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SOIL STABILIZATION TECHNIQUES AND PROCEDURES IN THE DEVELOPING

COUNTRIES-NIGERIA

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Global Jour. of Engg. & Tech.
Volume 5, Number 1 (2012) 65-69

SOIL STABILIZATION TECHNIQUES AND

PROCEDURES IN THE DEVELOPING
COUNTRIES-NIGERIA
ONYELOWE, KENNEDY CHIBUZOR
Department of Civil Engineering Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike,
P.M.B. 7267, Umuahia 440109, Abia State, Nigeria
Abstract : This work is centered on highlights on the available techniques and procedures of soil stabilization
and to keep geotechnical engineers in the developing world abreast of the cheaper technologies with respect to
soil stabilization and a need to do what is right in this field. We are caught in crossfire when our structures fail due
to the fact that soils are not investigated to determine and establish what needs to be done before erecting
structures. There are lots of soil stabilization techniques and procedures available as outlined by the present
work. Apart from the most commonly used techniques; mechanical (compaction, dewatering, mixing and so on)
and chemical (lime, cement, bitumen, fly-ash and so on), there are other cheaper methods of stabilizing and
improving the geophysical properties of soil like the use of compounds of chlorides, additives like baggashe ash
(sugar cane foil ash), egg-shell ash, quarry dust, and so on.

1.0 Introdduction
Soil stabilization refers to the procedure in which a special soil, a cementing material, or
other chemical or non chemical materials are added to a natural soil or a technique use on a
natural soil to improve one or more of its properties. One may achieve stabilization by physi-
cally mixing the natural soil and stabilizing materials together so as to achieve a homogeneous
mixture or by adding stabilizing material to an undisturbed soil deposits and obtaining interac-
tion by letting it permeate through soil voids, Abood and others (2007).
Soil stabilizing additives are used to improve the properties of less desirable road soils.
When used these stabilizing agents can improve and maintain soil moisture content, increase
soil particle cohesion and serve as cementing and water proofing agents, Janathan (2004).
In the United States, engineers are often faced with the problem of constructing road beds
on or with soils, which do not possess sufficient strength to support wheel loads imposed upon
them either in construction or during the service life of the pavements, OGE (2008). It is, at
times, necessary to treat or modify these soils to provide a stable sub grade or a working
platform for the construction of the pavement. The result of these treatments are that less time
and energy is required in the production, handling and placement of road and bridge fills and
sub grades and therefore, less time to complete the construction process thus reducing the
disruption and delays to traffic. Unfortunately, Nigerian constructors, and contractors in this
area of the country’s professional life don’t consider the examinations to determine the need to
modify or treat rood, silty, lateritic and clayey soils before use as sub grade materials impera-
tive. As a result, 90% of Nigerian roads fail each other day even soon after construction. With
the foregoing, civil engineers in Nigeria have a crucial area of interest if they must continue to
Key words : soil stabilization, chloride compounds, fly-ash, cement, quarry dust, geophysical properties.
66 ONYELOWE, KENNEDY CHIBUZOR

be relevant in this field and if they hope to change the dashing hope and expectations of Nige-
rians, Onyelowe (2011).
Various soil modification or stabilization guidelines are discussed below. It is necessary for
designers to take into consideration the local economic factors as well as environmental condi-
tions and project locations for design.
2.0 Stabilization or Modification of Weak and Unstable Soils
Stabilization or modification of soils in other words is soil reinforcement. The principle of
reinforced soil is that a mass of soil can be given tensile strength in a specific direction if
lengths of a material capable of carrying tension are embedded within it in the required direc-
tion. This idea has been known for centuries. The Bible quotes the use of straw to strengthen
unburnt clay bricks, and, from ancient times, fascine mattresses have been used to strengthen
soft soil deposits prior to road construction.
Ziggurats, built in Iraq consisted of dried earth blocks, reinforced across the width of the
structure with tarred ropes, Smith and Smith (1998). However the full potential of reinforced soil
was never realized until Vidal, who coined the term “reinforced earth “, demonstrated its wide
potential and produced a rational design approach in his work of 1966. There is no doubt that the
present day use of reinforced soil structures stems directly from the pioneer work of Vidal.
Reinforced soil can be used in many geotechnical applications, Smith and Smith (1998). Weak or
peat soils are stabilized due to high initial water content of the stabilized weak soil samples in
order to gradually reduce their moisture content, Behzad and Huat (2008). Pavement design is
based on the premise that minimum specified structural quality will be achieved for each layer of
material in the pavement system. Each layer must resist shearing, avoid excessive deflections that
cause fatigue cracking within the layer or in overlying layers and prevent excessive permanent
deformation through densification. As the quality of a soil layer is increased, the ability of that
layer to distribute the load over a greater area is generally increased so that a reduction in the
required thickness of tge soil and surface layers may be permitted DANA (1994).
The most common improvement achieved through stabilization include better soil gradation,
reduction of plasticity index or swelling potential, and increases in durability and strength. In wet
weather, stabilization may also be used to provide a working platform for construction operations.
The strength and stiffness of a soil layer can be improved through the use of additives to permit a
reduction in design thickness of the stabilized material compared with an unstabilized or unbound
material DANA (1994). A thick compressible layer requires a long time to consolidate because
water particles have to travel a long distance to reach the drainage layer, Garg(2005).
3.0 Soil Stabilization Methods and Procedures
3.1 Geosynthetic Stabilization
A geosynthetic has been defined by the “American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
committee D35 on Geosynthetics” as “A planar product manufactured from polymeric material
used with soil, rock, earth or other geotechnical engineering related materials as an integral part
of a man-made project structure or system”, Onyelowe (2011). It refers to all fabricated syn-
thetic (usually polymeric) materials used in various geotechnical applications such as drainage,
reinforcement, erosion control, and lightweight fill, Onyelowe (2011).
Geogrids has been used to reinforce road sections. The inclusion of geogrids in sub-grades
changes the performance of the road way in many ways, Zia and Fox (2001). Tensile reinforce-
ment, confinement, lateral spreading reduction, separation, construction uniformity, and reduc-
tion in strain have been identified as primary reinforcement mechanisms, OGE (2008). Geosynthetics
 SOIL STABILIZATION TECHNIQUES... 67

have been increasingly used in geotechnical and environmental engineering for last four decades.
Over the years, these products have helped designers and contractors to solve several types of
engineering problems where the use of conventional construction materials would be restricted or
considerably more expensive, Onyelowe (2011). Major classifications of geosynthetics include;
1. Geotextiles 2. Geogrids
3. Geonets 4. Geomembranes
5. Geocomposites 6. Geosynthetic clay liners (GCLs)
7. Geopipes 8. Geocells
9. Geofoams
Proedure: although geotextiles have so far not been used on a large scale around the globe,
yet they have been used on experimental scale, particularly after the start of their indigenous
manufacturing, say for example, geotextile GPB-127 of shree Dinesh Mills Vadodara was first
used in June 1982, in railway track between Ankleshwar and Bharuch cities (in Gujarat states,
India), where 5cm thick course sand was placed between the geotextile layer and 30-33cm thick
angular ballast, over which sleepers were placed to support the rals, Garg (2005).
The performance of this experimental track had given quite encouraging results, wherein
after four years of functioning, the fabric was found to be in sound condition. It quite unfortu-
nate and disheartening that in a country like Nigeria, engineers, designers, constructors and
contractors only make use of this great evolving area primarily in the construction of drain
facilities. Yet it is a secondary choice even when advanced countries of the world had experi-
mented and found the use of geotextiles very advantageous, durable, desirable, and cost effec-
tive. The geotextiles as they are used in other developed and developing lands have been laid on
pavements either over the entire pavement, or only at the concrete slab joints and small pot
holes to save on its costs. The first procedure is costly and is needed if the condition of the
pavement ad climatic conditions of rainfall and soil conditions are adverse.
3.2 Chemical Stabilization
The transformation soil index properties by adding chemicals such as cement, fly-ash, lime,
or a combination of these and chloride compounds, often alters the physical and chemical
properties of the soil including the cementation of the soil particles. There are two primary
mechanisms by which chemicals alter the soil into a stable sub-grade;
1. Increase in particle size by cementation, internal friction among the agglomerates, greater
shear strength, reduction in the plasticity index, and reduced shrink/swell potential.
2. Absorption and chemical binding of moisture that will facilitate compaction, OGE (2008).
Chemical stabilizers are often used as admixtures and they improve economically the physi-
cal properties of soils. These stabilization processes involve mixing with the soil the given
additive (to first change the soil properties) and then compacting the admixture suitably. These
stabilization methods are applicable only for soils in shallow foundations, or the base course of
roads, air field pavements, and so on.
3.2.1 Lime Stabilization
Hydrated lime (Ca2 (OH)2) is used to improve the strength, stiffness and durability of fine
grained soils. It has also been used as a stabilizer for soils in the base courses of concrete pave-
ments, and on embankment slopes, and under canal linings on canal slopes, Ike (2006). Addition
of lime to soils produces a maximum density under higher optimum moisture content than in the
untreated soil. In addition, lime produces a decrease in plasticity index, (www.lime.org).
68 ONYELOWE, KENNEDY CHIBUZOR

3.2.2 Bitumen Stabilization

Substances such as asphaltic bitumen, tar, emulsions and so on are sometimes used to stabi-
lize the soils, particularly for stabilizing the sub-grades or bases of roads carrying higher loads.
This is useful in granular sandy soils in dry condition.
3.2.3 Chloride Compounds Stabilization
A difficult problem in civil engineering works exists when the sub-grade is found to be clay
soil. Soils having high clay content have the tendency to swell when their moisture content is
allowed to increase. But in the developing world or countries like Nigeria for instance, there is
need and justification to seek cheaper additives which may be used to alter the soil properties
and the rood or clayey soil useful in civil engineering works. However, the use of chloride
compounds (NaCl, CaCl2, MgCl2, KC1 and so on) on the engineering properties of silty clay
soils. From researches carried out, it shows that the addition of one of these chloride com-
pounds decreases the liquid limit, plasticity limit, and plasticity index for the soil, Abood and
others (2007). This operation also increases the dry density and decreases the optimum mois-
ture content with increase in salts’ percentage. Also the compressive strength of the soil in-
creases with addition of chloride compounds, Abood and others (2007).
3.2.4 Cementitious Stabilization
Cement is composed of calcium-silicates and calcium-aluminates that, when combined with
water hydrate to form the cementing compounds of calcium-silicate-hydrate and calcium-alu-
minate-hydrate, as well as excess calcium hydroxide. Because of cementitious material, as well
as the calcium hydroxide (lime) formed, cement may be successful in stabilizing both granular
and fine-grained soils, as well as aggregates and miscellaneous materials, Little and others
(2010) and Graber (2006).
3.3 Mechanical Stabilization
This the process of altering soil properties by changing the gradation through mixing with
other soils, densifying the soils using compaction efforts, or undercutting the existing soils and
replacing them with granular material, OGE (2008), Garg (2005) and DANA (1998). This is
also achieved by dewatering, Garg (2005).
3.4 Non-Cementitious Additives Stabilization
There are Lots of additives that have been experimented on with effect to improve the
geophysical properties of soil at lower cost by replacing certain percentages of cementitious
stabilizers with non cementitious additives. Some of these non-cementitious stabilizers include;
1. Quarry dust obtained as waste in a quarry site
2. Baggashe ash obtained as waste from sugar cane processing factory
3. Egg-shell ash
4. Palm kernel ash
5. Saw dust ash, and so on.
4.0 Soil Stabilization Needs for the Third World Country
While and designing structures to be rested on natural grounds, soil testing is done to find
out the bearing capacity and settlement characteristics of the ground. Quite often, engineers
encounter situations where the selected site is not found suitable to take the load of the proposed
structure. It means that either the bearing capacity at shallow depth for locating shallow foot-
 SOIL STABILIZATION TECHNIQUES... 69

ings may be too low or the likely settlement may exceed the tolerable limits. These are the
major problems and setbacks in developing countries. In Nigeria here, constructors, contrac-
tors, and more importantly geotechnical engineers are not consulted prior to the erection of
civil engineering structures either horizontal or vertical structures. The examination of the soil
upon which such proposed works are founded is never included as an important phase or step
may be because of the thinking that such important phases are very expensive. There is need to
investigate soils and perhaps stabilize or modify if need be so that foundations are laid on
reliable soils. Cost effectively, the new discoveries on the different techniques and procedures
today on the stabilization of soils is superb. Over 90% of the structural failures recorded in
different parts of the country are caused by foundation failures. Furthermore, 90% of these
90% of structural foundation failures are on our highways and finally 90% of this figure is
caused by sub-grade soil failures.
5.0 Conclusion
There is a great need for Nigeria engineers to find out through this work or other related
works, what stabilization techniques are available to them and use same to help both individuals
and the country. It not as if our engineers in this area don’t know what to employ to change the
face of structural crisis in this country but out of greed, they have refused to do what is right
according to the professional ethos guiding all of us.
Most of the cities in Nigeria suffer the fate of weak soils; Lagos, Uyo, Benin, and others and
at the same time clayey, silty clay and lateritic soils borrowed for pavement construction in
achieving sub-grade formation or finished level need to be either stabilized or modified to
improve on its geophysical properties.
REFERENCES
Abood, T.T., Kasa, A.B., and Chik, Z.B. (2007): Stabilization of Silty Clay Soil Using Chlo-
ride Compounds, JEST, Malaysia, Vol.2, pg 102-103
Behzad, K. and Huat, B.B.K. (2008): Peat Soil Stabilization sing Ordinary Portland Cement,
Polypropylene Fibers, and Air Curing Technique, EJGE, USA, Vol.13, pgl
DANA (1994): Soil Stabilization for Pavements. Army TM5-822-14/Air Force AF JMAN 32-
1019, USA, Chaps. 1-5
Garg, S.K. (2005): Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, 6th Edition, Kharma Publish-
ers, Delhi
Graber, E.R., Fine, P., and Levy, G. J. (2006): Soil Stabilization in Semiarid and Arid Land
Agriculture, Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, ASCE, Vol.18. No.2, pg 190-201
Janathan, Q.A., Sanders, T.G., and Chenard, M. (2004): Road Dust Suppression; Effect on
Unpaved Road Stabilization, JEST, Malaysia, Vol. 1, pg 21
Little, D.N., Males, E.H., Prusinski, J.R., and Stewart, B. (2010): Cementitious Stabilization;
Transportation in the New Millennium, Louisiana, USA, pg 1-7
OGE (2008): Design Procedures for Modification or Stabilization
Onyelowe, K.C. (2011): Geosynthetics and Geotechnical Properties of Soil in a Developing
World; A Lesson for Nigeria, EJGE, USA, Vol.16, pg 1481-1487
Smith, G.N., and Smith, I.G.N. (1998): Elements of Soil Mechanics, 7th Edition, Blackwell
Science, Inc., USA.
WWW.LIME.ORG: Using Lime For Soil Stabilization and Modification.
Zia and Fox (2001): Pavement Sub-grade Stabilization Using Geogrid Reinforcement, Pre-
sented in Geosynthetics, Portland, Oregon, pg 2-6

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