Principles of Communication

Lecture 4- Radio Communications

Computer Engineering Department

By: Rolin Limos
Radio Communication System

• It is wireless communication system.

• The information is being carried by the electromagnetic

waves, which is propagated in free space .

• EM waves are waves that travel at the speed of light and

made up of an electrical field and magnetic field at right
angles to one another and to the direction of propagation.
Radio Communication System

Block diagram of a radio communication system

Radio Communication System

Block diagram of a radio communication system

Power Measurement (dB, dBm)

The decibel (dB) is a transmission-measuring unit used to express

gain and losses an electronic devices and circuits
Power Measurement (dB, dBm)
Power Measurement (dB, dBm)
Radio Frequencies
 Radio Waves
• Frequency Range :3 KHz to 300 GHz
• Easy to generate
• Can travel long distances
• Can penetrate buildings
• Used for indoor and outdoor communication
• Omni-directional which can travel in all directions
• Narrowly focused at HF (>100MHz) using parabolic
antennas (like satellite dishes)
 All signals converted to analog
•Unguided media allows analog transmission only
•Analog Signal usage: TV, Radio
•Digital Signal usage: Cell Phone, Wireless Network
 Can be transmitted through antennas
 Antennas
 Electrical conductor
• Transmits (radiates) electromagnetic waves into space
• Receives electromagnetic waves from space
• Same antenna can be used as both TXR and RXR

Radiation Pattern of an Antenna

• The graphical representation of radiation in all directions
in the space
• What is the ideal radiation pattern?
Radiate equally in all directions in the space
Omni directional pattern
Sun is the best example

Isotropic Radiator
Types of Radio Antennas
 Half-wave dipoles (Hertz)
• Dipole antenna consists of two terminals or
"poles" into which radio frequency current flows.
• This current and the associated voltage causes
and electromagnetic or radio signal to be radiated.
• Generally taken to be an antenna that consists of a
resonant length of conductor cut to enable it to be
connected to the feeder.
• For resonance the conductor is an odd number of
half wavelengths long.
Types of Radio Antennas
•Half-wave dipoles (Hertz)
Types of Radio Antennas
Discone Antenna
• The RF antenna design consists
of a top "disc" formulated from a
number of elements arranged in a
disc at the top,
and further elements pointing
downwards in the shape of a cone.

• Ideal for VHF / UHF applications

as its greatest sensitivity is parallel or
almost parallel to the Earth.
Types of Radio Antennas
Distributed Antenna System
• Utilize several different antennas over
the required coverage area.
•The overall power required is less due
localized antennas can be placed more
effectively for a small area, rather than
having a single, larger antenna that is a
compromise for the wider coverage
needed.
• By adopting a DAS approach, this is the
shadowing and penetration losses
because a L-O-S link is available more
frequently.
• As a result the levels of absorption are
lower and this means the overall power
levels can be reduced.
Types of Radio Antennas
Ferrite Rod Antenna
• Consists of a rod made of ferrite, an
iron based magnetic material.
• A coil is around the ferrite rod and this
is brought to resonance using a
variable tuning capacitor contained
within the radio circuitry itself and in
this way the antenna can be tuned to
resonance.
• As the antenna is tuned it usually
forms the RF tuning circuit for the Rxr.
• Operates using the high permeability
of the ferrite material "concentrating"
the magnetic component of the radio
waves.
Types of Radio Antennas
Horn Antenna
•The horn antenna is used in the transmission and
reception of RF microwave signals, and the antenna
is normally used in conjunction with waveguide feeds.
• The waveguide can be considered to open out or to
be flared, launching the signal towards the receiving
antenna.
• Horn antennas are often used as gain standards, and
as feeds for parabolic or 'dish' antennas, as well as
being used as RF antennas in their own right.
• One particular use of horn antennas themselves is for
short range radar systems, such as those used for
automotive speed enforcement.
Types of Radio Antennas
Horn Antenna
Types of Radio Antennas
Parabolic Reflector Antenna
• The RF antenna consists of a radiating system that is
used to illuminate a reflector that is curved in the form
of a paraboloid.
•This shape enables a very accurate beam to be
obtained. In this way, the feed system forms the actual
radiating section of the antenna, and the reflecting
parabolic surface is purely passive.
Types of Radio Antennas
Parabolic Reflector Antenna Parameters
Focus
The focus or focal point of the parabolic reflector is the point at which
any incoming signals are concentrated. When radiating from this point the
signals will be reflected by the reflecting surface and travel in a parallel
beam and to provide the required gain and beamwidth.
Vertex
This is the innermost point at the centre of the parabolic reflector.
Focal length
The focal length of a parabolic antenna is the distance from its focus to its
vertex.
Aperture
The aperture of a parabolic reflector is what may be termed its
"opening" or the area which it covers. For a circular reflector, this is
described by its diameter. It can be likened to the aperture of an optical
lens.
Types of Radio Antennas
Parabolic Reflector Antenna
Types of Radio Antennas
The Yagi Antenna
•The Yagi RF antenna design has a dipole as the main radiating or
driven element.
•“Parasitic" elements are added which are not directly connected
to the driven element.
• Pick up power from the dipole and re-radiate it such a manner
that it affects the properties of the RF antenna as a whole.
• The parasitic elements operate by re-radiating their signals in a
slightly different phase to that of the driven element.
• The signal is reinforced in some directions and cancelled out in
others.
• It is found that the amplitude and phase of the current that is
induced in the parasitic elements is dependent upon their length
and the spacing between them and the dipole or driven element.
Types of Radio Antennas
Yagi Antenna
Directional Antenna
Directional antennas are very common
Radiation pattern in a certain direction
Often used for base stations in a cellular system
Beam width (half-power beam width)
Measure of directivity of antenna
Angle within which power radiated is at least half of what
it is in the most preferred direction
Antenna gain
Power output, in a particular direction, compared to that
produced in any direction by a perfect omni-directional
antenna (isotropic antenna)
Measured in dBi :decibels relative to an isotropic radiator
A gain of 3dB means:
Antennas improves the signal upon the isotropic
antenna in that direction by 3dB
Directional Antenna
y y z
directed
antenna
x z x

side view (xy-plane) side view (yz-plane) top view (xz-plane)

Antenna

Omni-directional

Directional
What is Fading?
Definition:
•Time variation of received signal power caused by
changes in the transmission medium or path (s).
• In fixed environment is caused by atmospheric
conditions
• In mobile environments creates more complex effects
Causes of Fading?
 Causes of fading:
 Free space loss
 Multi-path propagation
Reflection, scattering, diffraction, refraction
 Interference with other transmitters
 Atmospheric absorption
 Mobility
Fast fading, small fading
 Free space loss
Main source of attenuation in Wireless Transmission
• Any type of signal disperses with distance as signal
is being spread over larger area
• Can be expressed in terms of decibels
Pr 2 c2 1
L   K* 2 2
Pt ( 4 d ) 2
( 4 fd ) 2
f d
Environment Path Loss
where; Exponent, n
Pr = is the mean received signal power Free space 2
Urban area cellular 2.7 to 3.5
Pt = is the transmitted signal power radio
f = is the frequency of the signal Shadowed urban 3 to 5
cellular radio
d= is the distance between Txr & Rxr In building L-O-S 1.6 to 1.8
 Inversely proportional to d2 for free space Obstructed in 4 to 6
building
Can be up to d4 for different environments
Obstructed in 2 to 3
factories
 Reflection:
Multi-path Propagation Signal encounters a surface
that is large relative to the
wavelength of the signal
Refraction:
Bending of radio waves as
they propagate through the
atmosphere
Scattering:
Occurs when incoming
signal hits an object whose
size in the order of the
wavelength of the signal
Diffraction:
Occurs at the edge of an
impenetrable body that is
large compared to
wavelength of radio waves

reflection refraction scattering diffraction

Mobility Effects
As the user moves, signal paths may change
Distance to sender will change
Obstacles will further away
Fast Fading
As the mobile moves over small distances, the
instantaneous received signal will fluctuate rapidly giving rise
to small-scale fading
The reason is that the signal is the sum of many contributors
coming from different directions and since the phases of these
signals are random, the sum behave like a noise
Occurs when receiver moves only about one half of the
wavelength
Slow Fading
As the mobile moves away from the transmitter over larger
distances, the local average received signal will gradually
decrease. This is called large-scale fading