References and Suggested Reading 803
13–5 Uniform Flow in Channels 691 Problems 804
Critical Uniform Flow 693
Superposition Method for Nonuniform Perimeters 693
13–6 Best Hydraulic Cross Sections 697 APPENDIX 1
Rectangular Channels 699
Trapezoidal Channels 699
PROPERTY TABLES AND CHARTS
13–7 Gradually Varied Flow 701 (SI UNITS) 817
Liquid Surface Profiles in Open Channels, y (x) 703 TABLE A–1 Molar Mass, Gas Constant, and
Some Representative Surface Profiles 706
Numerical Solution of Surface Profile 708
Ideal-Gas Specfic Heats of Some
Substances 818
13–8 Rapidly Varied Flow and Hydraulic Jump 709
TABLE A–2 Boiling and Freezing Point
13–9 Flow Control and Measurement 714 Properties 819
Underflow Gates 714 TABLE A–3 Properties of Saturated Water 820
Overflow Gates 716