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Remediation and Repair of Offshore Structures

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Remediation and Repair of Offshore Structures
Nigel W. Nichols and Riaz Khan
PETRONAS Carigali Sdn Bhd (PCSB), Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
1 Introduction
2 Remediation and Repair Techniques
3 Recommendations and Conclusions
Acknowledgements
List of Abbreviations
Biographical Sketches
Glossary
References
Further Reading
1 INTRODUCTION
Structural integrity management (SIM) is often defined as
the application of qualified standards, by competent people,
using appropriate processes and procedures throughout the
structures life cycle, to ensure that the structures fitness for
purpose (FFP) is maintained. Structural integrity manage-
ment systems (SIMS) are often developed within operators
as a means of managing their structural risk levels for both
their offshore and onshore facilities. Figure 1 provides a
typical risk matrix that is used by operators. These risk
levels are represented in the operator’s risk categorizations
based on corporate expectations and generally presented
in a risk matrix. SIMS often goes hand in hand with the
operators understanding of as low as reasonably practicable
(ALARP) principles, which also outlines FFP criteria for
operating regions. In practice, SIMS ensures that risk levels
Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering, online © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118476406.emoe409
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering (print edition)
ISBN: 978-1-118-47635-2
are kept within tolerable levels and ensures that mitigation
1 and remediation processes are deployed to avoid unwanted
2 structural risk escalation. Strengthening, modification, and
15 repair (SMR) is one such remediative process that might be
employed.
15
Prior to implementation of any SMR scheme, it is often
15 necessary to perform various levels of reassessment or
16 employ risk reduction measures. Where this is not possible,
16 or the acceptance criteria for reassessment has not been
17 met, then some level of SMR work is often required for
17 FFP. ISO 19902 (2007) Section 24 provides guidance on the
various levels of assessments that may be performed prior to
employing SMR.
1.1 SMR within the SIM process
After an inspection campaign or post-event inspection, there
is a variety of data that is made available to the structural
integrity engineer (SIE). In coming up with a strong strategy,
one must first evaluate this data for the FFP of the structure
and develop the remedial actions. SMR is one such reme-
dial action; however SMR schemes especially for underwater
activities can be costly and at times hazardous if not prop-
erly managed and executed. To formulate an SMR scheme,
it is generally part of the STRATEGY process within SIM
(Figures 2 and 3), and its execution is part of the PROGRAM.
In recent years the growth of computing power and accu-
racy in developing structural models together with a global
acceptance of the benefits of performing ultimate strength
analysis for the substructures (Westlake et al., 2006) have
enhanced the decision-making process to determine whether
it is feasible to perform underwater SMR for particular
defects. For substructures the ultimate strength analysis or
pushover analysis is performed as part of assessment engi-
neering prior to developing the strategy. The basic assump-
tion is that the fixed jacket space frame acts as a system
2 Offshore

High L-1

Consequence
val
in ter
sed
L-2 rea
Inc

L-3

A B C D E
Likelihood High

Figure 1. Typical risk matrix. (Reproduced with permission from O’Connor et al. (2005). © Society of Petroleum Engineers, 2005.)

Data Evaluation Strategy Program

Detailed work
Evaluation of
Managed system Overall inspection scopes for
structural integrity
for archive and philosophy and inspection
and fitness for
retrieval of SIM strategy and activities and
purpose;
data and other criteria for in- offshore execution
development of
pertinent records service inspection to obtain quality
remedial actions
data

Figure 2. The SIM (structural integrity management) process. (Reproduced with permission from API RP2 SIM (2014). © American
Petroleum Institute, 2014.)

of trusses with some members being redundant, depending
on the structural configuration and bracing. In the simplest
of the terms, ultimate strength results (nonlinear analysis)
are generally presented in the form of a reserve strength
ratio (RSR) that is the ratio of lateral load at collapse to the
prescribed reference load. This is compared to the acceptance
criteria for the given operating area. If the RSR is greater
than the acceptance criteria, the jacket structure is generally
considered FFP.
For topside structures, structural elements are generally
assessed on a component level (e.g., members, columns,
joints, etc.). Assessments are generally in the form of linear
static analysis with adherence to acceptance criteria-outlined
design codes and standards. Topside defects should be
assessed on their importance levels, that is, whether they
form part of a (structural) safety critical element (SCE),
in such case remediation may require a more elaborate
SMR scheme development. Typical SCEs include, but are
not limited to, jacket structures, boat landings, helidecks,
primary steel, and fire and blast walls.
Figure 4 provides a simplistic overview of the assessment
process as it relates to determining the necessity of an SMR
scheme. If none of the identified outcomes are economi-
cally feasible in meeting the FFP goal, then ALARP may be
invoked to seek regulatory relief, as an alternative to decom-
missioning and abandonment.
Dier (2004) published the results of a joint industry
project (JIP) on the Assessment of Repair Techniques for
Ageing or Damage Structures. This study provides details
on prescribed SMR techniques, advantages of these options,
and the limitations in using each. This JIP forms the basis
for much of the SMR section of the API RP2 SIM work, and
much of the JIP is referenced in this article due to the compre-
hensiveness of the study. In this article reference is also made
to a host of well-known industry case studies on SMR to
reinforce the concepts and application of particular schemes.
2 REMEDIATION AND REPAIR
TECHNIQUES
2.1 Remediation and SMR
Having completed the evaluation of SIM data, the jacket
or the topsides, the full extent of remediation will be only
determined after the assessment phase of the SIM process.
Initially the main action when considering the SMR options
is to determine whether a local SMR option is viable or if
there is need for a more detailed global SMR action required.
Local SMR options generally tend to be less costly and
less complex to install. Global SMR actions are generally
more costly and complex and may require more than SMR

Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering, online © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118476406.emoe409
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering (print edition) ISBN: 978-1-118-47635-2
 Remediation and Repair of Offshore Structures 3

Initiator No
Data Evaluation Strategy Program
triggered

Yes

Assessment

Figure 3. The assessment process within SIM. (Reproduced with permission from API RP2 SIM (2014). © American Petroleum Institute,
2014.)

Input Platform Post-process and Ok Document

data analysis code checks findings

Not
ok

Possible outcome:
Specific inspection
Review findings,
Yes No Load reduction
is it worth refining
analysis/checks? Strengthen/repair
Change operating
procedures

Figure 4. SMR (strengthening, modification, and repair) and the assessment process. (Reproduced with from Dier (2004). Mineral
Management Service/US Government.)

schemes for remediation. Dier (2004) proposed five basic
approaches to SMR work, short of total replacement of the
facility. These include the following:
1. Remove damage (e.g., grinding out of cracks or removal
of bent/bow members)
2. Reduce loadings
3. Local SMR (where no change in the load path of
the structure occurs when used an SMR scheme, e.g.,
employing a clamping mechanism around a joint or
member)
4. Global SMR by provision of new members. (A change
of system load path occurs, e.g., by the addition of a new
member)
5. Total SMR by tying into a new adjacent structure
Figure 5 provides the interrelationship of common defect
scenarios and appropriate SMR schemes that might be
employed. It should be noted that for various component
repair work, it might draw from both the intact structure
SMR and the damaged structure portion of the diagram. The
techniques outlined in Figure 5 will be discussed in more
detail in this section.
2.2 Selection of SMR techniques
When choosing an SMR scheme, it is advisable to review as
many options as possible even though one particular option
may seem to be the obvious choice. It is important to choose
the technique that provides the best scheme based on tech-
nical, operational, and economic considerations. Figure 6
lists all the relevant options of each SMR scheme. Later in
this section each of these will be discussed in more detail.
When making a final decision on the selection of an SMR
scheme, the following data should be considered as part of
the feasibility study to ensure that the SMR scheme chosen
represents the best solution:

Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering, online © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118476406.emoe409
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering (print edition) ISBN: 978-1-118-47635-2
4 Offshore

Intact structure Damaged structure

Insufficient Insufficient Dented / bowed Fatigue Non-fatigue

Corrosion
fatigue life static strength member crack crack

Member removal Member removal Member removal

and/or and/or and/or
load reduction load reduction load reduction

Local SMR Local SMR Local SMR Local SMR Local SMR Local SMR
(1) Grout member (1) Remedial
(1) Remedial grinding, plus
(1) Improve weld (1) Grout member (2) Weld doubler grinding, plus (2), (3) or (4)
(1) Grout member (2) or (3)
– toe grind and/or joint plate over dent
– hammer peen (2) Weld repair
(3) Brace the (2) Grouted sleeve
(2) Nodal clamp (2) Nodal clamp or
(2) Reduce SCFs bowed member, grouted sleeve (3) Nodal clamp or
connect ends of (3) Weld patch grouted sleeve
– grout joint (3) Grouted
brace(s) by: plates
– nodal clamp sleeve (3) Weld doubler
– welding plates (4) Weld doubler
– clamping plates

Global SMR

Provide alternate load paths by introducing new members, connect ends by:
– welding
– clamping

Figure 5. Interrelationship between scenarios, SMR schemes, and SMR techniques. (Reproduced with from Dier (2004). Mineral
Management Service/US Government.)

• Technical performance 2.2.1 Member removal

• Reliability
• Costs Member removal is considered as a valid repair technique.
• Depth limitations Sometimes to avoid further damage or crack propagation
• Offshore support requirements in a member, it may often be required. In some cases it is
• Existing applications often necessary to remove members to facilitate the instal-
• Extent of background knowledge lation of other SMR techniques, for example, underwater
• Timescales for design/fabrication/installation clamping in congested areas. Member removal must have
• Tolerance acceptability some basis in logic and engineering as to which member is
• Post-installation inspection requirements selected without compromising the overall integrity of the
• Potential problem areas system. In many cases full reinstatement of other members
• Remaining life of installation at different locations may be required after the clamps have
• Environmental and other legislative requirements been installed. It may also be necessary to remove nonfunc-
• Operator preferences tional appurtenances such as spare conductors as a means to
reduce hydrodynamic loadings and to diminish draining of
To obtain and make the best use of the data mentioned existing cathodic protection system. The UEG (Underwater
above, it is therefore important to develop an SMR database Engineering Group) publication (Thurley and Hollobone,
(methods, experts, and vendors) as part of a decision-making 1981) provides guidance on cutting techniques and cutting
tool. This type of data must be kept current and up to date by tools that may be used in member removal. Table 1 provides a
SIEs and can also be provided with a cost estimation element brief summary of the various cutting methods, while Figure 7
that will enable operators to do a proper cost/benefit analysis shows a diamond cutting saw being used in the removal of a
prior to undertaking complex and costly SMR work. member of a subsea casing stub in the Gulf of Mexico.

Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering, online © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118476406.emoe409
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering (print edition) ISBN: 978-1-118-47635-2
 Remediation and Repair of Offshore Structures 5

Strengthening/modification/repair techniques

Weld Clamp Bolted Member

Welding Grout filling Adhesives Cold forming Composites
improvement technology connections removal

Dry welding Weld toe Mechanical Diamond wire

Members Swaging
removal clamp cutting
(1) Atmospheric – By fluid
– Unstressed – Full
– Above water – Grinding – Partial pressure
– Cofferdam – Abrasive – Stressed – Annuli – By
– Chamber Water jet Explosives
(2) Hyperbaric
– Habitat
– Shroud Grouted clamp Joints Mechanical
Remedial or sleeve connectors
grinding
Wet welding – Unstressed
– Stressed
Peening
– Hammer
– Needle
Other welding – Shot Neoprene
– Ultrasonic clamp
– Stitch
– Stud
(Friction,
drawn arc)
– Explosive Dressing
– Laser
– GTA (TIG)
– Plama Arc

Post weld heat

treatment

Figure 6. Overview of commonly used SMR techniques. (Reproduced with permission from API RP2 SIM (2014). © American Petroleum
Institute, 2014.)

Figure 7. Deployment of diamond cutting saw for member cutting and removal. (Reproduced with from Dier (2004). Mineral Management
Service/US Government.)

2.2.2 Welding
One of the best SMR techniques that can be used is welding.
The key challenge is when the welding process migrates
to underwater, and there are difficulties in replicating the
suitable environment to maintain good quality welding with
the right performance. For SMR, there are three major types
of welding techniques that are generally used. They are the
following:
• Dry Welding at One Atmosphere. This is generally used
topside and around the splash zone areas and includes
the use of a cofferdam (Figure 8) or pressure-resistant
chamber to maintain a similar environment as

Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering, online © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118476406.emoe409
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering (print edition) ISBN: 978-1-118-47635-2
6 Offshore

Table 1. Summary of methods for making underwater cuts.

Method Type Cutting Technique Steel Thickness Range (mm) Water Depth Limit Comment
Mechanical Cutter 2–60 Used for weld preparation
Wire saw Closing of crack due to platform
movement can be troublesome
Abrasive water jet 2–230 Safety hazard
Diamond wire
Thermal Oxy-acetylene 10–40 6m Decomposes under pressure
Oxy-hydrogen 10–40 1500 m
Oxy-arc 10–40 Electric shock hazard
Thermic and ultra-thermic lance Used to cut grout-filled members
Plasma arc
Pyronol Custom made “firework” operating
on thermic reaction
Explosives Primer cord 2–6 May be wrapped around thin
tubular sections and used as a
cutter without main charge
Shaped charges 20–120 >7 Tailor-made charges in a soft metal
casing with “V” notch
Eletro-chemical Spark corrosion
Assisted grinding
Reproduced with permission from Dier (1996). © Society of Petroleum Engineers, 1996.

Figure 8. Cofferdam in position and welder working within cofferdam. (Reproduced with permission from Harris (1986). © Springer,
1986.)

atmospheric. All normal welding processes can be used
including gas metal arc welding (GMAW), shielded
metal arc welding (SMAW), flux-cored arc welding
(FCAW).
• Dry Welding Using Hyperbaric Chambers. The chamber
is typically open to the sea at its base, allowing diver
access and capturing a bubble of compressed gas at
ambient pressure. The main process are GMAW and
SMAW although other processes may also be used.
Gas composition in the chamber must be controlled
to limit the partial pressure of oxygen, nitrogen, and
hydrogen. Dry welding in chambers/cofferdams is gener-
ally restricted to depths up to 50 ft (15 m). Deeper repairs
are technically feasible but become much more costly
due to the need for saturation diving. Robotic welding
has been used to splice deepwater pipelines, but its use
on structures is discouraged by geometric complexity.
• Wet Welding. For practical purposes only the SMAW
process is suitable (Figure 9). In this process, the arc is
operated in direct contact with the water. It has the advan-
tage of not having to use a cofferdam or chamber. It has
the disadvantage of possibly creating a poorer quality

Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering, online © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118476406.emoe409
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering (print edition) ISBN: 978-1-118-47635-2

Figure 9. Wet welding. (Reproduced with from Dier (2004).
Mineral Management Service/US Government.)
weld, even with special electrodes and qualified diver
welders. Wet welding is depth sensitive, and it is chal-
lenging to maintain desirable metallurgical properties in
the presence of rapid cooling of oxygen and hydrogen
from the wet environment. Repairs with low-restraint
fillet welds are most likely to be successful.
Reference should be made to AWS D3.6M that provides
guidance on the all welding techniques for both dry and wet
welding.
Figure 8 shows the welding for a jacket brace repair to
a shallow water platform on the Dutch continental shelf of
the North Sea, using a cofferdam. The extent of damage
to an underwater brace from vessel impact required the
replacement of the entire brace member. The SMR work
was performed within 8 days inclusive of cofferdam deploy-
ment, repair, and cofferdam retrieval. The repair was not
affected by adverse weather, and a good quality weld was
also achieved.
2.2.3 Weld improvement
The main purpose of employing a weld improvement tech-
nique is to improve fatigue life and provide no assistance in
the improvement in static strength. Fatigue lives are gener-
ally improved by the removal of the welding imperfection,
local improvement of the weld profile, and introduction
of compressive residual stresses in the surface layer, thus
replacing tensile residual stresses and changing the orienta-
tion and the shape of the welding and other defects. The two
most popular types of weld improvement techniques used are
toe grinding and peening.
Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering, online © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118476406.emoe409
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Remediation and Repair of Offshore Structures 7
Toe Grinding. This is the purposeful removal of weld and
parent material from the toes of the welded connection. The
operation is generally undertaken by a grinding tool. The
major techniques for grinding include disc grinding (use
with caution) and rotary blur grinding (preferred). The main
purpose is to introduce a circular groove into the weld profile
and parent material, thus reducing the stress concentrations
that lead to poor fatigue lives. The cut dimensions X and Y
(Figure 10) must be limited to ensure that the removal of
any parent material is limited. If toe grinding is employed,
it is advisable that after the process, NDE (nondestructive
examination) methods of the completed weld be undertaken
to ensure that defects have been appropriately removed.
Shot, Needle Hammer, and Ultrasonic Peening. A cold
work process in which the surface layer is plastically
deformed. This is possible through a high velocity shot
(shot peening) or by using a tool (needle, hammer, or
ultrasonic peening). A plastic zone is created under impact
from each shot or tool strike, with the material outside
this zone being elastically deformed in compression. As
the process continues the adjacent material will impose
further compressive stresses within the plastically deformed
zone. Finally the whole surface layer will contain compres-
sive residual stresses. The compressive residual stresses
contribute to lower fatigue. Also during peening, work
hardening occurs in the plastically deformed zone. The
work hardening increases the yield strength, thus also
contributing to improved fatigue lives. Peening techniques
should be subjected to strict quality control measures,
and improved fatigue lives are generally dependent on
the care and attention that is placed on the peening
process. Shot peening is generally not used underwater
as water slows the shot down and the technique becomes
ineffective.
From an inspection of a mobile exploration and drilling
platform in 1992 (Figure 11), it was found that there were
fatigue cracks at the pontoon. The crack was found near a
gusset plate at the corner of a pontoon column. To rectify the
defect, toe grinding was performed to remove the toe weld
defects, using a high speed blur grinder. A successful repair
scheme requires approximately 1 month to execute. AWS
D3.6M (1999) and ISO 19902 (2007) also provides good
guidance on weld improvement techniques and the benefits
of each technique.
2.2.4 Clamp technology
Clamping techniques have proven to be a very versatile SMR
technique. In many cases clamps can be used for member
clamping (damaged or member with insufficient strength),
nodal clamping (damaged or joint with insufficient strength),
connecting a new structure to an existing one, providing
8 Offshore

Brace

Toe of weld
Single sided
But weld

Root x

Chord T

Figure 10. Typical toe grinding application. (Reproduced with from Dier (2004). Mineral Management Service/US Government.)

(a) (b)

Figure 11. Weld repair using toe grinding. (a) Mobile exploration and drilling platform. (b) Column–pontoon corner. (Reproduced with
permission from ABS Consulting (2004). © ABS Consulting, 2004.)

a length adjustment to a new or existing member, and
providing a means to connect or support a new appurtenance
guide. At its simplest level clamping involves the bolting
of two plates connected by bolts. In many respects they
are similar but the essential differences in clamps involve
the load transfer capability of each, for example, existing
steel with clamp steel and grout or neoprene or whether the
interface is prestressed by clamp bolts. Great care must be
taken in the design of clamps. It is recommended prior to
design a metrology survey be done to ensure the dimensions
of the tubulars (members/joints) subjected to any ovaliza-
tion due to hydrostatic forces are taken into consideration.
The general terminology for clamp technology is provided
in Figure 12.
The main clamping mechanisms include the following:
• Stressed Mechanical (Friction) Clamps. The strength of a
mechanical connection is obtained from the steel-to-steel
friction that is developed by means of the external
studbolt loads that lead to compressive forces normal
to the tubular/clamp saddle interface. These clamps for
all purposes should be avoided if the repair is a perma-
nent solution or requires close monitoring to ensure that
the clamp maintains its prestress and functionality over
time.
• Unstressed Grouted Clamps/Sleeve Connections. An
unstressed grouted clamp or sleeve connection comprises
sleeves, which are placed around a tubular member or

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Also published in the Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering (print edition) ISBN: 978-1-118-47635-2
 Remediation and Repair of Offshore Structures 9

Flange Studbolt (typ.)

Flange

Stiffener

Split

Side plate
Stiffener

Curved saddle plate

Cap plate
(a) (b)

Figure 12. Clamp terminology. (a) Continuous flange, (b) discontinuous flange. (Reproduced with from Dier (2004). Mineral Management
Service/US Government.)

Figure 13. Post-hurricane Lilli platform stabilization in the Gulf of Mexico. (Reproduced with permission from ABS Consulting (2004).
© ABS Consulting, 2004.)

joint with the annular space so created filled with grout.
The bond and interlock between the grout/steel interface
provides the means of load transfer between the tubular
member and the clamp. Unstressed grouted clamps and
connections offer a versatile means for strengthening or
repair of tubular joints and members since they require
less accurate offshore surveys than do the mechanical
clamps.
• Stressed Grouted Clamps. This form of clamp is a hybrid
between a stressed mechanical clamp and an unstressed
grouted clamp. The strength of a stressed grouted clamp
is obtained from a combination of “plain-pipe” bond and
grout/steel friction developed as a result of compressive
radial stresses at the grout/tubular member interface. This
is quite a popular and effective clamping mechanism. The
effects of compressive hoop stress in the base member
should be considered.
• Stressed Elastomer-Lined Clamps. Stressed
elastomer-lined clamps are very similar to stressed
mechanical clamps, except that an elastomer lining is
bonded to the inside faces of the clamp saddle plates, for
example, to accommodate irregularities in the existing
tube surface.
Figure 13 shows part of the damage to a drilling platform
located at 68 m depth in the Gulf of Mexico and the stress
grouted clamp attached with sleeves to new piles as part of
the SMR scheme. Post-hurricane inspection revealed that a
pile was exposed and severed about 6 m below the mudline.
The repair work involved the installation of stress grouted
clamps at the existing piles. The clamp was connected to
pile sleeves for new pile installation. Several repair options
were considered at the concept stage including guy wires to
piles and props attached to undamaged platform. Structural

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10 Offshore
assessments indicated that more than one template was
required in addition to severed leg replacement to provide
sufficient torsional resistance against potential hurricane
wave loads. The final SMR scheme included two templates,
a stress grouted clamp and five piles. This case study has
been published on the BOEMRE (Bureau of Ocean Energy
Management, Regulation, and Enforcement) website (2011)
as part of an ABS Consulting publication (2004) on Hurri-
cane Lilli impacts on Fixed Platforms.
2.2.5 Grout filling
For local buckling of tubular sections and growth of dents
in damaged tubular sections, the process of grout filling
provides a good repair solution. In many cases grout filling
not only restores the damaged member to original perfor-
mance but also improves it. Grouting a member may also
be part of the preparatory process to another SMR scheme
such as clamping. A grout-filled joint is one where the chord
is filled with a cementitious grout material (Figure 14a). The
chord may be completely filled or, in the case of the piled
leg, the annulus between the tubulars is filled (Figure 14b),
double-skinned joint. Grout filling enhances the strength of
joints and tubular members as it reinforces the chord and
restricts local shell bending and section ovalization. Grouting
is a well-established technique used in the offshore industry
and is relatively easy to employ. It is highly effective and rela-
tively cheap compared to other options. Great care should be
taken when employing grout filling to avoid the formation of
voids that may be formed in the joints or members. Addi-
tionally, when employing a grouting SMR, one must also
consider what this means to the overall global response of the
structure. Grout filling might introduce new stiffer sections
that attract loads to unstiffened sections in the vicinity. ISO
19902 (2007) provides good guidance on the performance of
grout-filled joints and sections.
2.2.6 Bolted connections
Bolted connections have been used extensively on topside
repair and modifications to existing structures (Figure 15).
While used as a modification technique in its own right,
it is also a key component in clamping systems. Bolting
is a proven system with key advantages including quick
application, no delay time being required to achieve full
strength, easy to fabricate, and readily available key compo-
nents. Design is available in existing codes and standards and
provides great flexibility in it use, including easy removal.
There are in fact some limitations in using bolting systems
in the splash zone area and underwater. Due to the high
corrosion environment offshore, it is often required to seek
specialist advice when designing bolts for the splash zone
Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering, online © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118476406.emoe409
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering (print edition) ISBN: 978-1-118-47635-2
repair techniques or use in underwater schemes. Dier (2004)
noted that most popular materials for bolting in subsea
work are L7 and B7 (1 1∕4% chromium–molybdenum steels)
and have proved themselves with a substantial track record.
Macalloy bar was formerly specified in clamp applications
but has fallen out of favor following a number of hydrogen
embrittlement failures.
2.2.7 Adhesives
There are a number of structural resins that are used in SMR
work including acrylic, cyanoacrylic, and urethane products,
with epoxy resins being the most commonly used as they
cure in the wet. The use of adhesives has had considerable
success in the aerospace industry, but their use in the offshore
industry has already been treated with caution. The main
source of suspicion is that the design of adhesives is not
included in codes and standards so its applicability often
requires additional research or working together with the
manufacturers to better understand their performance. Bond
strength can be adversely affected by contaminants (e.g.,
flash oxidation) and by variable thickness due to a poor fit.
Adhesives potentially offer a series of advantages, including
their use to joint different types of materials, their application
in areas where there is limited access, and their properties
largely independent of depth. When selecting a resin the
following are generally considered:
• Curing period.
• Preparation requirements for the substrates.
• Quality assurance to ensure that the required bond has
been achieved.
• Inspectability of joint during service.
• Ability to remove the joint if the scheme proves to be
inadequate.
• For topside applications consideration should be given to
heat and fire resistance.
2.2.8 Cold forming
Using mechanical connectors and swaging techniques in
SMR work relies on cold forming the steel tubulars. Though
not generally popular as SMR schemes, mechanical connec-
tors and swaging can provide many advantages, in particular
repair/strengthening situations. Mechanical connectors
involve the use of grab, twist, and/or gripping devices
to achieve the mechanical locking of two steel tubulars.
Swaging involves forming a structural connection by the
hydraulic expansion of a steel liner to create an interface
lock joint with another tubular.
Caisson repairs have been performed on many North
Sea platforms due to perforations resulting from internal

Brace
Grout Chord
(a)
Figure 14. (a) Grout-filled joints and (b) double-skinned grout-filled joints. (Reproduced with permission from Dier (1996). © Society of
Petroleum Engineers, 1996.)
Figure 15. Typical bolting connections for modification work at topsides. (Reproduced with permission from Dier (1996). © Society of
Petroleum Engineers, 1996.)
and external corrosion/erosion and fatigue stress cracking.
External access to the damaged regions of caissons is often
restricted so an alternative solution is provided using the
swaging technique. A liner tube, lowered from the topside
to bridge the damaged section, is plastically deformed above
and below the defect area to form a connection between
the liner and existing caisson reinstating its structural
integrity. The solution provides a cheaper, diverless solution
to employing external clamps (Figure 16).
2.2.9 Composites
Generally composites are used in SMR as a mate-
rial of choice for the replacement of structural access
members including railings, stairways, and handrails. The
fiber-reinforced polymers (FRP) have become a popular
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Remediation and Repair of Offshore Structures 11
Grouted annulus
Brace
(b) Pile Leg
composite here. Composites are also used as a containment
formwork as in the case of repair work to corroded conduc-
tors. In some cases composites are used as a reinforcing
plate to bond existing steelwork, for example, strengthening
of beam and column flanges, the reinforcement of webs and
deck plating, and repairs to conductor and riser casings, cais-
sons tanks, and pipework. There are a variety of suppliers
available in the market on a variety of composites for various
areas of SMR work.
Figure 17 shows the application of the Syntho-Glass XP, a
high strength fiberglass composite wrap on a 32 inch heavily
corroded riser on a platform in the South China Sea. The
application took less than 36 h to complete compared to
member removal or replacement that can take a few days, and
costs were considerable less compared to member replace-
ment. In addition, member removal and replacement require
12 Offshore

Corrosion
damage to
caisson

Liner connected to caisson

bridging the damaged area

Figure 16. Caisson repair using swaged connection in the North Sea. (Reproduced with permission from Oil States Industries (2011). ©
Oil States Industries, Inc.)

(a) (b)

Figure 17. Repair on a 32 inch riser using a composite. (a) Condition before repair, (b) pipe being coated with Syntho-Subsea LV and
Syntho-Glass XT. (Reproduced with permission from Neptune Research, Inc. © 2016.)

the use and mobilization of heavy equipment, which is
avoided here, through the use of this composite. Hand lay-up
of chopped fiberglass in an epoxy matrix has been used for
corrosion protection in the splash zone since the 1960s.
2.2.10 Summary of SMR methods
Dier (2004), through an extensive JIP study on the Assess-
ment of Repair Techniques for Ageing or Damage Structures,
catalogued each repair scheme and its applicability to various
defects. Table 2 summarizes the SMR technique as well as its
performance against known defects.
It must be noted that Table 2 provides reasonable guid-
ance to the SIE when selecting a preferred SMR scheme.
However, other criteria may have to be taken into considera-
tion as well including the availability of technical expertise,
vessels and equipment, fabrication yards, costs, and so on in
the region/area the SMR work is to be undertaken, prior to
making a final decision. Moreover, the SMR schemes, espe-
cially specialist work as clamp design, require using skilled
consultants in that area of work (Table 3). Additionally, the
JIP also provides a list of advantages and disadvantages
on proposed SMR schemes, and these are provided within
Table 4.

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 Remediation and Repair of Offshore Structures 13

Table 2. Applicability of SMR techniques.

Technique Defect
Fatigue crack Non-fatigue crack Dent Corrosion Inadequate static strength Inadequate fatigue strength
Member Joint High loads Fabr. fault
Dry welding Yesa Yes Yesc Yesc Yesa Yesa No Yes
Wet welding Nob Yes Yesc Yesc Yesa Yesa No Yes
Toe grinding No No No No No No Yes No
Remedial grinding Yes Yesa No No No No No No
Hammer peening No No No No No No Yes No
Stressed mechanical clamp Yes Yes No Yes Yes No Yes Yes
Unstressed grouted clamp Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Stressed grouted clamp Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Neoprene-lined clamp No Yes No Yes No No No No
Grout filling of members No No Yes Yes Yes Yesd Yesd No
Grout filling of joints No No Yes No Yes Yesd Yesd No
Bolting No Yes No No No No No No
Member removal Yese Yese Yese Yese No No Yese Yese
Composites Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
a
Usually in conjunction with additional strengthening measures.
b Except to apply weld beads in unstressed grouted connection/clamp repairs.
c To apply patch plates.
d Applicability depends on type and sense of loading.
e If member is redundant (otherwise replace it).

Yes, applicable; no, not applicable.

Reproduced with from Dier (2004). Mineral Management Service/US Government.

Table 3. Comparison of SMR techniques.

Technique Design Background Equipment Offshore Onshore Load Penalties
Needs Installation Fabrication
Static Strength Fatigue Strength Timescales Costs Weight Wave Load
Dry welding Yes Yes Heavy Very slow High (for habitat) None None
Wet welding Yes Yes Moderate Quick None None None
Toe grinding N/A Yes Low Moderate None None None
Remedial grinding Yes Yes Low Moderate None None None
Hammer peening N/A Yes Low Quick None None None
Stressed mechanical clamps Yesa Yesa Moderate Quick High Moderate High
Unstressed grouted clamps Yesa Yesa Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate
Stressed grouted clamps Yesa Yesa Moderate slow High Moderate High
Neoprene-lined clamps Yesa Yesa Moderate Moderate High Moderate High
Grout filling Yesa Yesa Low Quick Low High None
Bolting Yes Yes Low Moderate Low Low Low
Member removal N/A N/A Moderate Quick None None None
Composites Yesa Yesa Low Quick Moderate Low Low
a MSL has proprietary information.
Italic, bad; bold italic, poor; underline, ok; bold, good.
Reproduced with from Dier (2004). Mineral Management Service/US Government.

2.3 Inspection, maintenance, and monitoring
As with all SMR techniques, there must be rigorous
procedures in place to monitor the performance of these
schemes over time. Inspection techniques must be agreed
upon by the operator and certifying body (if required)
up front. Once installed/executed, the SMR needs to
be monitored as part of the SIMS process. This would
mean including the inspection/monitoring techniques
in the operator’s in-service inspection plans (ISIPs) as
part of their risk-based underwater inspection or other
routine inspections to assess the performance of the SMR
scheme. This performance can be used as lesson learnt
to understand the limitations of particular schemes and to
ensure that they are addressed when choosing future SMR
schemes.

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14 Offshore

Table 4. Advantages and disadvantages of SMR schemes.

Technique Advantages Disadvantages
Dry welding Universally accepted from a technical standpoint Hot work permit required. Below the waterline
requires the construction of either cofferdam
or hyperbaric habitat—both being time
consuming and expensive. The cofferdam, in
particular, will attract high wave loading
Wet welding Proven technique. Relatively quick method Not accepted in all parts of the world. Weld
properties not as good as dry welds, although
this can be accounted for in the design
Toe grinding Doubles fatigue life Only applicable for fatigue life extension
Remedial grinding Proven technique. Relatively quick method for Static strength needs to be assessed
arresting fatigue cracks
Hammer peening Very effective method for increasing fatigue life Only applicable for fatigue life extension
Stressed mechanical clamp Proven technique. Immediate capacity realized Poor tolerance acceptability precludes use
on tensioning studbolts. Can be used as an around nodal joints or over girth joints
end connection to introduce new members between tubular cans. Welds and other
into the structure protuberances have to be ground flush or
otherwise accommodated in depressions
machined in saddle plate
Unstressed grouted clamp Proven technique. High tolerance acceptability. Clamps are relatively long unless they, and the
Can be used as an end connection to introduce clamped member, are provided with weld
new members into the structure beads
Stressed grouted clamp Proven technique. High tolerance acceptability. There is a requirement to allow the grout to cure
Clamps are relatively short. Can be used as an sufficiently before returning to tension the
end connection to introduce new members studbolts
into the structure
Neoprene-lined clamp Some tolerance acceptability. Can be used as an Friction coefficient is lower than generally
end connection to introduce new members realized. Neoprene introduces flexibility,
into the structure thereby compromising its ability to take up
load if alternate load paths exist
Grout filling of member Proven technique. Relatively quick method Weight penalty, especially poor in seismic
regions. Complete grout filling may be
difficult to achieve
Grout filling of joints Proven technique. Relatively quick method. Weight penalty, especially poor in seismic
Good for improving both static and fatigue regions. Joints with expanded cans, or internal
strengths ring stiffening, are more difficult to grout fill
Bolting Good for topsides SMR Limited use below water
Member removal Proven technique. Relatively quick method Safety issue if member springs when final
ligament severed
Composites Lightweight strengthening and repairs are Longevity for underwater use is not yet proven
possible. No hot work
Reproduced with from Dier (2004). Mineral Management Service/US Government.

Nichols and Md Harif (2014) advocated using an online
monitoring (OLM) process to monitor the effectiveness of
an SMR scheme. Upon performing underwater inspections
on a platform, it was found that one member was severed
and partially detached from one of the jacket legs. Other
members were damaged above and below sea level, together
with impact damage at the joints. A total of five members
were found to be partially damaged. The repairs to the plat-
form would involve the installation of two new members
and the installation of three specially designed and fabricated
clamps to connect the new members and reenforce the weak-
ened joints (Figure 18). The clamps and members would
then be grouted with an ultra high performance cementitious
material to stabilize the structure. An OLM instrumenta-
tion system installed at deck level was used to continuously
monitor the structural response of the platform (e.g., natural
frequencies and mode shapes) before, during, and after the
repair process.
The observed changes in structural response provide
evidence of the improvement in the structural integrity of
the platform. Further confidence in the effectiveness of the
repairs can be gained by comparing the changes in structural
response with those predicted using finite element structural
analysis (FESA).

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 Remediation and Repair of Offshore Structures 15

Figure 18. Platform A strengthened joints and member computer model and as-built photo. (Reproduced with permission from Nichols
and Md Harif (2014). © Society of Petroleum Engineers, 2014.)

2.4 SMR data within SIM database
Due to the variety of options and varying levels of
complexity for the SMR for both topsides and substruc-
tures, Nichols et al. (2015) proposed the development of
an SMR database/toolkit with a cost estimation module,
which can be part of the operators SIM database. Global
case studies on SMR can reside within the SIM database,
making it easier to access them and aid the decision-making
process prior to selecting an SMR option, and the feasibility
of particular options based on accessibility and availability
of resources and competencies can be based on operating
region requirements.
• It is also recommended to develop a database of SMR
options from global and regional studies to aid the
decision-making process, prior to final scheme selection.
• Include inspection/monitoring techniques in operator’s
ISIPs to ensure that the performance of SMR schemes
over time. Modern technology such as OLM has proven
quite effective in monitoring the structural behavior and
performance of jacket structures in the implementation
of an SMR scheme.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank the publishers of the EMOE
for their encouragement to present this article.

3 RECOMMENDATIONS AND
CONCLUSIONS LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
The following are recommended when developing SMR ALARP (human risk) as low as reasonably
schemes or managing a fleet of aging structures that require practicable
SMR work: API American Petroleum Institute
BOEMRE Bureau of Ocean Energy Management,
• SMR can be a very costly and complex undertaking, Regulation, and Enforcement
especially for underwater repairs. It is critical to find out FCAW flux-cored arc welding
initially whether SMR is required in the first place by FFP fitness for purpose
ensuring that a proper evaluation of the defect/damage FESA finite element structural analysis
is performed or some form of assessment engineering is FRP fiber-reinforced polymer
also done to determine the extent of SMR. ISIP in-service and inspection plan
• Once SMR has been decided upon, it is highly recom- ISO International Standards Organization
mended to consider the feasibility of more than one JIP joint industry project
option depending on operational, regional, resources, and NDE nondestructive examination
technical competency on designing and executing the RSR reserve strength ratio
options. SCE (structural) safety critical element

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16 Offshore

SIE structural integrity engineer also includes conceptual field development studies, detailed
SIM structural integrity management design, and analyses of both onshore and offshore structures
SIMS structural integrity management system including fatigue, seismic, vessel impact, decommissioning,
SMAW shielded metal arc welding and ultimate strength considerations in a variety of operating
SMR strengthening, modification, and repair regions including the Gulf of Mexico, North Sea, Latin
OLM online monitoring America, Asia, and the Far East. He also serves as a task
UEG Underwater Engineering Group group leader and member of the OGP (ISO 19901-9) Code
Committee for the structural integrity management of fixed
offshore structures. Email: riaz.khan@petronas.com.my
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES Tele: +60132802162 (m).

Nigel Wayne Nichols is a custodian of Structural Integrity at

PETRONAS Carigali Sdn Bhd (PCSB), with over 30 years of GLOSSARY
experience in offshore engineering. He has a master’s degree
from Cranfield University. He started his career in 1982 with Database Historical data is a cornerstone of
Heerema Engineering responsible for structural design and informed structural integrity
installation of lift facilities required for topside modules and assurance and a suitable system for
jacket structures (i.e., tandem lift 14,000 tonnes, Morecambe referencing and archiving documents
Bay). He then joined Lloyd’s Register of Shipping in 1984 relating to the SIMS process shall be
where he was responsible for the certification of offshore established and maintained.
jacket structures and development of class rules for strength Fitness for Each offshore facility is maintained
and fatigue. He continued his career in 1990 with the Depart- purpose safely for its designed purpose or an
ment of Energy responsible for managing a large portfolio alternative purpose.
of offshore structural related projects for developing guid- Mitigation Mitigation is defined as modifications or
ance including the HSE background document for fatigue. operational procedures that reduce the
His last employment from 1997 to 2000 before joining PCSB consequence in the event of structural
in 2001 was MSL Engineering Group where he was project failure or reduce the likelihood of
manager and principal for a number of advanced structural structural failure.
engineering projects and JIP projects. Monitoring Structural integrity monitoring is
He is an internationally known technical authority in considered to be the process whereby
fatigue/strength of structural components and integrity response characteristics of a fixed
assessments of existing facilities. Nigel is a serving/voting offshore jacket structure are measured
member of the API SC2 Offshore Committee and Tech- (either continuously or at regular
nical Panel Leader of the ISO 19902 fixed steel structures intervals) with a view to comparing
WG3, being involved in the development of API standards the measured characteristics with a
(in particular the new API RP2SIM code for managing previously measured baseline or trend.
existing structures) and most recently participating in Risk assessment Risk assessment is the analytical process
the development of the new ISO 19901-9 SIMS, which that determines the types of adverse
is now being embarked upon. He has been the author events or conditions that might impact
and coauthor of over 20 technical papers related to the the structural integrity, the likelihood
structural integrity assessment of offshore jacket struc- that those events or conditions will
tures. Email: nigel_waynenichols@petronas.com.my Tele: lead to a loss of integrity, and the
+60129308424 (m). nature and severity of the
Dr Riaz Khan is a chartered engineer and a principal of consequences that might occur
structural integrity at PCSB, with over 20 years of experi- following a failure.
ence in the civil engineering discipline. He has particular Strengthening, The technique of restoring an offshore
expertise in the structural integrity management of fixed modification, structure that has severe damage and
and floating offshore structures and has assumed respon- and repair is borderline with regard to fitness for
sible positions on a variety of projects ranging from major (SMR) purpose. SMR can involve grouting
offshore and onshore field developments. He has devel- members, replacing full sections and
oped particular expertise in the area of lifecycle integrity repair to members, and/or
management for energy related facilities. His experience appurtenances.

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 Remediation and Repair of Offshore Structures 17

Structural A continuous integrity process applied Dier, A.F. (2004) Mineral Management Service (MMS). JIP on the
Assessment of Repair Techniques for Ageing or Damage Struc-
integrity throughout the design, operations,
tures. MSL Engineering Ltd. DOC REF C357R001 Rev 1. Nov
management maintenance, and decommissioning of 2004.
system (SIMS) a platform to ensure a platform is Harris, G. (1986) The Use of Cofferdams for Welded Repair to
safely managed and is fit for its Offshore Structures, Comex Houlder Diving Ltd, Aberdeen.
individual purposes. ISO 19902 (2007) Fixed Steel Offshore Structures, 1st edn, British
Structural risk The cornerstone to successful Standards International, London.
implementation of SIM is the ability Nichols, N.W. and Md Harif, H. (2014) Use of Platform Response
to effectively manage the structural Measurements from On-Line Monitoring (OLM) System to verify
risks associated with the platform the Effectiveness of Structural Repairs & Managing On-going
operations is the adoption of a Structural Integrity. OTC Asia Paper 24947-MS.
risk-based approach to managing the Nichols N.W., Khan, R., Ng, S.M., Lee, L.A., and PETRONAS Cari-
structural integrity for existing gali Sdn Bhd (2015) A Strengthening, Modification and Repair
(SMR) Toolkit for Structural Integrity Management of Ageing
offshore structures. Within this Offshore Structures. SPE Conference, Bali 2015.
context, structural risk is defined as
O’Connor, P.E., Bucknell, J.R., DeFrance, S.J., Westlake, H.S., and
the combination of the likelihood of Westlake, F.J. (2005) Structural Integrity Management (SIM) of
some event occurring during a time Offshore Facilities. Paper OTC 17545. Offshore Technological
period of interest and the Conference.
consequences (generally negative) Oil States Industries (2011) Case Study: Hydra Lok Swaging System.
associated with the event. In http://www.oilstates.com/fw/main/Hydra-LokCAE-Swaging-
mathematical terms, risk can be Systems-227.html (accessed June 2011).
expressed as Thurley, L.S. and Hollobone, T.A. (1981) Handbook of Underwater
Tools. CIRIA/UEG UR18, CIRIA, London.
Risk = Likelihood × Consequence
Structural safety These are structural members within the Westlake H, Puskar, F.J., O’Connor, P.E., and Bucknell, J.R. (2006)
The Role of Ultimate Strength Assessments in the Structural
critical platform that, if are severely damaged Integrity Management (SIM) of Offshore Structures. OTC 18331.
elements or damage goes unmitigated, can lead
(SCEs) to a reduction in the performance of
the structure and may lead to eventual
collapse. FURTHER READING
Ultimate strength Also called a “pushover analysis,” is a
analysis nonlinear measure of the reserve
API RP2A (2000) API Recommended Practice for the “Planning,
strength ratio (RSR) of the jacket
Designing and Constructing Fixed Offshore Platforms”, 21st edn,
structure. It is based on truss action American Petroleum Institute, Washington, DC.
and system strength rather than Dier, A.F. (2003) Mineral Management Service (MMS). JIP on the
component strength. Definition and Reporting of Significant Damage for Offshore Plat-
forms. MSL Engineering Ltd. DOC REF CH161R001 Rev 1. Jan
2003.
Nichols, N.W., Petronas Carigali Sdn Bhd, and Goh, T.K. (2006)
Managing Structural Integrity for Aging Platform. Proceedings for
REFERENCES the Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE), Adelaide, Australia.
Puskar, F., DeFranco, S., O’Connor, P., Bucknell, J., and Digre,
K. (2010) API RP 2SIM: Recommended Practice for Structural
ABS Consulting (2004) Hurricanes Lili Impacts on Fixed Platform. Integrity Management. Proceedings of the Offshore Technological
https://www.boem.gov/ (accessed June 2011). Conference (OTC) 20675.
API RP2 SIM (2014) Recommended Practice for the Structural Society of Petroleum Engineers (1998) New Technologies in the
Integrity Management of Fixed Offshore Structures, 1st edn, Amer- Reassessment, Strengthening and Repair of Offshore Steel Struc-
ican Petroleum Institute, Washington, DC. tures. Proceedings for the Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE),
International Petroleum Conference and Exhibition in Mexico.
AWS D3.6M (1999) Specification for Underwater Welding, Amer-
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Dier, A.F. (1996) Background to New Design Manual for Plat-
form Strengthening, Modification and Repair. Paper OTC 8079
presented at the Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, May
1996.

Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering, online © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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DOI: 10.1002/9781118476406.emoe409
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering (print edition) ISBN: 978-1-118-47635-2

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