Mordern Concept of Moksha

Project submitted to:

Dr. Uttam Kumar Panda
(Faculty of Sociology)

Project submitted by:

Nikhil Parthsarthi
Semester III
Section: A
Roll no. 91

Submitted On : 29/11/2018

HIDAYATULLAH NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY

UPARWARA, NEW RAIPUR, C.G.
 DECLARATION

I, Nikhil Parthsarthi, hereby declare that, the project work entitled, ‘Mordern Concept of Moksha’
submitted to H.N.L.U., Raipur is record of an original work done by me under the able guidance of
Dr. Uttam Kumar Panda , Faculty Member, H.N.L.U., Raipur.

Nikhil Parthsarthi

B.A.LLB(Hons.)

Roll No.91

IIIrd Semester
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First & foremost, I take this opportunity to thank Dr. Uttam Kumar Panda, Faculty,
Sociology, HNLU, for allotting me this topic to work on. He has been very kind in
providing inputs for this work, by way of suggestions.

I would also like to thank my parents, dear colleagues and friends in the University,
who have helped me with ideas about this work. I would also like to thank all the authors,
writers, columnists and social thinkers whose ideas and works have been made use of in the
completion of this project. Last, but not the least I thank the University Administration for
equipping the University with such good library and I.T. facilities, without which, no doubt
this work would not have taken this shape in correct time.

Nikhil Parthsarthi

Semester III SEC- A

Roll No. 91

B.A LLB(HONS.)
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction

Research Methodology

Objectives

1. Overview

 Definition and Meaning

 Moksha in eschatological sense

 Moksha in epistemological and psychological sense

 Moksha As a state of perfection

2. History

3. Evolution of the Concept of Moksha

4. Moksha in Hinduism

5. Moksha seen in the present time

6. Moksha in Buddhism

Conclusion

Reference
INTRODUCTION
Moksha (Sanskrit: मोक्ष, mokṣa), also called vimoksha, vimukti and mukti, is a term in Hinduism

and Hindu philosophy which refers to various forms of emancipation, liberation, and release. In

its soteriological and eschatological senses, it refers to freedom from saṃsāra, the cycle of death

and rebirth. In its epistemological and psychological senses, moksha refers to freedom from

ignorance: self-realization and self-knowledge.

In Hindu traditions, moksha is a central concept and included as one of the four aspects and goals

of human life; the other three goals are dharma(virtuous, proper, moral life), artha (material

prosperity, income security, means of life), and kama (pleasure, sensuality, emotional

fulfillment). Together, these four aims of life are called Puruṣārtha in Hinduism.

The concept of moksha is found in Jainism, Buddhism and Hinduism. In some schools of Indian

religions, moksha is considered equivalent to and used interchangeably with other terms such as

vimoksha, vimukti, kaivalya, apavarga, mukti, nihsreyasa and nirvana. However, terms such as

moksha and nirvana differ and mean different states between various schools of Hinduism,

Buddhism and Jainism. The term nirvana is more common in Buddhism, while moksha is more

prevalent in Hinduism.

•
 Research Methodology

It has focused on qualitative methods of research. Secondary and published documented data has

been collected through various sources and analyzed accordingly.

To make the study more meaningful and policy oriented available literature and studies have

been consulted and reviewed apart from this field observations and open ended discussion have

also been equally considered and incorporated in the present study. The filled in questionnaires

were thoroughly scrutinized and processed in computer for drawing out inferences, patterns,

trends and conclusions.

Various documents have been collected through different websites, and different books have

been analyzed accordingly, so as to reach to a particular conclusion.

Objectives

1. To know about Moksha.

2. To know about the modern concept of Moksha.

3. To study about its impact in society.

OVERVIEW

Moksha (Sanskrit: मोक्ष, mokṣa), also called vimoksha, vimukti and mukti, is a term in Hinduism

and Hindu philosophy which refers to various forms of emancipation, liberation, and release. In

its soteriological and eschatological senses, it refers to freedom from saṃsāra, the cycle of death

and rebirth. In its epistemological and psychological senses, moksha refers to freedom from

ignorance: self-realization and self-knowledge.

In Hindu traditions, moksha is a central concept and included as one of the four aspects and goals

of human life; the other three goals are dharma(virtuous, proper, moral life), artha (material

prosperity, income security, means of life), and kama (pleasure, sensuality, emotional

fulfillment). Together, these four aims of life are called Puruṣārtha in Hinduism.

The concept of moksha is found in Jainism, Buddhism and Hinduism. In some schools of Indian

religions, moksha is considered equivalent to and used interchangeably with other terms such as

vimoksha, vimukti, kaivalya, apavarga, mukti, nihsreyasa and nirvana. However, terms such as

moksha and nirvana differ and mean different states between various schools of Hinduism,

Buddhism and Jainism. The term nirvana is more common in Buddhism, while moksha is more

prevalent in Hinduism.

Moksha is derived from the root Sanskrit: मुच्, muc, which means free, let go, release, liberate. In

Vedas and early Upanishads, the word Sanskrit: मुच्यते , mucyate appears, which means to be set

free or release - such as of a horse from its harness.

Definition and meanings

The definition and meaning of moksha varies between various schools of Indian religions.

Moksha means freedom, liberation; from what and how is where the schools differ. Moksha is

also a concept that means liberation from rebirth or saṃsāra. This liberation can be attained

while one is on earth (jivanmukti), or eschatologically (karmamukti, videhamukti). Some Indian

traditions have emphasized liberation on concrete, ethical action within the world. This liberation

is an epistemological transformation that permits one to see the truth and reality behind the fog

of ignorance.

Moksha has been defined not merely as absence of suffering and release from bondage to

saṃsāra, various schools of Hinduism also explain the concept as presence of the state of

paripurna-brahmanubhava (the experience of oneness with Brahman, the One Supreme Self), a

state of knowledge, peace and bliss. For example, Vivekachudamani - an ancient book on

moksha, explains one of many meditative steps on the path to moksha, as:

जातत नीतत कुल गोत्र दू रगं

नाम रूप गु ण दोष वतजितम् |

दे श काल तवषया ततवतति यद्

ब्रह्म तत्त्वमति भाव यात्मतन ||२५४||

Beyond caste, creed, family or lineage,

That which is without name and form, beyond merit and demerit,
That which is beyond space, time and sense-objects,
You are that, God himself; Meditate this within yourself. ||Verse 254||
— Vivekachudamani, 8th Century AD

Moksha in eschatological sense

Moksha is a concept associated with saṃsāra (birth-rebirth cycle). Samsara originated with new

religious movements in the first millennium BCE. These new movements such as Buddhism,

Jainism and new schools within Hinduism, saw human life as bondage to a repeated process of

rebirth. This bondage to repeated rebirth and life, each life subject to injury, disease and aging,

was seen as a cycle of suffering. By release from this cycle, the suffering involved in this cycle

also ended. This release was called moksha, nirvana, kaivalya, mukti and other terms in various

Indian religious traditions.

Eschatological ideas evolved in Hinduism. In earliest Vedic literature, heaven and hell sufficed

soteriological curiosities. Over time, the ancient scholars observed that people vary in the quality

of virtuous or sinful life they lead, and began questioning how differences in each person’s

puṇya (merit, good deeds) or pāp (demerit, sin) as human beings affected their afterlife. This

question led to the conception of an afterlife where the person stayed in heaven or hell, in

proportion to their merit or demerit, then returned to earth and were reborn, the cycle continuing

indefinitely. The rebirth idea ultimately flowered into the ideas of saṃsāra, or transmigration -

where one’s balance sheet of karma determined one’s rebirth. Along with this idea of saṃsāra,

the ancient scholars developed the concept of moksha, as a state that released a person from the

saṃsāra cycle. Moksha release in eschatological sense in these ancient literature of Hinduism,

suggests van Buitenen, comes from self-knowledge and consciousness of oneness of supreme

soul.
Moksha in epistemological and psychological sense

The meaning of moksha in epistemological and psychological sense has been variously

explained by scholars. For example, according to Deutsche, moksha is transcendental

consciousness, the perfect state of being, of self-realization, of freedom and of "realizing the

whole universe as the Self".

Moksha in Hinduism, suggests Klaus Klostermaier, implies a setting free of hitherto fettered

faculties, a removing of obstacles to an unrestricted life, permitting a person to be more truly a

person in the full sense; the concept presumes an unused human potential of creativity,

compassion and understanding which had been blocked and shut out. Moksha is more than

liberation from life-rebirth cycle of suffering (samsara); Vedantic school separates this into two:

jivanmukti (liberation in this life) and videhamukti (liberation after death). Moksha in this life

includes psychological liberation from adhyasa (fears besetting one’s life) and avidya (ignorance

or anything that is not true knowledge).

Moksha as a state of perfection

Gajendra Moksha (pictured) is a symbolic tale in Vaishnavism. The elephant Gajendra enters a

lake where a crocodile Huhu clutches his leg and becomes his suffering. Despite his pain, he

constantly remembers God Vishnu. God liberates him. Gajendra symbolically represents man,

Huhu represents sins and the lake is saṃsāra.

Moksha is, in many schools of Hinduism according to Daniel Ingalls, a state of perfection. The

concept was seen as a natural goal beyond dharma.Moksha, in the Epics and ancient literature of
Hinduism, is seen as achievable by the same techniques necessary to practice dharma. Self-

discipline is the path to dharma, moksha is self-discipline that is so perfect that it becomes

unconscious, second nature. Dharma is thus a means to moksha.

Samkhya school of Hinduism, for example, suggests one of the paths to moksha is to magnify

one's sattvam. To magnify one's sattvam, one must develop oneself where one's sattvam becomes

one's instinctive nature. Dharma and moksha were thus understood by many schools of

Hinduism as two points of a single journey of life, a journey for which the viaticum was

discipline and self training. Over time, these ideas about moksha were challenged.

Nagarjuna’s challenge

Dharma and moksha, suggested Nagarjuna in the 2nd century, cannot be goals on the same

journey. He pointed to the differences between the world we live in, and the freedom implied in

the concept of moksha. They are so different that dharma and moksha could not be intellectually

related. Dharma requires worldly thought, moksha is unworldly understanding, a state of bliss.

How can the worldly thought process lead to unworldly understanding, asked Nagarjuna? Karl

Potter explains the answer to this challenge as one of context and framework, the emergence of

broader general principles of understanding from thought processes that are limited in one

framework.

Adi Shankara’s challenge

Adi Shankara in 8th century AD, like Nagarjuna earlier, examined the difference between the

world one lives in and moksha, a state of freedom and release one hopes for. Unlike Nagarjuna,

Shankara considers the characteristics between the two. The world one lives in requires action as

well as thought; our world, he suggests, is impossible without vyavahara (action and plurality).
The world is interconnected, one object works on another, input is transformed into output,

change is continuous and everywhere. Moksha, suggests Shankara, is that final perfect, blissful

state where there can be no change, where there can be no plurality of states. It has to be a state

of thought and consciousness that excludes action. How can action-oriented techniques by which

we attain the first three goals of man (kama, artha and dharma) be useful to attain the last goal,

namely moksha?

Scholars suggest Shankara’s challenge to the concept of moksha parallels those of Plotinus

against the Gnostics, with one important difference: Plotinus challenged Gnostics that they have

exchanged anthropocentric set of virtues with a theocentric set in pursuit of salvation; Shankara

challenged that the concept of moksha implied an exchange of anthropocentric set of virtues

(dharma) with a blissful state that has no need for values. Shankara goes on to suggest that

anthropocentric virtues suffice.

Vaisnavas challenge

Vaishnavism is one of the bhakti schools of Hinduism and devoted to the worship of God, that

sings his name, anoints his image or idol, and has many sub-schools. Vaishnavas suggest

thatdharma and moksha cannot be two different or sequential goals or states of life. Instead, they

suggest God should be kept in mind constantly to simultaneously achieve dharma and moksha,

so constantly that one comes to feel one cannot live without God’s loving presence. This school

emphasized love and adoration of God as the path to salvation and release (moksha), rather than

works and knowledge. Their focus became divine virtues, rather than anthropocentric virtues.

Daniel Ingalls calls Vaishnava’s position on moksha as similar to Christian position on salvation,

and the school whose views on dharma, karma and moksha dominated the initial impressions and

colonial era literature on Hinduism, through the works of Thibaut, Max Müller and others.
History

The concept of moksha appears much later in ancient Indian literature than the concept of

dharma. The proto-concept that first appears in the ancient Sanskrit verses and early Upanishads

ismucyate, which means freed, released. It is the middle and later Upanishads, such as the

Svetasvatara and Maitri, where the word moksha appears and begins becoming an important

concept.

Kathaka Upanishad, a middle Upanishadic era script dated to be about 2500 years old, is among

the earliest expositions about saṃsāra and moksha. In Book I, Section III, the legend of boy

Naciketa queries Yama, the lord of death to explain what causes saṃsāra and what leads to

liberation. Naciketa inquires: what causes sorrow? Yama explains that suffering and

saṃsāraresults from a life that is lived absent-mindedly, with impurity, with neither the use of

intelligence nor self-examination, where neither mind nor senses are guided by one’s atma (soul,

self).Liberation comes from a life lived with inner purity, alert mind, led by buddhi (reason,

intelligence), realization of the Supreme Self (purusha) who dwells in all beings. Kathaka

Upanishad asserts knowledge liberates, knowledge is freedom. Kathaka Upanishad also explains

the role of yoga in personal liberation, moksha.

Svetasvatara Upanishad, another middle era Upanishad written after Kathaka Upanishad, begins

with questions such as why is man born, what is the primal cause behind the universe, what

causes joy and sorrow in life? It then examines the various theories, that were then existing,
about saṃsāra and release from bondage. Svetasvatara claims bondage results from ignorance,

illusion or delusion; deliverance comes from knowledge. The Supreme Being dwells in every

being, he is the primal cause, he is the eternal law, he is the essence of everything, he is nature,

he is not a separate entity. Liberation comes to those who know Supreme Being is present as the

Universal Spirit and Principle, just as they know butter is present in milk. Such realization,

claims Svetasvatara, come from self-knowledge and self-discipline; and this knowledge and

realization is liberation from transmigration, the final goal of the Upanishad.

Evolution in the concept of mokṣa

Moksha concept, according to Daniel Ingalls, represented one of many expansions in Hindu

Vedic ideas of life and afterlife. In the Vedas, there were three stages of life: studentship,

householdship and retirement. During Upanishadic era, Hinduism expanded this to include a

fourth stage of life: complete abandonment. In Vedic literature, there are three modes of

experience: waking, dream and deep sleep. The Upanishadic era expanded it to include turiyam -

the stage beyond deep sleep. The Vedas suggest three goals of man: kama, artha and dharma. To

these, Upanishadic era added moksha.

The acceptance of concept of moksha in Hinduism was slow. Several schools of Hinduism

refused to recognize moksha for centuries, considered it irrelevant. The Mimamsa school, for

example, denied the goal and relevance of moksha well into the 8th century AD, till the arrival of

Mimamsa scholar named Kumarila. Instead of moksha, Mimamsa school of Hinduism

considered the concept of heaven as sufficient to answer the question: what lay beyond this

world after death. Other schools of Hinduism, over time, accepted the Moksha concept and

refined it over time.

It is unclear when core ideas of samsara and moksha were developed in ancient India. Patrick

Olivelle suggests these ideas likely originated with new religious movements in the first

millennium BCE. Mukti and moksha ideas, suggests J. A. B. van Buitenen, seem traceable to

yogis in Hinduism, with long hair, who chose to live on the fringes of society, given to self-

induced states of intoxication and ecstasy, possibly accepted as medicine-men and "sadhus" by

the ancient Indian society. Moksha to these early concept developers, was the abandonment of

the established order, not in favor of anarchy, but in favor of self-realization, to achieve release

from this world.

Mokṣa is a key concept in Yoga, where it is a state of “awakening”, liberation and freedom in

this life. In its historical development, the concept of moksha appears in three forms: Vedic,

yogic and bhakti forms. In Vedic period, moksha was ritualistic. Mokṣa was claimed to result

from properly completed rituals such as those before Agni - the fire deity. The significance of

these rituals was to reproduce and recite the cosmic creation event described in the Vedas; the

description of knowledge on different levels - adhilokam, adhibhutam, adhiyajnam, adhyatmam -

helped the individual transcend to moksa. Knowledge was the means, the ritual its application.

By middle to late Upanishadic period, the emphasis shifted to knowledge, and ritual activities

were considered irrelevant to attainment of moksha. Yogic moksha replaced Vedic rituals with

personal development and meditation, with hierarchical creation of the ultimate knowledge in

self as the path to moksha. Yogic moksha principles were accepted in many other schools of

Hinduism, albeit with differences. For example, Adi Shankara in his book on moksha suggests:

अर्ि स्य तनश्चयो दृष्टो तवचारे ण तितोक्तितः |

न स्नाने न न दाने न प्राणायमशतेन वा || १३ ||

By reflection, reasoning and instructions of teachers, the truth is known,

Not by ablutions, not by making donations, nor by performing hundreds of breath control exercises. ||

Verse 13 || — Vivekachudamani, 8th Century AD

Bhakti moksha created the third historical path, where neither rituals nor meditative self-

development were the way, rather it was inspired by constant love and contemplation of God,

where over time results a perfect union with God. Some Bhakti schools evolved their ideas

where God became the means and the end, transcending moksha; the fruit of bhakti is bhakti

itself. In the history of Indian religious traditions, additional ideas and paths to moksha beyond

these three, appeared over time.

Moksha, nirvana and kaivalya

The words moksha, nirvana (nibbana) and kaivalya are sometimes used synonymously, because

they all refer to the state that liberates a person from all causes of sorrow and suffering.

However, in modern era literature, these concepts have different premises in different religions.

Nirvana, a concept common in Buddhism, is a state of realization that there is no self (no soul)

and Emptiness; while moksha, a concept common in many schools of Hinduism, is acceptance of

Self (soul), realization of liberating knowledge, the consciousness of Oneness with Brahman, all

existence and understanding the whole universe as the Self. Nirvana starts with the premise that

there is no Self, moksha on the other hand, starts with the premise that everything is the Self;

there is no consciousness in the state of nirvana, but everything is One unified consciousness in

the state of moksha.

Kaivalya, a concept akin to moksha, rather than nirvana, is found in some schools of Hinduism

such as the Yoga school. Kaivalya is the realization of aloofness with liberating knowledge of

one’s self and union with the spiritual universe. For example, Patanjali’s Yoga Sutra suggests:

तस्य िे तुरतवद्या,

तदभावात्सं योगाभावो िानं तद् दृशे ः कैवल्यम् |

After the dissolution of avidya (ignorance),

comes removal of communion with material world,

this is the path to Kaivalyam.

— Yoga Sutra (Sadhana Pada),

Nirvana and moksha, in all traditions, represents a state of being in ultimate reality and

perfection, but described in a very different way. Some scholars, states Jayatilleke, assert that the

Nirvana of Buddhism is same as the Brahman in Hinduism, a view other scholars and he

disagree with. Buddhism rejects the idea of Brahman, and the metaphysical ideas about soul

(atman) are also rejected by Buddhism, while those ideas are essential to moksha in Hinduism. In

Buddhism, nirvana is 'blowing out' or 'extinction'. In Hinduism, moksha is 'identity or oneness

with Brahman'. Realization of anatta (anatman) is essential to Buddhist nirvana. Realization of

atman (atta) is essential to Hindu moksha.

Hinduism

Ancient literature of different schools of Hinduism sometimes use different phrases for moksha.

For example, Keval jnana or kaivalya ("state of Absolute"), Apavarga, Nihsreyasa,

Paramapada,Brahmabhava, Brahmajnana and Brahmi sthiti. Modern literature additionally uses

the Buddhist term nirvana interchangeably with moksha of Hinduism. There is difference
between these ideas, as explained elsewhere in this article, but they are all soteriological

concepts of various Indian religious traditions.

The six major orthodox schools of Hinduism have had a historic debate, and disagree over

whether moksha can be achieved in this life, or only after this life. Many of the 108 Upanishads

discuss amongst other things moksha. These discussions show the differences between the

schools of Hinduism, a lack of consensus, with a few attempting to conflate the contrasting

perspectives between various schools. For example, freedom and deliverance from birth-rebirth,

argues Maitrayana Upanishad, comes neither from the Vedanta school’s doctrine (the knowledge

of one’s own Self as the Supreme Soul) nor from the Samkhya school’s doctrine (distinction of

the Purusha from what one is not), but from Vedic studies, observance of the

Svadharma(personal duties), sticking to Asramas (stages of life).

The six major orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy offer the following views on moksha, each

for their own reasons: the Nyaya, Vaisesika and Mimamsa schools of Hinduism consider moksha

as possible only after death. Samkhya and Yoga schools consider moksha as possible in this life.

In Vedanta school, the Advaita sub-school concludes moksha is possible in this life, while Dvaita

and Visistadvaita sub-schools of Vedanta tradition believes that moksha is a continuous event,

one assisted by loving devotion to God, that extends from this life to post-mortem. Beyond these

six orthodox schools, some heterodox schools of Hindu tradition, such as Carvaka, deny there is

a soul or after life moksha.

Sāmkhya, Yoga and mokṣa

Both Sāmkhya and Yoga systems of religious thought are mokshaśāstras, suggests Knut

Jacobsen, they are systems of salvific liberation and release. Sāmkhya is a system of
interpretation, primarily a theory about the world. Yoga is both a theory and a practice. Yoga

gained wide acceptance in ancient India, its ideas and practices became part of many religious

schools in Hinduism, including those that were very different from Sāmkhya. The eight limbs of

yoga can be interpreted as a way to liberation (moksha).

In Sāmkhya literature, liberation is commonly referred to as kaivalya. In this school, kaivalya

means the realization of purusa, the principle of consciousness, as independent from mind and

body, as different from prakrti. Like many schools of Hinduism, in Sāmkhya and Yoga schools,

the emphasis is on the attainment of knowledge, vidyā or jñāna, as necessary for salvific

liberation, moksha. Yoga’s purpose is then seen as a means to remove the avidyā - that is,

ignorance or misleading/incorrect knowledge about one self and the universe. It seeks to end

ordinary reflexive awareness (cittavrtti nirodhah) with deeper, purer and holistic awareness

(asamprājñāta samādhi). Yoga, during the pursuit of moksha, encourages practice (abhyāsa) with

detachment (vairāgya), which over time leads to deep concentration (samādhi). Detachment

means withdrawal from outer world and calming of mind, while practice means the application

of effort over time. Such steps are claimed by Yoga school as leading to samādhi, a state of deep

awareness, release and bliss called kaivalya.

Rāja marga

Three of four paths of spirituality in Hinduism. Each path suggests a different way to moksha.

Yoga, or mārga, in Hinduism is widely classified into four spiritual practices. The first mārga is

Jñāna Yoga, the way of knowledge. The second mārga is Bhakti Yoga, the way of loving

devotion to God. The third mārga is Karma Yoga, the way of works. The fourth mārga is Rāja

Yoga, the way of contemplation and meditation. These mārgas are part of different schools in
Hinduism, and their definition and methods to moksha. For example, the Advaita Vedanta school

relies on Jñāna Yoga in its teachings of moksha.

Vedanta and mokṣa

The three main sub-schools in Vedanta school of Hinduism - Advaita Vedanta, Vishistadvaita

and Dvaita - each have their own views about moksha.

The Vedantic school of Hinduism suggests the first step towards mokṣa begins with

mumuksutva, that is desire of liberation. This takes the form of questions about self, what is true,

why do things or events make us happy or cause suffering, and so on. This longing for liberating

knowledge is assisted by, claims Adi Shankara of Advaita Vedanta, guru (teacher), study of

historical knowledge and viveka (critical thinking). Shankara cautions that the guru and historic

knowledge may be distorted, so traditions and historical assumptions must be questioned by the

individual seeking moksha. Those who are on their path to moksha (samnyasin), suggests Klaus

Klostermaier, are quintessentially free individuals, without craving for anything in the worldly

life, thus are neither dominated by, nor dominating anyone else.

Vivekachudamani, which literally means "Crown Jewel of Discriminatory Reasoning", is a book

devoted to moksa in Vedanta philosophy. It explains what behaviors and pursuits lead to

moksha, as well what actions and assumptions hinder moksha. The four essential conditions,

according to Vivekachudamani, before one can commence on the path of moksha include (1)

vivekah(discrimination, critical reasoning) between everlasting principles and fleeting world; (2)

viragah (indifference, lack of craving) for material rewards; (3) samah (calmness of mind), and

(4) damah(self restraint, temperance). The Brahmasutrabhasya adds to the above four
requirements, the following: uparati (lack of bias, dispassion), titiksa (endurance, patience),

sraddha (faith) andsamadhana (intentness, commitment).

The Advaita tradition considers moksha achievable by removing avidya (ignorance). Moksha is

seen as a final release from illusion, and through knowledge (anubhava) of one's own

fundamental nature, which is Satcitananda. Advaita holds there is no being/non-being distinction

between Atman, Brahman, and Paramatman. The knowledge of Brahman leads to moksha, where

Brahman is described as that which is the origin and end of all things, the universal principle

behind and at source of everything that exists, consciousness that pervades everything and

everyone. Advaita Vedanta emphasizes Jnana Yoga as the means of achieving moksha. Bliss,

claims this school, is the fruit of knowledge (vidya) and work (karma).

The Dvaita (dualism) traditions define moksha as the loving, eternal union with God (Vishnu)

and considered the highest perfection of existence. Dvaita schools suggest every soul encounters

liberation differently. Dualist schools (e.g. Vaishnava) see God as the object of love, for

example, a personified monotheistic conception of Shiva or Vishnu. By immersing oneself in the

love of God, one's karmas slough off, one's illusions decay, and truth is lived. Both the

worshiped and worshiper gradually lose their illusory sense of separation and only One beyond

all names remains. This is salvation to dualist schools of Hinduism. Dvaita Vedanta emphasizes

Bhakti Yoga as the means of achieving moksha.

The Vishistadvaita tradition, led by Ramanuja, defines avidya and moksha differently from the

Advaita tradition. To Ramanuja, avidya is a focus on Self, vidya is focus on a loving God.

Vishistadvaita school argues that other schools of Hinduism are creating a false sense of agency

in individuals, which makes the individual think oneself as potential or self-realized God. Such

ideas, claims Ramanuja, decay to materialism, hedonism and self worship. Individuals forget
Ishvara (God). Mukti, to Vishistadvaita school, is release from such avidya, towards the intuition

and eternal union with God (Vishnu).

Mokṣa in this life

Among the Samkhya, Yoga and Vedanta schools of Hinduism, liberation and freedom reached

within one’s life is referred to as jivanmukti, and the individual who has experienced this state is

called jivanmukta (self-realized person). Dozens of Upanishads, including those from middle

Upanishadic period, mention or describe the state of liberation, jivanmukti.[93][94] Some

contrastjivanmukti with videhamukti (moksha from samsara after death).[95] Jivanmukti is a

state that transforms the nature, attributes and behaviors of an individual, claim these ancient

texts of Hindu philosophy. For example, according to Naradaparivrajaka Upanishad, the

liberated individual shows attributes such as:

• he is not bothered by disrespect and endures cruel words, treats others with respect regardless

of how others treat him;

• when confronted by an angry person he does not return anger, instead replies with soft and kind

words;

• even if tortured, he speaks and trusts the truth;

• he does not crave for blessings or expect praise from others;

• he never injures or harms any life or being (ahimsa), he is intent in the welfare of all beings;
• he is as comfortable being alone as in the presence of others;

• he is as comfortable with a bowl, at the foot of a tree in tattered robe without help, as when he

is in a mithuna (union of mendicants), grama (village) and nagara (city);

• he doesn’t care about or wear ṣikha (tuft of hair on the back of head for religious reasons), nor

the holy thread across his body. To him, knowledge is sikha, knowledge is the holy thread,

knowledge alone is supreme. Outer appearances and rituals do not matter to him, only

knowledge matters;

• for him there is no invocation nor dismissal of deities, no mantra nor non-mantra, no

prostrations nor worship of gods, goddess or ancestors, nothing other than knowledge of Self;

• he is humble, high-spirited, of clear and steady mind, straightforward, compassionate, patient,

indifferent, courageous, speaks firmly and with sweet words.

Buddhism

In Buddhism the most common term for spiritual liberation is Nirvana (Pali: Nibbana). It literally

means “blowing out”, "quenching", or “becoming extinguished”. This Buddhist concept is

intimately tied as in later Hinduism and Jainism, states Steven Collins, to the ancient Indian idea

of the world of rebirth and redeath.

The attainment of nirvana in Buddhism is its ultimate spiritual goal, and refers to the state of a

being that ends the endless cycles of Dukkha and rebirths in the six realms of Saṃsāra

(Buddhism). It is part of the Four Noble Truths doctrine of Buddhism. The nirvana state has been
described in Buddhist texts in a manner similar to other Indian religions, as the state of complete

liberation, enlightenment, highest happiness, bliss, fearless, freedom, Dukkha-less, permanence,

non-dependent origination, unfathomable, indescribable. It has also been described as a state of

spiritual release marked by "emptiness" and realization of non-Self. Such descriptions, states

Peter Harvey, are contested by scholars because nirvana in Buddhism is ultimately described as a

state of "stopped consciousness (blown out), but one that is not non-existent", and "it seems

impossible to imagine what awareness devoid of any object would be like".

CONCLUSION

The concept of Moksha originated in India. The central idea behind the process of Moksha or

Mukti is the progression by which the soul is liberated from repeating the cycle of reincarnation

(death and re-birth). In this context, the soul becomes free from experiencing pain, suffering, and

any limitations involving one’s ‘worldly existence’. The now ‘enlightened’ soul is then able to

leave all concepts of ego, power, money, greed, and other earthly passions. It is this struggle of

balancing these ‘worldly experiences’ during our lives that can be quite the challenge in attaining

Moksha.
Many important journeys have been ignited by this quest for Moksha. But what does this all

mean to us in today’s world? Well, it shows us that people have always wondered what their

purpose in life is and how this purpose is achieved within reason and balance. To feel at peace

and harmony we need to feel love, joy, laughter, happiness and ultimately balance them with

feelings and experiences of pain and suffering. Although we would all like to eliminate pain and

suffering, without these emotions and experiences we can’t appreciate the positive ones.

Otherwise, life would be without meaning and we would not be able to strive to become better

human beings.

We can all strive towards Moksha in the form of self-development. By gaining the knowledge of

who we truly are; we are constantly improving on ourselves and reducing our negative attributes

that are limiting or blocking our abilities to feel secure, happy, loved and balanced.

REFERENCES

Websites Referred:

• http://mokshaconsulting.freehostia.com/wordpress/?p=58

• http://veda.wikidot.com/moksha
• http://iskconeducationalservices.org/HoH/concepts/100.htm

• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moksha