AES-4id-2001

STANDARDS AND r2007; s2008

INFORMATION DOCUMENTS

AES information document

for room acoustics and sound
reinforcement systems —
Characterization and measurement
of surface scattering uniformity

Users of this standard are encouraged to determine if they are using the latest printing
incorporating all current amendments and editorial corrections. Information on the latest
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 AES-4id-2001 (r2007)

AES information document

for room acoustics and sound
reinforcement systems —
Characterization and measurement
of surface scattering uniformity

Published by
Audio Engineering Society, Inc.
Copyright
2001 by the Audio Engineering Society

Abstract
This document provides guidelines for characterizing the uniformity of scattering produced by surfaces from
measurements or predictions of scattered polar responses.

An AES standard implies a consensus of those directly and materially affected by its scope and provisions and is
intended as a guide to aid the manufacturer, the consumer, and the general public. An AES information document
is a form of standard containing a summary of scientific and technical information; originated by a technically
competent writing group; important to the preparation and justification of an AES standard or to the understanding
and application of such information to a specific technical subject. An AES information document implies the same
consensus as an AES standard. However, dissenting comments, if any, may be published with the document.

The existence of an AES standard or AES information document does not in any respect preclude anyone, whether
or not he or she has approved the document, from manufacturing, marketing, purchasing, or using products,
processes, or procedures not conforming to the standard. Attention is drawn to the possibility that some of the
elements of this AES standard or information document may be the subject of patent rights. AES shall not be held
responsible for identifying any or all such patents.

This document is subject to periodic review and users are cautioned to obtain the latest edition and printing.
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Contents

Foreword .......................................................................................................................................3
1 Scope.........................................................................................................................................4
2 Normative references .....................................................................................................................4
3 Definitions..................................................................................................................................4
4 Measurement of polar response........................................................................................................7
4.1 Measurement environment...........................................................................................................7
4.2 Measurement field......................................................................................................................9
4.3 Test sample ............................................................................................................................ 11
4.4 Measuring techniques................................................................................................................ 11
4.5 Polar response processing.......................................................................................................... 13
5 Prediction techniques................................................................................................................... 16
6 Extraction of coefficients.............................................................................................................. 16
6.1 Directional diffusion coefficient .................................................................................................. 16
6.2 Calculation of area factors.......................................................................................................... 17
6.3 Diffusion coefficient................................................................................................................. 18
7 Presentation of results ................................................................................................................. 18
8 Test report................................................................................................................................. 18
Annex A Qualification of a measurement space................................................................................... 19
A.1 Space criteria.......................................................................................................................... 19
A.1.1 Sound pressure level deviation................................................................................................. 19
A.1.2 Signal-to-noise ratio.............................................................................................................. 19
A.2 Environments......................................................................................................................... 19
A.2.1 Anechoic chamber................................................................................................................. 19
A.2.2 Non-anechoic space............................................................................................................... 19
A.2.3 Placement ........................................................................................................................... 19
Annex B Informative references........................................................................................................ 20

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Foreword

[This foreword is not a part of AES information document for room acoustics and sound reinforcement systems—
Characterization and measurement of surface scattering uniformity, AES-4id-2001.]

This document was prepared by a writing group of the SC-04-02 Working Group on Characterization of Acoustical
Materials of the SC-04 Subcommittee on Acoustics in partial fulfillment of project AES-X06, Measuring and
Modeling Acoustical Materials: Specification of Measuring Methods, Computer Models, and Transportable
Computer Data Files Compatible with Room Simulators and Auralizers. The project was initiated in 1994.

Trevor Cox headed the writing group for the final draft in cooperation with the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) TC 43 SC 2 Building Acoustics working group (WG25) under AES project AES-X81.

Peter D'Antonio, chair

Trevor Cox, vice-chair
SC-04-02
2000-09-07

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AES information document

for room acoustics and sound
reinforcement systems —
Characterization and measurement
of surface scattering uniformity

1 Scope
This document provides guidelines for characterizing the uniformity of scattering produced by surfaces from
measurements or predictions of scattered polar responses. In this context, the surface scattering is quantified in terms
of a single diffusion coefficient. The diffusion coefficient is a measure of quality designed to be used by producers
and users of surfaces that, either deliberately or accidentally, diffuse sound. It is also intended for use when needed
by developers and users of geometric room acoustic models. The diffusion coefficient is not intended, however, to
be blindly used as an input to current diffusion algorithms in geometric room acoustic models. The diffusion
coefficient characterizes the sound reflected from a surface in terms of the uniformity of the scattered polar
distribution. The information document details a free-field characterization method.

2 Normative references
No standards contain provisions that, through reference in this text, constitute provisions of this document.

3 Definitions
For the purposes of this standard, the following definitions apply.

3.1
reference flat surface
plane, rigid, and thin surface, with the same projected shape or footprint as the test surface

3.2
reference normal
outward-pointing vector perpendicular to the front face of the reference flat surface

3.3
reference point
geometric center of gravity of the reference flat surface

3.4
sound ray
line following one possible direction of sound propagation from a source point

3.5
specular reflection
incident sound ray that undergoes specular reflection such that Snell's law (that is, the angle of reflection equals the
angle of incidence) is obeyed, when the wavelength of sound is small compared to the dimensions of the reference
flat surface
NOTE Following Fermat’s principle the actual path between source and receiver via the panel will be
the one that is traversed in the least time.

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3.6
specular zone
area contained by imaginary lines constructed from the image source, which is created about the plane of the
reference flat surface via the edges of the reference flat surface to the receiver arc

NOTE The position at which an imaginary line from the image source to a receiver crosses the diffuser
is the specular reflection point. See Figure 1.

SOURCE
SPECULAR ZONE

 

REFERENCE FLAT
RECEIVER ARC SURFACE

IMAGE SOURCE

Figure 1 — Representation of specular zone

3.7
far field
part of the reflected sound field more distant from the test surface in which the inverse-distance law (that is, sound
pressure is inversely proportional to distance) is obeyed, as opposed to the near field, where the angular field
distribution is dependent on the distance from the radiator

3.8
single-plane diffuser
surface that displays distinct anisotropic behavior, as can be the case for a cylinder or a one-dimensional Schroeder
diffuser

NOTE For these surfaces the diffusion is measured in the plane of maximum diffusion. See figure 2.

Figure 2 — Scattering from a single-plane diffuser

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3.9
hemispherical diffuser
surface that is expected to display more approximately isotropic behavior, where hemispherical evaluation is needed
with a single diffusion coefficient

NOTE See figure 3.

Figure 3 — Scattering from a hemispherical diffuser

3.10
semicircular polar response
sound pressure level created by energy scattered from the surface as a function of angle measured about the reference
normal, generated under free-field or pseudo-free-field conditions, in a specified plane, on a semicircle centered at
the reference point, at a radial distance consistent with guidelines in 4.2

3.11
hemispherical polar response
sound pressure level scattered from the surface as a function of spherical coordinates measured about the reference
normal, generated under free-field or pseudo-free-field conditions, on a hemisphere centered at the reference point

3.12
complete diffusion
a) condition that occurs with a single-plane diffuser when all receivers on a semicircular polar response receive the
same reflected sound pressure
b) condition that occurs with a hemispherical diffuser when the same sound energy is scattered from the surface into
all solid angles

NOTE Complete diffusion occurs when the polar responses are completely uniform.

3.13
directional diffusion coefficient
d

measure of the uniformity of diffusion produced by a surface for one source position

NOTE d
is bounded between 0 and
1. When complete diffusion is achieved by the surface, the diffusion
coefficient is 1. If only one receiver receives non-zero scattered sound pressure, the diffusion coefficient is
0. The subscript
is used to indicate the angle of incidence relative to the reference normal of the surface.

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3.14
diffusion coefficient
d
1,
2, …,
n
measure of the uniformity of diffusion for more than one source position

NOTE A mean of the directional diffusion coefficients for the different source positions is used to
calculate the diffusion coefficient. The subscripts
1,
2, …
n are used to indicate the angles of incidence
relative to the reference normal of the surface used.

3.15
random incidence diffusion coefficient
d
measure of the uniformity of diffusion for a representative sample of sources over a complete semicircle for a single-
plane diffuser, or a complete hemisphere for a hemispherical diffuser

NOTE A mean of the directional diffusion coefficients for the different source positions is used to
calculate the diffusion coefficient. A guideline to achieve a representative sample of sources is given in
4.2.1. The lack of a subscript for d indicates random incidence.

3.16
diffusion bandwidth
frequency range over which significantly more diffusion is achieved when compared to the reference plane surface

NOTE In terms of diffusion coefficient, the value should exceed that achieved by the reference flat surface
by at least 0,1.

3.17
transfer function
ratio of the sound pressure at the receiver to the sound pressure produced by the source measured at 1
m under
free-field conditions

NOTE 1 Other source references are appropriate, provided there is a fixed linear relationship between the
sound pressure at 1 m and the reference, for example, the input voltage to a moving-coil loudspeaker driven
by a constant-voltage source.

NOTE 2 An inverse Fourier transform is applied to the transfer function to obtain the impulse response.

3.18
physical scale ratio 1:N
ratio of any linear dimension in a physical scale model to the same linear dimension in full scale

4 Measurement of polar response

4.1 Measurement environment

To avoid measurement errors caused by sound-reflecting objects, an anechoic chamber as described in annex A should
be used as the measurement environment. An implementation of such a setup is illustrated in figure
4.

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Figure 4 — Three-dimensional measurement goniometer

Large non-anechoic spaces may be used to simulate a reflection-free environment according to annex A.

Boundary measurements may also be carried out to remove the necessity for a space to be anechoic in one plane,
provided conditions in annex A are satisfied. An implementation of such a setup is illustrated in figure 5.

Figure 5 — Two-dimensional boundary measurement technique

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Scale models may be used to evaluate the diffusion from test surfaces. The sound wavelength used in a scale model
shall conform to the physical scale ratio. If the speed of sound in the model is the same as in full scale, then the
frequencies used for the model measurements shall be a factor of N higher than in full scale. For scale models the
absorption properties shall be the same for both the full-scale surface at full-scale frequencies and the test surface
at the equivalent model-scale frequency. When considering absorption from samples, losses due to viscous boundary
layer effects shall be included. This inclusion can limit the usable model scales.

4.2 Measurement field

4.2.1 Near-field versus far-field measurements
4.2.1.1 Diffusers may be applied in situations where some or all sources and receivers are in the near field. In
such cases, measurements to determine the diffusion coefficient should take place both at application-realistic near-
field positions and in the far field. The tests in the far field monitor the amount of diffusion achieved, measurements
in the near field shall be used to check for near-field aberrations, particularly focusing.

4.2.1.2 An exception to 4.2.1.1 is the application of the diffuser only for far-field sources and receivers, in which
case diffusion coefficient measurements may be undertaken only in the far field.

4 . 2 . 1 . 3 When comparing test surfaces, the same geometry shall be used in each case to avoid errors. Full geometry
information, source locations, receiver positions, and test-surface dimensions and construction shall be quoted in
reports.

4.2.3 Far-field measurements

For far-field measurements, a semicircular or hemispherical polar response should be collected. Far-field conditions
can be obtained if the distances (r) from source and receiver to the reference point fulfill the following requirements:

1) r >> Dmax
2) r / Dmax >> D max /

3) r = 2r1r2 / (r1 + r2)

where

Dmax is the largest dimension of the diffuser;

is the wavelength;
r1 is the distance from the source to the reference point;
r2 is the distance from the receiver to the reference point;

NOTE 4.2.3 is a far-field criterion for on-axis scattering. The near field can extend significantly further
for oblique sources and receivers.

4.2.3.1 True far-field conditions can require very large measuring distances, further than can be realistically
achieved for many test geometries. If true far-field conditions cannot be achieved, at least 80 % of the receiver
positions shall be outside the specular zone. See figure 6. If achievable within the above constraints, the source-to-
reference-point distance should be 10 m and the receiver’s semicircle or hemisphere should have a radius of 5
m.

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1,00
80 % of receivers outside
specular zone
0,75

Diffusion
0,50

0,25

0,00
0,1 1 10 100
Receiver arc radius (m)
Plane surface Rectangular battens

Figure 6 — Variation of diffusion coefficient with receiver distance

4.2.3.2 Measurements shall be made with a maximum receiver angular resolution of 5°. This may be achieved
using either a discrete fixed position system or a continuous moving system. Figure 7 illustrates the effect of
changing receiver angular resolution.

1,0

0,8

0,6
5 deg
1 deg
0,4

0,2

0,0
100 1000 10000
Frequency (Hz)

Figure 7 — Effect of changing spacing between receivers on the single-plane

diffusion from a plane surface

4.2.3.3 To obtain a random-incidence diffusion coefficient, source positions should be measured with a maximum
angular separation of 10°, covering a semicircle or hemisphere measured about the reference normal. Where time
is limited by the conditions of the measurement, the directional diffusion coefficients should be obtained for normal
and 55° angles of incidence.

4.2.4 Near-field measurements

Near-field receiver and source locations should be a representative sample from the anticipated application positions.
Where these are not known, source and receivers should be chosen to ensure that any focusing effects are measured
in typical application-realistic positions.

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4.3 Test sample

4.3.1 Single-plane diffusers
For a test sample to be a single-plane diffuser, it shall have a surface structure and acoustic impedance that is
constant in one direction (d). Then a single-plane diffusion coefficient can be measured in a plane, usually
orthogonal to d, to give a figure of merit for the plane of maximum diffusion. Initially, testing for uniformity of
the surface structure and impedance should be done by visual inspection. When uniformity cannot be determined by
visual inspection, then measurements of diffusion coefficients on multiple planes should be made. Measurements
on two orthogonal planes should normally be sufficient to determine whether the surface is anisotropic or isotropic,
and consequently whether a hemispherical measurement or a series of single-plane measurements best represent the
diffusion from the surface.

4.3.2 Selection of test sample

4 . 3 . 2 . 1 When choosing whether part or all of a surface is to be used as a test sample, the application of the surface
in real rooms, and of the geometric limitations set forth in this information document shall be considered,
particularly the requirement to keep 80 % of the receivers outside the specular zone. Where possible, the test surface
should be chosen so that the entire structure to be applied in the real room is tested. This choice ensures that the
diffraction due to surface roughness and edge effects is properly characterized.

4.3.2.2 For large sample test surfaces, the choice in 4.3.2.1 can be impossible due to the measurement distance
required as outlined in 4.2.1. In such cases, the following scheme may be applied for reducing the test surface size.
For a periodic test surface at least four complete repeat sequences and if possible more periods should be included,
so that the lobing effects of repetition can approach reality as closely as possible. Figure 8 illustrates the effects
that increasing periodicity has on the diffusion coefficient. For aperiodic or random surfaces, representative samples
of the surface roughness should be tested. These samples should be large enough so that surface effects rather than
edge effects are more prominent in the scattering. The geometry recommended for this measurement in this
information document is applicable to frequencies up to and including the 5-kHz third-octave band full scale.

1,0

0,8

0,6

0,4

0,2

0,0

0 2 4 6 8 10
Number of periods

125 Hz 250 Hz 500 Hz

1 kHz 2 kHz 4 kHz

Figure 8 — Periodicity study for semicylinders.

4.4 Measuring techniques

4.4.1 Methods
Measurements of the magnitude polar response may be obtained using transfer-function techniques, for example,
impulse-response measurements, fast Fourier transform (FFT), time-delay spectrometry (TDS), or maximum-length
sequences (MLS). Of these methods, MLS is the fastest and most repeatable measurement method.
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4.4.2 Source
A loudspeaker that illuminates the entire diffuser as if it were an omnidirectional source should be chosen. The
loudspeaker shall create a sound pressure distribution equivalent to what would be expected from a true
omnidirectional source, to within ± 2 dB in magnitude and ± 20° in phase, over the reference flat surface.
Microphones should have the same sensitivity to all conceivable reflection paths from the diffuser directly to the
microphone, to within ± 1 dB in magnitude and ± 10° in phase. Figure 9 illustrates the effect of changing the
source from being omnidirectional.

1,0

0,8

0,6 Omnidirectional
3 dB, 30 deg
0,4 2 dB, 20 deg

0,2

0,0
100 1000 10000
Frequency (Hz)

Figure 9 — Simulation of effects of non-omnidirectional source on diffusion

coefficient for plane surface. Maximum magnitude and phase errors are given in the
legend

4.4.3 Tests
For each source and receiver pair the following measurements shall be made:

a) the impulse response with the test surface present, h1(t);

b) the impulse response with no test surface present, h2(t);
c) if more than one microphone or source is used, the impulse response without the test surface present and
with the source centered on the reference point, facing the receiver position, h3(t) .

The transfer function may be obtained as an equivalent measure to the impulse response.

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4.5 Polar response processing

The data reduction process is represented in figures 10 and 11.

Figure 10 — Data reduction process

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Figure 11 — Process to extract diffusion coefficient from impulse

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4.5.1 Reflections
The influence of background reflections shall be removed by subtracting h1(t) from h2(t).

4.5.2 Loudspeaker–microphone response

For systems using more than one microphone and loudspeaker, the loudspeaker–microphone response shall be
deconvolved from the subtracted impulse response:

h4 (t) = IFT [FT [h1 (t) – h2 (t)] / FT [h3 (t)]]

where

FT is a forward Fourier transform

IFT is the inverse Fourier transform.

4.5.3 Windowing
A rectangular window shall be applied to the impulse response. The window has unity gain where the test surface
reflections are present, and is zero elsewhere. The window removes residual reflections clearly separated from the
test surface reflections in time. The size of the window shall be determined by considering the shortest and longest
times for reflections from the surface. The shortest time may be calculated from simple geometric consideration.
For the longest possible reflection path, more than the first-order reflections from the surface shall be considered
to ensure that the full test surface response is obtained. Visual inspection of the impulse response may be used to
ascertain the window location and size.

Within the windowed section of the impulse response, a signal-to-noise ratio of at least 40 dB should be obtained
for the reference flat surface. In such a case, noise not only refers to random measurement error, but also to bias due
to unwanted reflections from objects other than the surface being measured. This signal to noise ratio may be
obtained by calculating the following:


[h1(t)  h 2(t)]2 dt 
 
S /N = 10log10  T 



h 2 2 (t)dt 

T

where

T is the rectangular window.

The signal-to-noise ratio should be tested in each of the third-octave bands being measured.

4.5.4 Fourier transformation

The windowed impulse response shall then be Fourier transformed and the third-octave level L
, in decibels, obtained
in each frequency band of interest. These frequencies should conform to ISO 266. The third-octave levels are the
power in each frequency band obtained by a numerical integration assuming infinite roll-off filters at the edge of the
band. Filters conforming to IEC 61260 are not used because they are too exacting to be achieved using this method.
After the Fourier transform, at least three one-spectral points shall lie in each third-octave band of interest. Zero
padding shall not be used to satisfy this criterion.

4.5.5 Corrections
If a range of source and receiver distances r1 and r2 are used, then the measured levels should be corrected to allow
for spherical or cylindrical spreading.

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In terms of the combined distance r from 4.3, and normalizing to standard distances of r1 = 10 and r2 = 5, the ith
correct measured level is:

 r 
Li = L'i +
10 log10  
 6.67 

where

is equal to 1 for two-dimensional modeling;

is equal to 2 for three-dimensional modeling.

However, where possible, measurements should be made over an arc to remove distance variation, because
the distance correction in 4.5.5 is approximate because test surfaces do not reflect sound to form exact spherical or
cylindrical waves.

5 Prediction techniques
The polar responses may be generated by the use of computer models such as boundary element or finite element
methods, or by quicker methods such as Fresnel diffraction, provided these models have been verified against
measurement results conforming to this information document or another accurate calculation model.

6 Extraction of coefficients

6.1 Directional diffusion coefficient

For a fixed source position, in each third-octave band, the directional diffusion coefficient may be calculated from
the set of sound pressure levels Li , in decibels, from the n receivers:

 n L 1 /10  2 n

(10 )
L 1 /10 2

10
 i=1  i=1
d = n

(n 1)
(10 L /10 )

1
2

i=1

This equation is valid only when each receiver position samples the same measurement area. This sampling is
automatically achieved for single-plane measurements on an arc with an even angular spacing between receivers.
A diffuser that scatters sound completely has a diffusion coefficient of 1. When the scattered level is concentrated
in one measurement location, the diffusion coefficient approaches zero.

NOTE The fact that receiver positions at ± 90° actually sample half the area of the other receivers can be
ignored, since a correction makes no significant difference to the diffusion coefficient.

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y (Reference normal)

Receiver

 x

Figure 12 — Coordinate system.

For some measurements, the area sampled by a receiver will vary with the receiver position. In that case, the
following formulation should be used:

 n L 1 /10  2 n
Ni 
(10 L 1 /10 )
2

10
  i=1
d = i=1 n
 n

Ni(10 )
L 1 /10 2

Ni  1
 i=1  i=1

where

Ni is proportional to the area sampled by receiver point i and should be calculated from 6.2

This will arise for hemispherical measurements using an even angular spacing between receiverpositions in azimuth
() and elevation (). See figure 12. An uneven sampling of the hemisphere with respect to area results, with more
receiver points closer to the reference normal. The equation adds additional dummy samples into the calculation to
make the sampling linear with respect to area.

6.2 Calculation of area factors

For the hemispherical case, the factors Ni may be calculated as follows:

4
2
Ai = sin ( /4 )
= 0°

Ai = 2sin( ) sin(
 /2) 
0°, 
90°
Ai = sin(
 /2)
= 90°
where

 and
 are the angular spacings, each usually 5°, in azimuth and elevation between adjacent
receivers.

The equation assumes a single measurement at  = 0°.

Ai
Ni =
Amin
where
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A min is the smallest value of Ai for i = 1…, n.

6.3 Diffusion coefficient

The directional diffusion coefficients shall be averaged over all sources to obtain the diffusion coefficient. When
measured to the angular resolution criteria given in 4.2.1, the coefficient may be termed a random-incidence diffusion
coefficient.

7 Presentation of results
The diffusion coefficient shall be presented in a table for each third-octave band. The diffusion coefficient should be
rounded to two decimal places. In a graphical representation, the points of the measurement should be connected by
straight lines, the abscissa giving the frequency on a logarithmic scale and the ordinate showing the results from
0 to 1 on a linear scale. The abscissa should be in equivalent full-scale values with a statement of the scale ratio
1:N. The ratio of the ordinate distance from 0 to 1, to the abscissa distance of five octaves should be 2:3. In
addition, although not necessary to conform to this document, the diffusion coefficient or coefficients for the
reference flat surface should be included for additional information.

8 Test report
The test report shall state:
a) conformity to AES-4id;
b) name and address of the testing laboratory;
c) manufacturer's name and product identification;
d) name and address of the organization or person who ordered the test;
e) date of the test;
f) description of the test sample with sectional drawings;
g) scale of the test sample relative to the full manufactured product;
h) coordinates of the source and receiver positions;
i) whether the sample was measured in a single plane, multiple planes, or over a hemisphere;
j) for single or multiple plane measurements, a statement of the planes used;
k) details of the measurement or prediction technique used to obtain polar responses;
l) if applicable, a table or formulation showing the distance corrections used for each receiver (see 4.5.3);
m) a table and graph of the diffusion coefficients obtained versus third-octave-band center frequency.

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Annex A
(normative)

Qualification of a measurement space

A.1 Space criteria

A.1.1 Sound pressure level deviation

For the frequency and distance range in which measurements are to be undertaken in a measurement space, the
measured sound pressure level from the measurement loudspeaker alone should not deviate by more than 1 dB from
the sound pressure level described by the free-field inverse distance law (that is, sound pressure from a point source
is inversely proportional to distance).

A.1.2 Signal-to-noise ratio

The measurement space shall exhibit a 40 dB signal to noise ratio within the rectangular window as described in
4.5.

A.2 Environments

A.2.1 Anechoic chamber

An anechoic chamber where the sound pressure reflection coefficient of the walls is no more than 0,05, which is
equivalent to having an absorption coefficient greater than 0,9975, may be used.

A.2.2 Non-anechoic space

A large non-anechoic space may be used to simulate a reflection-free environment by putting a time window on a
measured impulse response before applying a FFT or by using TDS measurements to exclude the reflections.

A.2.3 Placement
Microphones, loudspeakers, and the test surface may be placed on a fully reflective surface to enable the
measurements to be made in a hemianechoic chamber or a pseudo-hemianechoic environment. The surface should
have a sound pressure reflection coefficient of at least 0,99. Sources and receivers shall be sufficiently close to the
reflective surface so that all frequencies being measured do not suffer from destructive interference due to grazing
reflections. This condition can be achieved by ensuring that measurement elements are no further than 1/4
wavelength from the fully reflective surface. The fully reflective surface shall be sufficiently large so that edge
diffractions from this surface are at least 40 dB below the signal within the rectangular window.

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Annex B
(informative)

Informative references

COX, TJ., and LAM, YW. Evaluation of Methods for Predicting the Scattering from Simple Rigid Panels. Applied
Acoustics, 1993, vol. 40, p. 123-140.

COX, TJ., and LAM, YW. Prediction and Evaluation of the Scattering from Quadratic Residue Diffusers. J. Acoust.
Soc. Amer., 1994, vol. 95, no. 1, p. 297-305.

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