24VDC For Diploma

A Case Study of 24 VDC System
1. Introduction to Thermal Power Plants
The electricity has become an essential commodity rather
than luxury now a days. In a state or region thermal power stations will
become important, as hydro resource are inadequate. The concept of a
modern thermal station is that it should be situated at such a place that
the basic requirements of fuel, water and land should be satisfied.
Basically thermal stations are of two types.
1. Pit Head stations.
2. Load demand stations.
Pithead stations are those, which are nearer to the source of
fuel and demand station, are those, which are nearer to the load center.
The basic requirements of thermal power station are:
a. Supply of raw material at competitive cost.
b. Access to the markets for its products.
c. Labour force of the size and quantity required.
d. Means of disposal for any trade effluents that are by
products.
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The other factors to be considered for selecting the site are:
1. Load demand.
2. Land.
3. Site requirements.
4. Access for construction.
5. Transmission lines.
6. Clearances.
7. Environmental factors.
Generally 1000 MW plant requires 90 to 200 acre land. The
water requirements for thermal power stations come under main groups.
The first requirement is for steam generation and the second requirement
is for cooling purposes. Water for steam generation is low of the order of
3 to 4 tones per hour per megawatt, and make up quantity is 2 to 3% of the
same whereas amount of water required for condensation is quite high.
Coal for thermal power stations in India, the principle source of
commercial energy is amounting to 95% of the total primary energy
resources of the country. The coal resources existing in the country are of
the order of 1,30,000 million tons.
Principle of operation;
The fundamental forms of energy with which thermal stations
are principally concerned are heat and work. Heat produces work and this
work is further converted into electrical energy through a medium i.e.
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electrical generator. For the purpose of understanding of thermal plants,
the phenomenon of the thermodynamics vapour cycles explained below.
1. Rankine cycle.
2. Reheat cycle.
3. Regenerative cycle.
Rankine Cycle:
This is the simplest theoretical vapor cycle, which is the basis
for operation of a steam plant. Super heated steam from the boiler is fed
into the prime mover and is expanded there. After which it enters the
condenser emerging as condensate. With the help of a pump this
condensate is again fed into the boiler.
The main purpose of superheating steam and supplying it to
the prime movers is to avoid too much wetness at the end of expansion.
Moisture content of steam would result in undue blade erosion. The
maximum wetness in the final stage of steam that may be tolerated
without any appreciable harm to the turbine blades is about 12%. Also the
use of super heater in a boiler helps in reducing the stack temperature by
extracting heat from the flue gases before these are passed out of
chimney.
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Reheat cycle:
In its simplest form the cycle involve with drawing the steam
from the turbine at some intermediate stage, returning it to the steam
generator where a separate super heater is provided in the gas path for re
super heating the steam after which it is reintroduced into the turbine at
the following stage. It reduces the wetness of the steam at final stage and
improves the efficiency of the cycle.
Regenerative Cycle:
This cycle is an attempt to induce reversibility in the ordinary
Rankine cycle and thus to increase its efficiency. The mixing of cold
condensate with the saturated steam and water mixture in the boiler
constitute the principle irreversible process of the cycle and regeneration
aims at reducing this irreversibility by heating the fed water near to the
saturation temperature through the utilization of the heat of steam, which
is partially expanded in the prime mover. Since the purposes are the
thermal regeneration of condensate the cycle is known as regenerative.
Thermal power plant overview:
The Thermal power Plant consists of the following systems,
which comprise the whole setup as, listed below:
I. Air and gas flow system.
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II. Regenerative feed heating system.
III. Condensate system.
IV. Feed water system.
V. Water and steam circuits.
VI. Steam Turbine.
VII. Turbo Alternators.
VIII. Electrical Power Systems.
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I. AIR AND GAS FLOW SYSTEM
Two numbers axial reaction forced draught fans and two
numbers axial reaction primary air fans handle the total airflow through
the unit. The flue gases produced in the furnace due to combustion of fuel
is evaluated by two numbers radial double Induced Draught Fans.
a) Secondary Air System (Combustion Air):
The forced draught fans supply the required secondary air
for combustion. This air is pre heated by two in number rotary
regenerative tri sector type air heaters. The air heater out lets ducts are
inter connected to provide a balanced air flow to the furnace and also to
make it possible to operate the unit at reduced rating with one fan in
service. Control of secondary airflow is done by FD fan blade pitch control.
“Secondary air dampers” control the distribution of hot secondary air to
the wind box compartments. The “Furnace safe guard and supervisory
system” normally position these.
The two numbers of steam coil air pre heaters are located in
the by pass duct at FD fan outlet and are used to maintain the average
cold end temperature of the regenerative air heater elements to prevent
cold end erosion. During start up and low bred operation when all burners
are in service.
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The airfoil located in the hot secondary air duct measures the
airflow to wind box.
b) Primary Air system:
The cold primary air fans supply the air required for drying the coal
in the tube mills / mixing box and for transporting the pulverized fuel from
both ends of the tube mill to the coal burners. The primary air is heated in
the primary sectors of the rotary regenerative tri sector air heaters.
The primary air is transported as hot primary air and cold tampering
air in order to achieve the required hot air temperature at the mill inlet to
maintain the coal / air mixture temperature at the mill outlet. The control
for the primary air is achieved through PA fan inlet dampers. Control
dampers in the cold and hot air ducts are regulated to maintain the
required total primary airflow to each mill as well as the mill outlet
temperature. The total primary air through each mill end is further divided
as primary air through mill and by pass air.
The by pass airflows through the mixing box where pre drying
of raw coal takes place. The by pass air maintains the velocity of
pulverized coal / air mixture in the fuel pipes at all loads. The by pass air
quantity increases with decrease in load and vice versa. Airfoils are
provided for measuring mill air and annular venturies are provided for
measuring mill by pass airflow.
c) flue gas system.
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The flue gases produced in the furnace as a result of
combustion travels upward in the furnace, across the horizontal pass and
downward through the second pass of the boiler to the air pre heaters.
In the air heaters, the residual heat of the flue gas is utilized
to pre heat the secondary and primary air. The dust laden flue gases then
pass through the electrolytic precipitator for dust removal.
Two numbers of ID fans are provided to evacuate flue gases
to chimney. The ID fans are provided with variable frequency drive and
inlet damper control.
Inter connecting duct is provided at the outlet of ESP so that
the unit can be operated at reduced rating even with one ID fan in service.
The FD and ID fans are capable of maintaining balanced draft conditions in
the furnace over the entire load range of boiler.
II. REGENERATIVE FEED HEATING SYSTEM:
Description: Feed heating system consists of three low-
pressure heaters, gland steam condenser, drain cooler, deaerator and two
high pressure heaters. The condensate extraction pumps take suction from
condenser hot well and pump the condensate to deaerator through the
tube systems of gland steam condenser, drain coolers and low-pressure
heaters. Boiler feed pumps take suction from deaerator and pump the feed
water to boiler through high pressure heaters. The condensate / feed
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water gets heated up progressively by bled steam from turbine
extractions together with gland leak off steam.
The number of extraction from Turbine as follows:
i. From LP Cylinder: There are three extractions from LP Turbine
termed extraction numbers 1, 2 and 3.
ii. From IP Exhaust: There is one extraction from IP turbine termed
extraction number 4 and its connected to Deaerator.
iii. From IP Cylinder: There is one extraction IP turbine termed
extraction number 5 and it is connected to HP heater 5.
iv. From cold reheat: There is one extraction from CRH line termed
extraction number 6 and it is connected to HP heater 6.
LP Heaters 1,2 and 3 get heating steam from LP Turbine.
Hydraulic operated non-return valves are provided in extraction lines of LP
heaters 2 and 3 to prevent back flow of steam into the turbine during a
trip. Motorized block valves are provided in extraction lines for LPH 1, 2
and 3.
HP Heater 5 gets heating steam from IP turbine and HP
heater 6 from cold reheat line. Hydraulically operated non-return valve is
provided in extraction line to HPH-5. Motorized block valves are provided
for HPH-5 and 6.
Deaerator is designed to operate under variable pressure
between 50% to 100% load on turbine and during this range steam is drawn
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from turbine extraction i.e. , IP exhaust. During startup of turbine,
deaerator is provided with steam supply from cold reheat line as well as
external supply source i.e., auxiliary steam header.
III. CONDENSATE SYSTEM:
For extracting the condensate from condenser hot well and
feeding it into the cycle. Condensate pumps have been provided. Normally
two condensate extraction pumps are working while third pump is stand by.
Following systems are supplied condensate from condensate
pump discharge.
i. LP Bypass spray.
ii. Turbine Exhaust head spray.
iii. Turbine Flash Tank Spray.
iv. Chemical Dilution.
v. Condensate Pump sealing.
vi. Vacuum Breaker sealing.
vii. Valve Gland Sealing.
viii. Spray for wet steam washing.
ix. Auxiliary PRDS Spray.
Condensate from pumps passes through gland steam
condenser, drain cooler, low-pressure heaters 1,2 and 3 and finally to
deaerator.
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Normal cycle make up is added to condenser hot well through
make up control valve DM-2/DM-5 from hot well make up pumps. The
smaller valve (DM-2) shall cater for up to 5% make up supply and large
valve DM-5 shall be sized to provide 10% make up flow.
IV. FEED WATER SYSTEM:
For extracting the feed water from deaerator and feeding to
boiler variable speed boiler feed pumps have been provided. Normally two
pumps are working and third pump is stand by.
Following systems are supply feed water from boiler feed discharge
i. HP Bypass valve spray.
ii. Super heater and deaerator and reheater attemperation spray
feed water passes through HP Heaters 5 and 6, feed water
control station and finally to boiler economizer.
Feed control station is provided to regulate the feed flow
through boiler depending upon steam requirement and to maintain normal
water level in boiler drum at all loads.
1 x 30% low load feed control station (FCS) and 2x100% full
load feed control steam valves have been envisaged for the unit.
V. WATER AND STEAM CIRCUITS:
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Feed water is supplied to the steam drum form the
Economizer, through the economizer outlet links.
a. ECONOMISER:
The purpose of the Economizer is to pre heat the boiler feed
water before it is introduced into steam drum, and to recover some of the
heat from the flue gases leaving the boiler.
Feed water is supplied to the economizer inlet header via the
feed stock and check valves. The feed water flow is upward to the
economizer that is in counter flow to the hot flue gases. Most efficient
heat transfer is here by accomplished. Any difficulty with steam
generation within the economizer is eliminated by the up ward water flow.
From the outlet header the feed water is led to the drum via the
economizer outlet links.
The front and rear wall bottom headers feed the front and
rear furnace wall tubes. The furnace sidewalls are supplied by the two-
sidewall bottom headers. All the bottom headers are connected together
in the form of a ring. Some tubes of the furnace rear wall from the supply
of the extended sidewall inlet headers.
The external sidewall tubes terminate in the rear section of
the sidewall top headers. The water in the furnace walls. Front and rear
water walls and the extended sidewalls absorb heat. The resulting mixture
of water and steam is collected in the outlet headers and discharged into
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the steam drum through a series of riser tubes. In the steam drum
separation of water and steam takes place the drum internals reduce the
dissolved solid content of the steam to below accepted level. The boiler
water mixes with the incoming water. The saturated steam is led to the
super heater connecting tubes.
b. SUPER HEATER:
The super heater is composed of four basis stages or
sections: A pendent spaced section, a plates section, a rear horizontal
section, and the steam cooled wall and roof sections.
Passing through the various stages of super heaters, the
steam is super heated to the designed temperatures, from the super
heater outlet heater, the super heated steam is led to the turbine via the
main steam lines.
c. STEAM DRUM AND REHEATER:
The function of the steam drum is to separate water and
steam from the mixture generated in the furnace walls. The steam
purification primarily depends on the extent of the moisture removal, since
the moisture associated with it carries solids in steam.
After assign through the high-pressure stages of the turbine,
steam is returned to the reheater via the cold reheat lines. The reheat
lines de super heaters are located in the cold reheat lines.
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Reheat flow through the limit is as follows:
front pendant reheater –rear pendant reheater – After being
reheated to the designed temperature, the reheated steam is returned to
the low pressure section of the turbine via the hot reheats line.
VI. STEAM TURBINE:
The turbine is a compound, critical machine with HP, IP and LP
parts. The HP and IP parts are single flow cylinders and LP part is a double
flow cylinder. The individual turbine rotors and the generator rotor are
connected by rigid couplings.
The HP Turbine has been constructed for throttle control
governing. The steam is admitted before the backing by two combined main
steam stop and control valves. The line leading from the HP exhaust going
to the reheater is provided with swing check valve which prevent hot
steam from the reheater flowing back into the LP Turbine.
The steam coming from the reheater is passed to the IP
Turbine via two combined reheat stop and control valves. Coils around pipes
connect the IP and LP cylinders. Bleeds are arranged at several points of
the turbine.
a) HP TURBINE:
The outer casing of the HP turbine is of the barrel type and
has neither an axial nor a radial flange. This prevents mass accumulations
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with high thermal stresses. The almost perfect rational symmetry permits
moderate wall thickness of nearly equal strength at all sections. The inner
casing axially split and kinematically supported. As the pressure difference
across the wall of inner casing is low the horizontal flange and connection
bolts can be kept small. The barrel type casing permits flexibility of
operation in the form of short startup times and a high rate of change of
load even at high initial steam conditions.
b) IP TURBINE:
The IP turbine is a single flow construction attached in the
axially split outer casing in an inner casing supported kinematically and
taking the guide blades. The reheated staem admitted to the inner casing
through the top and bottom of the casing. The arrangement of the inner
casing confines the high steam inlet conditions to the admission branch of
the casing, while the joint of outer casing is subjected to the lower
pressure and lower temperature at the exhaust of inner casing.
c) LP TURBINE:
The casing of the double flow LP turbine is of three-shell
design. The shells are axially split and of rigid holded construction. The
inner shell taking the first rows of guide blades is attached kinematically
in the middle shell, independent of the outer shell. The middle shell is
supported at four points on longitudinal beams. Three rings carrying the
last guide blade rows are also attached to the middle shell.
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VII. TURBO ALTERNATORS:
Basic principle of electrical power generation is from
Faraday’s laws. It says that when a conductor rotates in a magnetic field,
the e.m.f will be induced in a conductor and is proportional to the rate of
change of flux line cut by the conductor and capacity of the magnetic
filed. For higher capacities of the generation vice versa principle used. I.e.,
the conductors of the place constantly (stator) and the magnetic field will
be rotating (rotor). Magnetic field obtained from a separate system called
an excitation system.
Excitation system is classified into two type i.e., static
excitation and brush less excitation. Magnetic field will be generated in
rotor circuit and to obtain the rate of change of flux lines, the rotor will
be rotated by a steam turbine constant speed.
The speed of the turbine is determined by the frequency of
the system used in the country i.e., 50 Hz, proportional to the speed of the
turbine is 3000 rpm, and at this speed a two pole generator must be driven
to generate alternating current at a frequency of 50 cycles per second.
VIII. ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEMS:
Electrical power is usually produces in the stator windings of
large, modern generators at about 15.75 KV and is fed through terminal
connections to one side of a generator transformer step up the voltage to
220 Kv and transmitted. Now a days transmission is carried out even with a
high voltage of 400 Kv. Increasing of the transmission voltage reduces the
line losses and increases the efficiency of the over all system
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2. Necessity of DC Supply in Thermal Power Plants
1. 24 VDC System:
Digital Distribution Control (DDC-Pro Control system) is an
integrated overall control and monitoring system and is capable to perform
all tasks, which are required to control the power plant process manually or
automatically.
Distributed Digital control is the decentralized supervision &
controlling of thermal Power Plant equipments and various parts. This DDC
system is working on 24V DC supply, which is supplying by 24V charges.
Without 24V DC supply, the plant equipment mainly Boiler,
Turbine and Generator cannot be controlled, operated or safety shutdown.
Two numbers of charges namely float cum boost chargers. i.e.
I and II work in parallel and provide for hot redundancy. The battery
banks 2165Ah & 1640Ah are also connected in parallel with these chargers.
The above combination is connected to 24 V DCDB.
Each digitally distributed process control panel gets two 24v
DC supply – feeders – from DCDB namely USA & USB. These two supplies
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work in redundancy. On failure of one supply, the load will be shared by
other supply. The healthiness of 24v DC supply for over voltage and under
voltage is supervised by on XT - 377 electronic modules in DDC panel.
The following sequence of events occurred when 24V supply fails:
1. No LED indication on BTG Desk including TSE and no alarm either
persists or will come.
2. Boiler Trips on loss of 24VDC supply.
3. Turbine also trips on loss of 24 VDC supply.
4. Generator Breaker trips on Reverse Power Relay.
5. Turbine lub oil pumps will not start on quote.
6. Field devices viz. Transmitters, pressure switches, temp. Switches
and solenoid valves etc will not work.
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4. Introduction to Batteries
What is Battery?
A Battery is a device that converts the chemical energy
contained in its active materials directly into electric energy by means of
an electro chemical oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction. While the term
“Battery” is often used, the basic electrochemical unit being referred to is
the “cell”.
A battery consists of one or more electrochemical cells.
Although the term battery and cells are often used interchangeably, cells
are the building blocks of which batteries are constructed. Batteries
consist of one or more cells that are electrically connected.
Components of a Battery Cell:
A cell normally consists of four principal components, these are:
 A positive electrode that receives electrons from the external
circuit when the cell is discharged.
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 A negative electrode that donates electrons to the external
circuit as the cell discharges.
 Electrolyte, which provides a mechanism for charge to flow
between positive and negative electrodes.
 A separator, which electrically isolates the positive and
negative electrodes.
Voltage and Capacity of A battery cell:
a) Cell voltage: -
The voltage of battery / cell is determined by the materials
used in it. The reduction and oxidation reactions mentioned earlier each
produce a fixed potential. The sum of the reduction and oxidation
potentials is the voltage of the cell. For example, the discharge reaction at
the positive electrode for a Nickel – Cadmium cell is NiOOH  Ni (OH) 2
which has potential of 0.5 volts. The reaction at the negative electrode is
Cd  cd (OH) 2, which has a potential 0.8 volts. This means that the overall
voltage of Nickel-Cadmium cell is 1.3 Volts. In fact losses within the cell
make the actual voltage of a Nickel-Cadmium cell more like 1.2 Volts.
Thus the voltage of any battery / cell is established
depending on the cell chemistry. Nickel-cadmium cells are about 1.2 volt,
Lead acid cells are about 2.0 Volts, and Lithium cells may be as high as
nearly 4.0 volts. Cells can be connected together so that their voltage
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adds. This means Nickel-Cadmium batteries of 2.4, 3.6, 4.8 volts are
possible, but batteries of 2,3, or 4 volt are not.
While the voltage of a cell is fixed by its cell chemistry, the
capacity is variable depending on the quantity of active materials it
contains. Individual cells may range in capacity from fractions of an
ampere-hour to many thousands of ampere-hours.
The capacity of a cell is essentially the number of electrons
that can be obtained from it. Since current is the number of electrons per
unit time, cell capacity is the current supplied by a cell over time and is
normally measured in ampere-hours.
How a cell Works? (Electrochemical Operation of a cell): -
When a battery or a cell is inserted into a circuit, it
completes a loop, which allows charge to flow uniformly around the circuit.
In the external part of the circuit, the charge flows in the form of ions
that are transported from one electrode to the other. As mentioned
above, the positive electrode receives electrons from the external circuit
on discharge. These electrons then react with the active materials of the
positive electrode in reduction reactions that continue the flow of charge
through the electrolyte to the negative electrode. At the negative
electrode, oxidation reactions between the active materials of the
negative electrode and the charge flowing thorough the electrolyte result
in surplus electrons that can be donated to the external circuit.
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It is important to note that the system is closed. For every
electron generated in an oxidation reaction at the negative electrode,
there is an electron consumed in a reduction at the positive.
As the process continues, the active materials become
depleted and the reactions slow down until the battery is no longer capable
of supplying electrons. At this point the battery is discharged.
electrical Connections in a Battery:
Batteries normally consist of multiple cells that are
electrically connected. The way that the electrical connections are made
determines the voltage and capacity of the battery. If the positive
terminal of one cell is connected to the negative terminal of the next and
so on through the battery, the result is called a series connected battery.
The other way to connect cells within a battery is to connect
the negative terminal from one cell to the negative of the next cell and to
connect the positive terminals to the positive terminal. When this is done
throughout the battery, the result is the parallel-connected battery.
Here the capacities of the individual cells add to make the
battery capacity, but the battery voltage remains as the voltage of the
individual cell.
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5. SMF-VRLA Battery
The development of the Sealed Maintenance Free Valve
Regulated lead Acid battery design is based on the finding that the
positive electrode accepts the charge less efficiency than the negative.
Under typical charging conditions, Oxygen evolution at the positive plates
peaks at charge AH to Discharge AH ratio of approximately 0.94, whereas
the rate of hydrogen evolution at the negative reaches a maximum at the
value of 1.0.
Considering this fact, if the oxygen evolved at the positive
plate is made to diffuse through the electrolyte and made to reduce at the
negative electrode, the hydrogen evolution can be suppressed. In this way,
oxygen evolved during charging recombines at the negative that
consequently never becomes fully charged, there by eliminating gassing.
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forcing the oxygen gas to diffuse to the negative instead of
bubbling to the top, as in flooded cells, is achieved by immobilizing the
electrode. The electrolyte can be immobilized either as a Gel or in an
Absorbent Glass Mat (AGM). In both cases oxygen transportation occurs in
the gas phase. The gelled electrolyte develops a fissured structure
permitting the horizontal movement of oxygen whereas in the AGM design
the separator is not saturated with electrolyte and there are voids to
allow the passage for oxygen.
The separator is highly absorbent glass man type with
porosity designed to have pore volume in excess of electrolyte volume
(starved electrolyte design) due to which the oxygen gas finds an
unimpeded path to the negative plate turning a part of it in to a partially
designed condition. There by effectively suppressing the hydrogen gas
evolution at the negative plate. This is what is known as the “Oxygen
recombination Principle”
The part of negative plate which was partially discharged is
then reverted to original spongy lead by subsequent charging, thus a
negative plate keeps equilibrium between the amount which turns into
sponge lead by charging and the amount of spongy lead which turns into
Lead Sulphate by observing the oxygen gas generated at the positive plate.
The oxygen recombination principle can be shown by the following reaction
mechanism.
1) Reaction at positive plat:
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H2O -------- ½ O2 + 2H
2) Reaction at negative plate:
Pb +1/2 O2 --------------- PbO
PbO +H2SO4--------------------PbSO4 + H2O
PbSO4---------------------2H+ 2e - +Pb + H2SO4
From the above equation it can be seen that the reaction is
reversible and based on which the lead acid battery is classified as
secondary battery which can give number of discharge and charge cycles.
During discharge the lead dioxide in positive plate and spongy
lead in negative plate react with the sulfuric acid in the electrolyte to
form lead sulphate both in positive and negative plates and water in the
electrolyte.
So during discharge the lead dioxide and spongy lead react
with sulfuric avid in the electrolyte and gradually transform into lead
sulphate the sulphuric acid concentration decreases in the electrolyte due
to the depletion of sulphate ions to the positive and negative plates.
Conversely, when the battery is charged the positive and
negative materials. Which have been turned into lead sulphate, gradually
revert to lead dioxide and spongy lead respectively. Releasing sulphuric
acid engulfed in the active materials during which the sulphuric acid
concentration increase.
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When the battery charging approaches its final stages the
charging current is consumed solely for electrolyte decomposition of water
in the electrolyte resulting in generation of oxygen gas from positive plate
and hydrogen gas from negate vive plate. The generated gas released our
said the battery causing a decrease of the electrolyte quantity in the
battery. Hence the battery needs to be replenished with the water. This is
the common phenomenon observed in all the conventional flooded type lead
acid batteries requiring constant monitoring and maintenance of the
battery. In order to overcome this phenomenon of replenishment with
water the maintenance free valve regulated lead acid battery (VRLA) has
bee developed. Which needs no replenishments with water at all during its
entire life period of operation and has got several other advantages both
constructional and performance wise.
2.25V PER CELL AT FLOAT CHARGE:
During float mode the potential is to be maintained at 2.25V
per cell at 270C at the current limited to 0.2 C. This voltage and the
resultant current will construct the self-discharge and the battery will be
maintained in a fully charged condition. This made of charging is used in
float application that has very infrequent discharges and has sufficient
time for recharge before the next discharge.
Boost Charge:
At boost mode, the potential in maintained at 2.30 V per cell
with current limited to 0.2 C. This is given only for short durations to avoid
over charge. This mode of charging is used in cyclic application where fast
charging is to be done. A boost charge is recommended when the individual
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cell voltages of a battery differ by more than 0.05V in the open circuit
condition. The boost charge will stabilize and equalize their voltages
MOUNTING LAY OUT OF MAINTENANCE FREE VALVE
REGULATED LEAD ACID BATTERY BANK
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DEFINITIONS
Cell : The minimum unit of which a battery is composed,
consisting of positive and negative plates,
separators, electrolytes, etc. In valve regulated had
acid batteries, normal, voltage is 2 volts per cell.
Battery : one or more cells connected to form one – unit and
having provision for external connections.
MF – Battery: A battery, which during its specified working life
needs, no maintenance other than charging, provided
normal operating conditions are experienced.
Float Charge: A parallel connection of charger, battery and load
where the charger generally supplies the de load and
maintain the battery is a charged state.
Boost Charge: A charge, generally at high rate for a short period.
Ampere Hour: Current multiplied by time. Used to indicate the
capacity of a battery.
Ampere hour efficiency: The ratio of the number of ampere hours
delivered during the discharge of a cell or battery
to the number of ampere hours necessary to restore
the initial state of charge under specified conditions
of temperature, current and final voltage.
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Anode: The electrode by which electrons leave a cell and on
which electrochemical oxidation takes place.
7. 24 VDC System at KTPS-V Stage
24 VDC Power system is designed to cater the need of 100%
redundant no break DC supply to the load. Further system caters the need
of battery charging & trickle charging. Redundancy is achieved by
designing the system in such a way that even if anyone of the charger or
any two of four sections of Auxiliary Cubicle any two of the "battery fails,
it is possible to isolate the faulty one from the main system for
maintenance' and still feed the DC supply to the load.
The Charger is designed to float charge SMF cells at the
terminal voltage of 2.25V I cell i.e. at 27 V and simultaneously supply the
DC load. In charge mode the charger can charge the battery sets each of
12 V SMF cells of capacity 1640AH & 2165AH up to the terminal voltage of
2.35V I cell i.e. 28.2 volts. The charging current limit in battery paths is
adjustable between 100A to 4OOA.
The Charger unit derives power from 3 -Phase 415V, 50Hz,
AC supply, for 24 Volts DC system. Both chargers gives a continues DC
regulated supply of 27 Volts. The charger output voltage can be adjusted
by means of potentiometer. In both float as well as charge mode, range of
adjustment of output voltage is given in the technical specification.
The out put of each charger is controlled by an respective
electronic circuit and then the smooth DC out put goes to the Auxiliary
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cubical through MCCB 1000A & 800A (which is fitted in Aux. Cubicle). All
out going DC terminations & distribution to the respective dual DCDB (600
& 800A) and Cattery (1640AH &. 2165 AH) from respective charger are
provided in the Auxiliary cubicle.
The 800Amps output of both Charger 1 & Charger 2 is given
to the section 1 & section2 respectively of Dual DCDB 8O0Amps through
Auxiliary cubicle. Foe each section 800A MCCB is provided at input side.
Bus coupler MCCB of 800A is also provided between two sections for
achieving the redundancy in the 24 Vdc supply on load side.
The 600Amps output of both Charger 1 & Charger 2 is given
to the section 1 & section 2 respectively of Dual DCDB 6O0Amps through
Auxiliary cubicle. Foe each section 600A MCCB is provided at input side.
Bus coupler MCCB of 600A is also provided between two sections for
achieving the redundancy in the 24 Vdc supply on load side.
32
TECHNICAL SPECIFICATION
33
1 Type of Charger : Float Cum boost Charger

2 Rated AC Input : 415V, +/- 10 %, 50Hz +/- 5 %, 3 Wire.
3. Rated DC Output :
Float Mode : 27V (Adjustable from 24 to 28V)
Charge mode : 28.2V (Adjustable from 24 to 30V)
4. Rated Output current : 1785 Amps
5. Rating Class : " A " (100% Continues)
(As per IS 4540)

6. Current limit : 110 %
a) Current limit at : From 80% to 110 %
b) Continuously adjustable :
7. Class of Insulation :
employed for
a) Rectifier Transformer : Class – “B”
b) Smoothing Reactors : Class – “B”
c) Rectifier Assembly : Class – “B”
8. Maximum permissible
temperature
a) Rectifier Transformer : 700C
b) Smoothing Reactors : 700C
c) Rectifier Assembly : SCR - 50 °C & Diode - 70 °C
9. Transformer Details :
a) Input (Primary) : 1) For T1: Delta
2) For T2: Star
b) Output (Secondary) : 1) For T1. Double Star
2) For T2. Double Star
c) Rated KVA : 69 KVA equally distributed In T1 & T2
each of 34.5 KVA

d) Impedance : 5%
e) Over load Capacity & : 10 %
rating
f) 1 Min. Power freq. : 2.5 KV
withstand voltage
g) Whether Single I Double : Double wound
wound
h) Method of cooling : Forced Air Cooling
34
10. Whether Automatic Yes
Voltage. Regulation is
6ffered
11. Method of voltage control Potentiometric Control
12. Whether any safety device Soft start feature prevents the
provided output voltage to rise during starting.
The feedback control system keeps
the output voltage within limits.
Bleeder resistance is also provided.

13. Guaranteed efficiency at : Better than 8%
rated load
14. P.F. at rated current : 0.8 at 415V AC Input Voltage
15. Equipment reactance Approx. 5 %
16. a) Type of rectifier cell : Silicon
b) Cooling method : Force Cooling
17. Whether smoothening : Yes
filter provided
18. Ripple Current at rated : a) With Battery: - 1 % RMS
load b) Without battery: - 1 % RMS
19. Battery Charger control :
panel
a) Sheet thickness : 14 Swg. (2 mm)
b) Approx. weight : 1650 Kgs.
c) Dimensions :
i) Height : 2430 mm
ii) Depth : 1200 mm
iii) Width : 1500 mm
20 Instruments provided on : AC /DC Voltmeter, DC Ammeter
charger panel current & Voltage transducers, Timer

21. Class of accuracy : Class 1 (1 %) for meters & 0.5 % for
transducers
22. Audio alarms with indication in charger panel
35
LH.S. Of the panel
a) AC Input Fuse Fail
b) Input Mains Fail
c) Input Phase Fail
d) Rectifier Fuse Fail
e) Free Wheeling Diode Fuse Fail
f) Smoothening Condenser Fuse Fail
RH.S. Of the panel
g) Charger Fail! System on Battery Operation
h) Charger Over Loaded
I) Inside Cubicle Temperature High
j) Redundant Fan Fail
k) Receive Attention
I) Spare
m) Spare
23. Indications provided in charger panel
a) Input AC ON
b) Input Contactor ON
c) Float mode
d) Charge mode
e) Receive Attention
36
24 Whether-output-MCCBs : Yes 3 pole MCCBs are provided in
are provided" for charger Auxiliary cubicle
25. Audio alarm with indication provided in Auxiliary cubicle for each
charger.
L.H.S. of the panel for Charger
a) System on Battery'1 (1640 AH)
b) System on Battery 1 (2165 AH)
c) High: Output DC Voltage DCDB1 (6ODA)
d) Low DC Output Voltage DCDB1 (600A)
e) High DC Output Voltage DCDB1 (800A)
f) Low' DC Output Voltage DCDB 1 (800A)
g) Earth Leakage in + Ve path of Batt.1 (1640 AH)
h) Earth Leakage in - Ve path of Batt. 1 (1640 AH)
I) Earth Leakage in + Ve path of Batt. 1 (2165 AH)
j) Earth Leakage in - Ve path of .Batt. 1 (2165 AH)
k) Output MCCB1 Trip ( 800 A )
I) Output MCCB2 Trip (1000A)
m) Receive Attention
RH.S. of the panel Charger II
a) System on Battery 2 (1640 AH)
b) System on Battery 2 (2165 AH)
c) High Output DC Voltage DCDB2 (600A)
d) Low DC Output Voltage DCDB2 (GOOA)
e) High- -DC- -Output Voltage DCDB2 (800A)
f) Low DC Output Voltage OCDB2 (800A)
37
g) Earth Leakage in + Ve path of Batt. 2 (1640 AH)
h) Earth leakage in - Ve path of Batt. 2 (1640 AH)
I) Earth Leakage in + Ve path of Batt. 2 (2165 AH)
j) Earth Leakage in - Ve path of Batt. 2 (2165 AH)
k) Output MCCB1 Trip (800 A)
I) Output MCCB2 Trip (1000A)
m) Receive Attention
26 Indications provided in : Receive Attention in both chargers
Auxiliary cubicle section
27. Instruments provided in : Charge / Discharge Ammeter in each
Auxiliary cubicle battery path
Auxiliary cubicle
28. Class of Accuracy : Class 1 (1 %)
38
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF CIRCUIT
Circuit diagram of each identical Charger 24 V /1785 Amps is
divided in to three parts as follows.
1. Power circuit (XE 2440 A2)
2. Control circuit (XE 2441 A1)
3. Alarm and Annunciation circuit. (XE 2442 A2)
I. POWER CIRCUIT (XE 2440A21)
The charger derives power from the 415 Volts, 3- Phase, 50 Hz
AC mains. Isolation switch SW 3 with fuses F1, F2, F3 are provided at input
side for protection. AC voltmeter with voltmeter selector switch is provided
for measurement of voltages between different phases.
The incoming 3- Phase, 415 V AC supply is stepped down by means
of two double wound transformers T1 (  - Y Y) and T2 (Y - Y Y) and six
phase output of each transformers secondary is rectified by Thyrister
controlled bridge & IPTs. Free wheeling diode is provided in out .put circuit.
Further each thyrister is protected for short circuit and hole storage
transient effects by means of fuses & metal oxide variators (M0Vs).
Transient coming from the AC supply are suppressed by MOVs at the primary
and secondary side of the transformers T1 & T2.
Filter choke (L) & Capacitor banks (C1 & C2) are provided to
39
filter rectified DC out put of the charger to get smooth DC out put .
Capacitor banks are protected from fault current by filter capacitor fuses
(F23 & F24). Bleeder resistor (RB) is included in circuit to ensure proper
triggering of the thyrister at light load. Shunt I ammeter and voltmeter are
provided at the out put side to measure current and voltage respectively.
Voltage & current transducers are provided at the out put side of each
charger for feeding voltage & current signals to the DAS system.
The output of each charger is controlled by an respective
electronic circuit and then the smooth DC out put goes to the Auxiliary
cubical. All out going DC termination's & distribution to the respective Dual
DCDB ( 600A & 800A) and Battery ( 1640AH & 2165 AH ) from respective
charger are provided in the Auxiliary cubicle.
II. CONTROL CIRCUIT (XE 2441 A1)
DC out put of the each charger is controlled by AC phase control
technique with the help of SCR and voltage & current feedback, Voltage
feedback comes from the voltage divider network This divider continuously
monitoring the DC out put voltage & feeds voltage signal to the amplifier card.
Transformer T6 is a power supply transformer for the control
circuit. Secondary of this transformer is, rectified by two separate diode
bridge then rectified out put is supplied to power supply. to supply 15 V DC
out put to various control circuits like current limit card and amplifier card.
40
Transformer T3, T4, T5 and T7, T8, T9 are used to generate
synchronized triggering pulses for firing. Card II & I respectively for
triggering scraps. A 12-pulse drive unit with 12 single pulse control is used for
12 thyristors.
The control circuit consists of following cards.
a) Power supply card (XA 760 C)
This circuit provided j: 15 V DC supply to various control circuits.
Its output is 200 mA. & It is protected from over load by current limit
circuit. The feedback system used in the equipment gives rise to overshoots
and undershoots for step changes in either the input voltages or load .It has
been observed that if overshoot is limited to' about 5% of the voltage
without floating battery, satisfactory results are obtained.
b) Firing card (XA 526/ 2)
Two firing cards I & II are used in this circuit to trigger 12
SCRs in bridge. Each firing card triggers 6 SCRs. Synchronizing transformers
T3, T4, T5 and T7, T8, T9 used for synchronization of AC voltage with
respective firing cards.
Working of PCB XA 526 C:
The drive unit is constructed with three ICs (IC2, IC3, and IC4)
41
in each control unit. A 15 Volts DC supply is required to operate the drive
units.
The synchronized AC voltage for R phase is connected to pin no.
5 of IC TCA 785 (IC2) through resistor R5 & to ground potential via two
back-to-back diodes 08 & 09. Pin no. 1 is the common ground point. Similarly
for Y & B phases’ synchronized voltage is taken to pin no. 5 of IC3 & IC4
through resistors R10 & R15 respectively.
A saw tooth amplitude of 8Volts Is determined by ramp
capacitor C5 & ramp resistor R6 & potentiometer PR 1. The RC combination C5
& R6 thus determines the slope of the voltage rise- of the ramp voltage at pin
10 of IC2. Every ramp begins a zero crossing of the synchronization voltage &
ends at the next with the discharge of the ramp capacitor C5 caused by an
Internal circuit in the IC.
The controlled DC voltage at pin no. 11 of IC2 can be varied-
between 0.8 to 8 volts. The control voltage is compared with 1he ramp voltage
and the respective output- pulses of the trigger angles are started.
Two outputs from pin no. 15 & 14 of IC2 are taken to transistor
TR3 & TR4 "pulse transformers PCB XA 527. Pin no. 15 of IC2 delivers pulse
only in the +ve half waves and pin no. 14 of1C2 delivers pulse in -ve half waves.
Output pulses taken from pin no. 15 and 14. of each of the three TCA 785 IC
at 1200 interval and fed to- the primary of the pulse transformer; Respective
42
thyristors gate receive the bigger pulse from the secondary winding of the
pulse transformer. For three phases’ les IC2, IC3 & IC4 are used.
The control voltage can be adjusted between 0 to 8 volts. When
the +ve going saw tooth voltage reaches the control voltage value (at pin no.
11) a trigger pulse is enabled at IC2 output at pin 15. The more +ve the control
voltage, longer the saw tooth voltage takes to reach the point at which the
thyrister is triggered. Thus the pulse can be shifted in time by control
voltage and the conduction angle is adjustable at the load.
c) Amplifier card ( XA 375 0 )
Negative reference voltage from zener OZ1 and the voltage-
sensing signal from the voltage divider R21, R22, RV3, RV4, R14.R15 is given to
the inverting input of the error detector amplifier IC1. Output of IC2 is fed
to IC1 through an OR gate formed by diode 02 & 046 by the voltage divider
network.
If the inverting input of IC1 tends to rise due to an increase in
the output voltage or charging current or total current during charging I the
output of IC, which is given to the pin no. 1 of firing card decreases. The
charging current of C1 reduces, leading to an increase in the value of the
firing angle of the SCR1. The C9 - R36 combination forms a soft start ckt. So
that, the output voltage builds up slowly when the unit is switched ON.
d) Current limit & over load card (XA 243 D)
43
This card contains OPAMP, which senses the milli volt drop
across the shunt SH1 which measures total out put current of the charger.
This milli volt drop is directly proportional to the total current" The bleeder
cut helps in the reduction of power consumption and also in reducing inside
ambient temperature of the unit.
The circuit works as follows
The output of the IC1 is given through DZ1 to the transistor TR3
in the current limit card. When the output of the OPAMP IC1 is small, the
transistor TR3 is in full conducting state. When the output voltage of the
OPAMP IC1 increases, the emitter voltage of TR3 also increases & it switch
ON the sensing circuit, which operates a relay BC1 is connected in series with
the bleeder cut contractor coil 2CON/ 1. When the contact BC/1 operates 2
CO /1 de -energizes the bleeder resistor RB gets disconnected from the unit.
A small hysterics of about 10% is provided for relay BC/ 1 to minimize
contactor chattering. This card also consists of overload alarm circuit. Relay 1
DCOL /3 & 2DCOL 13 will operate when total current exceeds 110% of the fun
load capacity of the equipment.
e) Charger fail card (XA 225 D)
This card senses out put current in terms of voltage from
current limit section of the amplifier card. When charger out put voltage is
less than battery voltages then this circuit operates to give charger fail
44
indication. in this case charger is in condition the charger is ON but not
taking the load.
III. ALARM AND ANNUNCIATION CIRCUIT:. (XE 2442 A2)
All indications & alarms for the faulty condition of the charger
as per the specification are provided in this circuit. Two sets of the potential
free contacts are also provided on the 2.5 Sq.mm terminal block for DAS &
owners annunciation system.
Following audiovisual alarms with indication are provided in each charger.
LH.S of the panel:
a) AC Input Fuse Fail
b) Input Mains Fail
c) Input phase Fail
d) Rectifier Fuse Fail
e) Free Wheeling Diode Fuse Fail
f) Smoothening Condenser Fuse Fail
RH.S of the panel:
a. Charger Fail/ System on Battery Operation
b. Charger Over Loaded
45
c. Inside Cubicle Temperature High
d. Redundant Fan Fail
e. Receive Attention
f. Spare
g. Spare
Indications provided in charger panel
a) Input AC ON
b) Input Contactor ON
c) Float mode
d) Charge mode
e) Receive Attention
The annunciation system has acknowledged and tests push
buttons; buzzer for audio indication and facia window for visual indication- On
fault tubular bulb in respective window glows and buzzer starts ringing. When
fault is cleared respective audio & visual indication goes OFF.
The alarm & annunciation circuit works as follows:
1. AC Input fuse fail:
When Input fuses F1, F2, F3 blows, respective trip indicating
46
fuses FT1, FT2, FT3 also blows and its plunger operates micro switch MS4.lt
energizes Relay ACFF/3 and its contact ACFF /1 closes hence lamp 4. AC
Input fuse fail" indicator will glow. For buzzer gets supply through relay 1
RA /1 NC contact & audible alarm comes. After pressing alarm accept push
button PB3" 1 RA / 2 operates and buzzer stops ringing and lamp 10" Receive,
Attention" glows.
The fault lamp and receive attention lamp goes OFF once the
fault is rectified. Similar operation takes place for any fault listed above.
PRECAUTION: Before rectifying any fault (replacing component) the Charger
should be isolated from incoming AC mains supply.
2. INPUT MAINS FAIL:
Relay MF/3 is connected across the output of the bridge
rectifier consisting of D39 through 042. Relay MF/3 remains operated due to
presence of incoming supply voltage. Contact MF1 is NC, when mains failure,
relay MF/3 gets de-energized and closes contact MF1 to get audio visual
indication of " Mains Fail”.
3. Input Phase fail:
The phase fail is sensed by the resistance R1, R2 & R3 &
capacitor C17 & rectifier bridge D8 under normal conditions when all three
-phases are available in the correct phase, sequence voltages across the diode
47
bridge is all most zero. On failure of any phase or reversal of phase sequence
disturbs the bridge ckt. Balancing and voltage drops across the diodes. Relay 1
PF/2 operates and its contact 1 PF/1 closes to operate relay 2PF/3. Which
glows lamp 5 to get audiovisual indication of “Input Phase fail ".
4. RECTIFIER FUSE FAIL:
Trip fuses through FT11 to FT22 are in parallel to rectifier fuses
F11 to F22 respectively. Whenever rectifier fuse blows, the trigger fuse also
blows to operate respective micro switch MS2, MS7, MS9 or MS10. These
operate relay 1RE/3. Which glows lamp2 to get audiovisual alarm of" Rectifier
Fuse fail".
5. FREE WHEELING DIODE FUSE FAIL :
F37 is free wheeling diode fuse & FT25 is its respective trigger
fuse connected in parallel. If F37 blows F25 also blows & its plunger operates
micro switch MS8. MS8 extends supply to the relay FWD/3. Contact FWD/1
closes to glow tamp 1 to get audio visual alarm of" Free Wheeling Diode fuse
fail
6. SMOOTHENING CONDENSER FUSE FAIL:
F23 & F24 are filter capacitor protection fuses, trigger fuses
FT23 & FT24 connected in parallel to them respectively. Whenever F23 & /or
F24 blows its respective trigger fuse FT23 &/or FT24 also blows to operate
48
micro switch MS3. MS3 extends supply to relay SFF/3, Contact SFF/1
operates to glow lamp13 to get audio visual indication of II Smoothening
Condenser fuse fail II
7. CHARGER FAIL I SYSTEM ON BATTERY OPERATION:
When charger out put voltage is less than battery voltages, load
is operating from, battery I charger fail circuit operates it senses out put
current in terms of voltage from current limit section of the amplifier to
operate relay CF/3. Contact CF/1 closes to glow lamp 6 to get audio visual
alarm of Charger fail I System on Battery Operation". In this case the
charger is ON but not taking the load.
8. CHARGER OVER LOAD:
Relay DCOU3 operates at 110% of the charger capacity, contact
DCOU1 closes and lamp 9. Glows to get audiovisual alarm of Charger Over Load
8. Inside Cubicle Temp. High:

9.
If inside temperature in charger goes above' ambient temp +
10°C (this value sated in thermostat) then thermostat provided in toe charger
senses it & energize' relay ITH/2 Contact ITH/1 closes to glow lamp 7 to get
audio visual alarm of “inside Cubicle Temp High”.
1 O. REDUNDANT FAN FAIL:
49
The micro switches MS5 & 6 are fitted above exhaust fan in
such a manner that they are normally closed when fans are in ON when any
fan fails then MS5 & I or MS6 opens which closes contact NO contact of
relay RFF/3 . Contact RFF/1 operates to glow lamp 8 to get audiovisual alarm
of "Redundant Fan Failure.
50
DC Distribution Board feeder details (USA and UCB Power supplies of DDC Pro control
Panels)
DDC Panel NAME Panel Description
CRA 01 Mill AB Panel
CRA 02 Mill CD Panel
CRA 03 Mill EF Panel
CRA04 Forced Draught (FD) Fans Panel
CRA 05 Induced Draught (ID) Fans Panel
CRA 06 Deaerator / Hot well level control
panel
CRA 07 Feed control station / Drum level
control Panel
CRA 08 Super Heater Spray Panel
CRA 09 RH Spray and HP heaters 5 and
Panel.
CRA 10 Bearing cooling water / LP Heaters
panel
CRA 11 CMC / PA Fans Panel.
CRB 01 Air Heaters A and B Panel
8. Brief Description of the Main Components in the Charger
51
(A) Transformer
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF A TRANSFORMER
A transformer is a static (or stationary) piece of apparatus by
means of which electric power is one circuit is transformed into electric
power of the same frequency in another circuit it can raise or lower the
voltage is a circuit but with a corresponding decrease or increase in current.
The physical basis of a transformer is mutual induction between – two circuit
linked by a common magnetic flux. In the simplest form of consist of two
inductive coils which are electrically separated but magnetically linked
through a part of low reluctance as shown in figure. The two coils posses high
mutual inductance. If one coil is connected to a source of alternating voltage,
an alternating voltage, an alternating flux is setup in the laminated core, most
of which is linked with the other coil in which it produces mutually induced
emf. According to faraday’s laws of electro magnetic induction e = mdi/dt) if
the second coil circuit is closed a current flows in it and so electric energy is
transformed (entirely magnetically) from the first coil to the second coil. The
first coil in which electrical energy is fed from the AC supply mains, is called
primary winding and the other from which energy is drawn out is called
secondary winding. In brief transformer is a device that
1. Transforms electric power from one circuit to another.
2. It does so without a change of frequency.
3. It accomplishes this by electro magnetic induction.
52
4. Where the two electric circuits are in mutually inductive influence of each
other.
B. SCR:
A Silicon controlled rectifier is a semiconductor device that acts
as a electronic switch. It is one of the prominent member of the thyrister
family. It is a four layer PNPN or NPNP. Basically it is a rectified with a
control element. It can change alternating current into direct current and
direct current into alternating current etc., It consist of three diodes
connected back to back with a gate connection. It can control the amount of
power feed to the load. It can control loads by switching current OFF and ON
up to many thousand times a second It can switch ON for variable length of
time, there by delivering selected amount of power to the load. Thus, SCR
combines the features of a rectifier and a transistor and posers the
advantage of a rheostat and a switch with none of their disadvantages.
ANODE A
P S1 G
N
GATE S2
P
N S3 C
CATHODE
53
When a PN junction is added to the junction transistor the
resulting three PN junction device is called a Silicon controlled rectifier.
Thus, the structure of the silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) consist of four
alternate P and N – type layers, as in the four layer diode below figure 11(a)
shows its construction. The circuit symbol for the SCR is shown in fig (b).
In the SCR, connections are made available to the inner layer,
which are not accessible in the diode. The three junctions are marked J1, J2
and J3 where as the three terminals are: Anode (A), Cathode (C) and Gate
(G), which in connected to the inner P type layer. The function of the Gate is
to control the firing of SCR. In the normal operating conditions of SCR, anode
is held at high positive potential w.r.t to cathode. Since they conduct large
currents, junction areas of SCR are very large.
TWO TRANSISTOR REPRESENTATION OF SCR:
The operation of the SCR may be explained by considering it to
be divided in to two parts each being a transistor T 1 and another NPN
transistor T2 as shown in fig (1) fig (2) shows its electrical equalant circuit.
Thus, the equipment circuit of SC is composed of PNP transistor
and NPN transistor connected as shown in fig (3). It is clear that thereby
making a positive feedback loop. It is also clear that collector current of T 1 is
54
also the base current of T2 and the base current of T1 is also the collector
current of T2.
It is obvious from the figure that if gate terminal ‘G’ is not
connected anywhere, the gate current Ig is zero. A voltage supply VSS is
connected in series with a protecting resistor R between the anode and the
cathode as shown in fig (3). Under this condition junction J 2 is reverse biased
while junction J1 and J3 and forward biased, the whole unit behaves as an open
circuit between anode and a cathode. But when by inserting a current pulse at
the gate G, the junction J2 is forward biased, then the unit acts as a short
circuit and the current is limited only by load resistance.
When a positive voltage is applied at A with respect to cathode,
each of the emitter junction is forward biased while J 2 remains reverse
biased. Then the two currents IC1 and IC2 are very small and are given by
IC1 = 1I + IC1  (1)
IC2 = 2I + IC2  (2)
Where  and IC0 are the current gain and collector reverse saturation
current, respectively. Then the total current at the anode terminal is given by
I= IC1 + IC1 = (1 +1 )I + ICO1 + ICO2
ICo  IC0
1 2
(or) I = 1  (   )  (3)
1 2
55
Since the currents IC1 and IC2 are very small there are the
leakage currents only. The leakage current is silicon is very small and at low
emitter currents the value of  in a Silicon transistor is also small. Because of
these conditions, the current given by equation (3) is low. For ordinary
transistor the value of  is rapidly as the emitter current of a junction is
increased, and Equ – (3) shows that as the sum of 1 and 2 approaches unity,
the current – I will become very large. It is the characteristic property of
silicon junction that the value of  in quite small at very small current levels
and it increases as the current level is increased. Such property is not
exhibited by germanium and hence the controlled rectifiers are always made
of silicon.
VOLT – AMPERE CHARACTERISTICS OF SCR:
The voltage current characterization of SC is shown in fig © in
fig (a) current flow is blocked due to reverse – biased junction J 2. However
when anode voltage is increased, A certain critical value called forward break
over voltage VBO is reached when J2 break down and SCR switches suddenly
to a high conducting stage.
56
When a reverse voltage is applied between A and C small leakage
current flows. Similarly a small leakage current also flows when it is forward
biased. When forward voltage is increased a breakdown condition in reached
which fires SCR. The firing of SCR can be also be made by applying a short
positive pulse current at the gate. This is denoted by dotted line Ob. SC
remains conducting as long as the above current in maintained greater than
holding current**. IH if anode current becomes less than IH, SCR turns off.
With supply connection as in fig (b), the current through the SCR
is blocked by the two reverse biased junctions J 1 and J3 when V in occurs
which may destroy the SCR. Hence it is seen that SCR is a unidirectional
device unlike triac, which is bi-directional.
57
The Volt- Ampere characteristics can be explained on the basis
of factor . Referring to the SCR characteristics shown in fig region loop
corresponds to low currents (+2)<1, with junction J2 being reverse biased.
Here the sum (1+2), which increases in the region PA, in equal to 1 at point
A. the point A Corresponds to break over or triggering voltage VBO and
including and holding current IH. As the value of (1+2) increases with
current, the junction J2 will be forward biased and the region AB will
correspond to high current and two-voltage drop. Since the region AB is
associated with a negative resistance, conduction in the device will stop only if
the current value is reduced below the value of IH, when the operating point
will go from B to O.
A current IG, applied to gate region P and driven across junction
J3, can effectively increase the vale of 2 due to increase in base current of
Junction J3. This is the principle of silicon control rectifier (SCR). Thus the
condition 1+2= 1, can be attained at lower values of break over voltage even
through, IG may be small. The higher the value of triggering gate current IG,
the lower is the value of the applied voltage V at which break over occurs, as
shown in fig (a).
Thus, with a relatively high value of Ig, the device turns on at
very small values of applied voltage. Also when the current values fall below
IH, conditions cases and the device appear to be very strongly reversed
biased.
58
Once the SCR has fired the gate loses its controlling action and
the SCR cannot be turned OFF by gate signals. The only way to bring the SCR
back to its normal OFF condition is to reduce the anode voltage sufficiently
for anode current to drop blow holding current IH. A typical Sn 050 Silicon
controlled rectifier has a peak reverse voltage of 30V, typical gate trigger
currant of 1.0 MA and typical holding current of 50 MA. Its turn on time
approximates one – Sec and turn of is accomplished in 5 to 10 – Sec,
thereby exceeding the capabilities of usual thyratrons is switching speeds.
59
9.General DC Applications in Thermal

Power Stations
1. 24 V DC System for DDC System:
To give a supply to DDC Pro control system – DDC is a
microprocessor based, programmable and distributed control and monitoring
system. Which is capable to perform all the function which are required to
maintain Thermal power Plant in auto / manual.
1. Signal conversion (For Signal E.g. are Temperature, Pressure, Flow,
ON/OFF Etc.,)
2. Signal Transmission.
3. Monitoring.
4. Binary (on-off, sequential) control.
5. Analog (modulating) control.
6. Protection.
7. Communication.
Digital Distribution Control represents the latest state of the
art in power plant control system design. It is a high-grade control system
and will meet the ever-increasing demands, which are made on the operational
reliability and availability of power stations.
60
10. Conclusion
Distributed Digital control is the decentralized supervision &
controlling of thermal Power Plant equipments and various parts. This DDC
system is working on 24V DC supply, which is supplying by 24V charges.
Hence, it is understood from the project that without 24V DC supply
the plant equipment mainly Boiler, Turbine and Generator cannot be
controlled, operated or safety shutdown.
The 24V charger – I & II and its battery banks are continuously
monitoring and taking parameters are very important for trouble free
operation of thermal power plant equipment.
Power situation in the country is worsening day by day, with liberal
policies now in force, more and more high tech machinery equipment would be
pouring from outside putting very exacting demands on owner, procurement of
high quality stand by power sources like UPS would become inescapable.
61
11. Bibliography
1. PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRONICS – V.K. MEHTA
2. Power Electronics By Kanchandani.
3. POWER ELECTRONICS – P.S. BHIMBRA.
4. Power Electronics By. Md. Rashid.
5. Operation and Maintenance Manual of M/s Amararaja
Batteries Limited for MF-VRLA Batteries.
6. Operation and Maintenance Manual of M/s AFCO SET 24
Volts DC Chargers.
7. Electrical Technology By B.L. Tereja.
62

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A Case Study of 24 VDC System

1. Introduction to Thermal Power Plants

The electricity has become an essential commodity rather

become important, as hydro resource are inadequate. The concept of a

modern thermal station is that it should be situated at such a place that

the basic requirements of fuel, water and land should be satisfied.

Basically thermal stations are of two types.

1. Pit Head stations.

2. Load demand stations.

Pithead stations are those, which are nearer to the source of

The basic requirements of thermal power station are:

a. Supply of raw material at competitive cost.

b. Access to the markets for its products.

c. Labour force of the size and quantity required.

d. Means of disposal for any trade effluents that are by

The other factors to be considered for selecting the site are:

4. Access for construction.

Generally 1000 MW plant requires 90 to 200 acre land. The

3 to 4 tones per hour per megawatt, and make up quantity is 2 to 3% of the

same whereas amount of water required for condensation is quite high.

Coal for thermal power stations in India, the principle source of

commercial energy is amounting to 95% of the total primary energy

the order of 1,30,000 million tons.

The fundamental forms of energy with which thermal stations

work is further converted into electrical energy through a medium i.e.

electrical generator. For the purpose of understanding of thermal plants,

the phenomenon of the thermodynamics vapour cycles explained below.

This is the simplest theoretical vapor cycle, which is the basis

condenser emerging as condensate. With the help of a pump this

condensate is again fed into the boiler.

The main purpose of superheating steam and supplying it to

Moisture content of steam would result in undue blade erosion. The

maximum wetness in the final stage of steam that may be tolerated

use of super heater in a boiler helps in reducing the stack temperature by

from the turbine at some intermediate stage, returning it to the steam

improves the efficiency of the cycle.

This cycle is an attempt to induce reversibility in the ordinary

constitute the principle irreversible process of the cycle and regeneration

saturation temperature through the utilization of the heat of steam, which

thermal regeneration of condensate the cycle is known as regenerative.

Thermal power plant overview:

The Thermal power Plant consists of the following systems,

which comprise the whole setup as, listed below:

I. Air and gas flow system.

II. Regenerative feed heating system.

III. Condensate system.

IV. Feed water system.

V. Water and steam circuits.

VI. Steam Turbine.

VII. Turbo Alternators.

VIII. Electrical Power Systems.

I. AIR AND GAS FLOW SYSTEM

Two numbers axial reaction forced draught fans and two

is evaluated by two numbers radial double Induced Draught Fans.

a) Secondary Air System (Combustion Air):

The forced draught fans supply the required secondary air

for combustion. This air is pre heated by two in number rotary

service. Control of secondary airflow is done by FD fan blade pitch control.

“Secondary air dampers” control the distribution of hot secondary air to

system” normally position these.

cold end temperature of the regenerative air heater elements to prevent

airflow to wind box.

b) Primary Air system: