Lim, Tiffany Danielle C. & Zipagan, Jemimah B.

2018-02558 & 2018-08706

Date Due: 21 March 2019
Date Submitted: 21 March 2019

Endocrine System
I. Endocrine and Exocrine Glands
A. Exocrine glands
1. Secrete their products into ducts that carry the secretions into body cavities, into
the lumen of an organ, or to the outer surface of the body
2. Types:
a) Sudoriferous (sweat)
b) Sebaceous (oil)
c) Mucous
d) Digestive glands

B. Endocrine glands
1. Secrete their products (hormones) into the interstitial fluid surrounding the
secretory cells rather than into ducts
2. Interstitial fluid → hormones diffuse into blood capillaries → blood carries them
to target cells throughout the body
3. Dependence on cardiovascular system to distribute products → endocrine glands
are some of the most vascular tissues of the body
4. Most hormones are required in very small amounts → circulating levels are
typically low
5. Types:
a) Pituitary glands
b) Parathyroid glands
c) Adrenal glands
d) Pineal glands
6. Organs:
a) Hypothalamus
b) Thymus
c) Pancreas
d) Ovaries
e) Testes
f) Kidneys
g) Stomach
h) Liver
i) Small intestine
j) Skin
k) Heart
l) Adipose tissue
m) Placenta
7. Endocrinology: science of the structure and function of the endocrine glands and
the diagnosis and treatment of disorders of the endocrine system
II. Classification of Hormones according to Chemical Composition

Lipid-Soluble Steroid hormones Thyroid hormones Nitric oxide (NO)

Hormones

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Definition - Derived - Synthesize - Hormone
from d by and a
cholesterol attaching neurotrans
- Unique due iodine to mitter
to the amino acid - Synthesis is
presence of tyrosine catalyzed
different - Presence of by the
chemical two enzyme
groups benzene nitric oxide
attached at rings within synthase
various a T3 or T4
sites on the molecule
four rings → very
at the core lipid-
of its soluble
structure
- Small
differences
→ large
diversity of
functions

Water-Soluble Amine hormones Peptide and protein Eicosanoid

Hormones hormones hormones

Definition - Synthesize - Amino acid - Derived

d by polymers from
decarboxyl - Small arachidonic
ating peptide acid (20-
(removing hormones carbon fatty
a molecule → 3 to 49 acid)
of CO2) amino acids - Prostagland
and - Larger ins and
modifying protein leukotriene
certain hormones s
amino acids → 50 to - Important
- Amines 200 amino local
- Catecholam acids hormones
ines are - Peptide → - Act as
synthesized antidiuretic circulating
by hormone hormones
modifying and
amino acid oxytocin
tyrosine - Protein →
- Histamine human
is growth
synthesized hormone
from amino and insulin
acid - Several
histidine by protein

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 mast cells hormones
and → attached
platelets carbohydrat
- Serotonin e groups →
and glycoprotei
melatonin n hormones
are derived
from
tryptophan

III. Mechanism of Action of Hormones

A. Action of lipid-soluble hormones
1. A free lipid-soluble hormone molecule diffuses from the blood, through
interstitial fluid, and through the lipid bilayer of the plasma membrane into a cell
2. Target cell → hormone binds → activates receptors located within the cytosol or
nucleus → activated receptor-hormone complex alters gene expression → turns
specific genes of nuclear DNA on or off
3. DNA is transcribed → mRNA forms → leaves nucleus → enters cytosol →
directs synthesis of new protein (often enzyme) on ribosomes
4. New proteins alter cell’s activity → hormone responses
B. Action of water-soluble hormones
1. Water -soluble hormone (first messenger) diffuses from blood through interstitial
fluid → binds to its receptor at the exterior surface of a target cell’s plasma
membrane → hormone-receptor complex activates a membrane protein (G
protein) → activates adenylate cyclase
2. Adenylate cyclase converts ATP into cyclic AMP (occurs in cytosol of cell)
3. Cyclic AMP (second messenger) activates one or more protein kinases
a) Protein kinase (enzyme that phosphorylates other cellular proteins)
b) Donor of phosphate group is ATP → ADP
4. Activated protein kinases phosphorylate one or more cellular proteins →
activates/inactivates proteins (turn on/off switch)
a) Inhibit certain proteins
5. Phosphorylated proteins → produce physiological responses
a) Different protein kinases exist within different target cells and within
different organelles of the same target cell
b) protein kinase → glycogen synthesis / breakdown of triglyceride /
protein synthesis
6. Brief period → phosphodiesterase (enzyme) inactivates cAMP → cell’s response
is turned off unless new hormone molecules continue to bind to their receptors in
the plasma membrane
IV. Regulation of Negative Feedback Mechanism

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V. The control of hormonal secretions by the nervous system
A. Factors of regulation (*include diagrams)
1. signals from the nervous system
2. chemical changes in the blood
3. other hormones
B. Feedback Mechanism
1. Negative feedback
2. Positive feedback
VI. Locations of the major endocrine glands of the body and hormones secreted
A. Pituitary Gland
1. Hypophysis
2. Pea-shaped structure measuring 1–1.5 cm (0.5 in.)
3. hypophyseal fossa of the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone
4. Attaches the hypothalamus by the infundibulum
5. Two portions:
a) Anterior pituitary
(1) Anterior lobe
(2) Adenohypophysis
(3) 75% of the total weight
(4) Composed of epithelial tissue
(5) 2 parts: pars distalis and pars tuberalis
(6) Hormonal regulation
(7) Releasing hormones - stimulation
(8) Inhibiting hormones - suppression
b) Posterior pituitary
(1) Posterior lobe
(2) Neurohypophysis
(3) Composed of neural tissue

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 (4) 2 parts: pars nervosa and pars intermedia
(5) store and release two hormones: oxytocin and ADH

6. Hypophyseal Portal System

● neurosecretory cells
- clusters of specialized neurons
- Synthesize hypothalamic hormones
- Package hormones inside vesicles

● tropic hormones
- Tropin
- hormones that act on other endocrine glands
B. Hypothalamus
1. “Master” of pituitary gland
2. Major link between nervous system and endocrine systems

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C. Thyroid Gland
1. Butterfly-shaped
2. located just inferior to the larynx (voice box)
3. Parts:
a) lateral lobes (right and left)
b) Isthmus
c) pyramidal lobe*
4. Normal mass = 30 g (1 oz)
5. thyroid follicles -microscopic spherical sacs
6. follicular cells - composes the follicle walls
7. basement membrane - surrounds each membrane
8. Produces 2 hormones (thyroid hormones):
a) thyroxine or tetraiodothyronine (T4)
b) Triiodothyronine (T3)
9. Parafollicular cells
a) C cells
b) lie between follicles
c) produce the hormone
d) calcitonin (CT) which helps regulate calcium homeostasis.
10. Formation, Storage, and Release of Thyroid Hormones

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 1. Iodine trapping - traps I-by transporting from blood
to cytosol
2. Synthesis of thyroglobulin - synthesizing
thyroglobulin (TGB)
3. Oxidation of iodide - tyrosines in TGB will become
iodinated
4. Iodination of tyrosine. - I2+ tyrosines = thyroglobulin
molecules
5. Coupling of T1 and T2 - (2)T2=T4 ; T1+T2=T3
6. Pinocytosis and digestion of colloid- breakdown of
TGB
7. Secretion of thyroid hormones
8. Transport in the blood

11. Control of Thyroid Hormone Secretion

D. P
arathyroid
Glands
E. A
drenal Glands
1. s
uprarenal
glands
2. A
drenal cortex
a) z
ona
glomerulosa - mineralocorticoids
b) zona fasciculata -
glucocorticoids
c) zona reticularis - androgens
3. Mineralocorticoids
a) Aldosterone - major mineralocorticoid
b) regulates homeostasis of two Na and K ions
c) helps adjust blood pressure and blood volume
d) promotes excretion of H in the urine
F. Pancreatic Islets
G. Ovaries and Testes
H. Pineal Gland and Thymus
I. Hormones

VII. Regulation of secretions

A. Thyroid hormones

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 2. Negative feedback
regulation of
glucocorticoid secretion

B. Regulation of Aldosterone
secretion
1. Renin–angiotensin–
aldosterone (RAA)
pathway

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C. Parathyroid gland - Ca
homeostasis

D. Control of Secretion of
Glucagon and Insulin

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