Types of bones

Bone, or osseous tissue, is a connective tissue that constitutes the endoskeleton. It contains specialized cells and a matrix of
mineral salts and collagen fibers.

The mineral salts primarily include hydroxyapatite, a mineral formed from calcium phosphate. Calcificationis the process of
deposition of mineral salts on the collagen fiber matrix that crystallizes and hardens the tissue. The process of calcification only
occurs in the presence of collagen fibers.

The bones of the human skeleton are classified by their shape: long bones, short bones, flat bones, sutural bones, sesamoid
bones, and irregular bones

Long bones are longer than they are wide and have a shaft and two ends. The diaphysis, or central shaft, contains bone marrow
in a marrow cavity. The rounded ends, the epiphyses, are covered with articular cartilage and are filled with red bone marrow,
which produces blood cells (Figure 2). Most of the limb bones are long bones—for example, the femur, tibia, ulna, and radius.
Exceptions to this include the patella and the bones of the wrist and ankle.

Short bones, or cuboidal bones, are bones that are the same width and length, giving them a cube-like shape. For example, the
bones of the wrist (carpals) and ankle (tarsals) are short bones

Flat bones are thin and relatively broad bones that are found where extensive protection of organs is required or where broad
surfaces of muscle attachment are required. Examples of flat bones are the sternum (breast bone), ribs, scapulae (shoulder
blades), and the roof of the skull

Irregular bones are bones with complex shapes. These bones may have short, flat, notched, or ridged surfaces. Examples of
irregular bones are the vertebrae, hip bones, and several skull bones.

Sesamoid bones are small, flat bones and are shaped similarly to a sesame seed. The patellae are sesamoid bones. Sesamoid
bones develop inside tendons and may be found near joints at the knees, hands, and feet.

Sutural bones are small, flat, irregularly shaped bones. They may be found between the flat bones of the skull. They vary in
number, shape, size, and position.

Bone System functions

1. Support: the bones are the support of the soft tissues, and the point of support of the majority of the skeletal muscles.
2. Protection: the bones protect the internal organs, for example the skull protects the Encephalon, the rib cage to the
heart and lungs.
3. Movements: in conjunction with the muscles.
4. Mineral homeostasis: bone tissue stores calcium and phosphorus to give resistance to bones, and also releases them
to the blood to keep their concentration in balance.
5. Production of blood cells: in the red bone marrow (specialized connective tissue) hemopoiesis occurs to produce red,
white, and platelet cells.
6. Storage of triglycerides: the red bone marrow is gradually replaced in adults by yellow bone marrow, which contains
adipocytes.
Bone cells
Osteoblast, large cell responsible for the synthesis and mineralization of bone during both initial bone formation and
later bone remodeling. Osteoblasts form a closely packed sheet on the surface of the bone, from which cellular processes
extend through the developing bone. They arise from the differentiation of osteogenic cells in the periosteum, the tissue that
covers the outer surface of the bone, and in the endosteum of the marrow cavity. This cell differentiation requires a regular
supply of blood, without which cartilage-forming chondroblasts, rather than osteoblasts, are formed. The osteoblasts produce
many cell products, including the enzymes alkaline phosphatase and collagenase, growth factors, hormones such as
osteocalcin, and collagen, part of the organic unmineralized component of the bone called osteoid. Eventually the osteoblast
is surrounded by the growing bone matrix, and, as the material calcifies, the cell is trapped in a space called a lacuna. Thus
entrapped, it becomes an osteocyte, or bone cell. Osteocytes communicate with each other as well as with free bone surfaces
via extensive cytoplasmic processes that occupy long, meandering channels (canaliculi) through the bone matrix
Osteocyte, a cell that lies within the substance of fully formed bone. It occupies a small chamber called a lacuna, which is
contained in the calcified matrix of bone. Osteocytes derive from osteoblasts, or bone-forming cells, and are essentially osteoblasts
surrounded by the products they secreted. Cytoplasmic processes of the osteocyte extend away from the cell toward other
osteocytes in small channels called canaliculi. By means of these canaliculi, nutrients and waste products are exchanged to
maintain the viability of the osteocyte. Osteocytes are the most abundant type of cell in mature bone tissue. They also are long-
lived, surviving as long as the bone they occupy exists.
The osteocyte is capable of bone deposition and resorption. It also is involved in bone remodeling by transmitting signals to other
osteocytes in response to even slight deformations of bone caused by muscular activity. In this way, bone becomes stronger if
additional stress is placed on it (for example, by frequent exercise or physical exertion) and weaker if it is relieved of stress (for
example, by inactivity). The osteocyte may aid in calcium removal from bone when the body’s calcium level drops too low. The
premature death or dysfunction of osteocytes is associated with diseases such as osteoporosis and osteoarthritis.

Osteoclast, large multinucleated cell responsible for the dissolution and absorption of bone. Bone is a dynamic tissue that is
continuously being broken down and restructured in response to such influences as structural stress and the body’s
requirement for calcium. The osteoclasts are the mediators of the continuous destruction of bone. Osteoclasts occupy small
depressions on the bone’s surface, called Howship lacunae; the lacunae are thought to be caused by erosion of the bone by
the osteoclasts’ enzymes. Osteoclasts are formed by the fusion of many cells derived from circulating monocytes in the blood.
These in turn are derived from the bone marrow. Osteoclasts may have as many as 200 nuclei, although most have only 5 to
20. The side of the cell closest to the bone contains many small projections (microvilli) that extend into the bone’s surface,
forming a ruffled, or brush, border that is the cell’s active region. Osteoclasts produce a number of enzymes, chief among
them acid phosphatase, that dissolve both the organic collagen and the inorganic calcium and phosphorusof the bone.
Mineralized bone is first broken into fragments; the osteoclast then engulfs the fragments and digests them within cytoplasmic
vacuoles. Calcium and phosphorus liberated by the breakdown of the mineralized bone are released into the bloodstream.
Unmineralized bone (osteoid) is protected against osteoclastic resorption
What types of diseases affect the osseous system?
Osteoporosis
Osteoporosis is a disease that thins and weakens the bones. Your bones become fragile and break easily, especially the bones in
the hip, spine, and wrist. In the United States, millions of people either already have osteoporosis or are at high risk due to low
bone mass. Anyone can develop osteoporosis, but it is more common in older women.
Risk factors include:

 Getting older
 Being small and thin
 Having a family history of osteoporosis
 Having low bone density
Osteoporosis is a silent disease. You might not know you have it until you break a bone. A bone mineral density test is the best
way to check your bone health.
Arthritis
Arthritis is an inflammation of the joints, joint capsules, the surrounding tissue or parts throughout the body. It usually affects the
joints of the neck, shoulders, hands, lower back, hips or knees.
This can cause pain and a limited range of movement. Several things can cause arthritis, including the breakdown of cartilage
that’s found in joints, autoimmune conditions, or infection.
Bone cancer
Cancer that starts in a bone is uncommon. Cancer that has spread to the bone from another part of the body is more common.
There are three types of bone cancer:

 Osteosarcoma - occurs most often between ages 10 and 19. It is more common in the knee and upper arm.
 Chondrosarcoma - starts in cartilage, usually after age 40
 Ewing's sarcoma - occurs most often in children and teens under 19. It is more common in boys than girls.
The most common symptom of bone cancer is pain. Other symptoms vary, depending on the location and size of the cancer.
Surgery is often the main treatment for bone cancer. Other treatments may include amputation, chemotherapy, and radiation
therapy.