Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Structure
2 I. 1 Introduction
Objectives
2 1.2 Importance of Nutrition
2 1.3 Nutrient Groups and their Functions
2 I .4 Essential Nutrients
2 1.5 Food as Fuel for the Body Machine
2 1.6 Balanced Diet
21.7 Food Fads
2 1.8 Food Allergies
2 1.9 Adulteration of Food
2 1.10 Malnutrition and 111 Health
2 1.1 1 Summary
2 1.12 Terminal Questions
2 I. 13 Answers
21.1 INTRODUCTION .
. -
In the previous unit you have studied the limitations regarding availability and distribution
of food in India. A large section of our population is under-nourished. Apart from not having
enough to eat, their diet is generally deficient in certain components essential for health. An
additional factor is the lack of awareness about.proper nutrition. In this unit we will learn
how we can improve our health by making the best use of the food available to us.
A dinner table with a variety of mouth-watering preparations appears far more tempting than a
simple meal of rice, chapati, dal, vegetables and curds. Yet. the former may be inferior and
incomplete from the point bf view of what the body needs for survival, growth and activity. It
may lack many important ingredients necessary to keep our body fit and healthy. Again some
foods look different, but are similar in their nutritional value, e.g.. milk, egg, meat, fish etc.
One may consume large quantities of food without getting proper nutrition, because it may
lack one or more essential components. How can we find out whether a meal is complete or
not? In this unit we will learn to classify nutrient groups of food, the amounts necessary for
our body and how to get.these from different foods available to us. We will also learn the
concept of a balanced diet.
It is true that food choices of people are influenced by economic, social, educational and
cultural factors, but nutritional awareness, i.e. learning to choose food wisely is also an
important factor. You can possibly use the knowledge given in this unit, to modify your food
habits and enlighten others about it. We often find that families with large income are poorly
nourished and some families with small income are better nourished. This is because of a
more intelligent use of money on the part of the low income groups to obtain proper
nourishment. In addition, these simple concepts will enable you to realise the complexity of
social problems related to availability of proper food for all our people. We will also discuss
the problems of malnutrition and its magnitude.
Objectives
After studying this unit you should be able to :
idedtify various nutrient groups in a given food,
judge your daily intake of food and see whether it fulfils your nutritional needs.
practise dietary habits which contribute to a healthy, attractive individual with an alert
mind.
compare food requirements of individuals according to age, sex, activity, body weight
and climate,
recognise the dangers of faulty food habits and food fads, .
list the diseases caused by malnutrition and deficiency of vitam~nsartd mlnerius,
realise the hann caused by adulterated food stuffs,
recognise the importance of safeguarding food from spoilage and waste at home, and in
stores and godowns.
In this unit, there are many tables. You are not expected to memorise them. They have been
compiled for reference when necessary.
This dish is given as an example in order to illustrate how all the classes of nutrients
required by our body can be included in our meal. These six classes of nutrients, namely,
carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals and water, must be included in our meals in
correct proportion. This need can be fulfilled from a single dish or from a combination of
dishes, prepared from a wide variety of food sources. If one of the ingredients of this recipe
is deleted, we lose the corresponding nutrient. This is how we evaluate every food -
preparation.
You know that f d habits vary from place to place all over India. Chapatis are the staple
food in many parts of north India and rice is the staple food in south and east India. People
in other countries also have their preferences in food. These habits are mostly due to the
availability of a particular tyfe of food stuff. Anyway, no particular food is absolutely
necessary, because many alternativesto it can provide the same nutrients. Here, we must
note that no single item of food contains exactly the same nutrients as any other singIe item.
Foods which have common nutrients can be put together as a Food Group. This provides us
with a wide choice of alternate food items. Table 2 1.1 gives these food groups and their
nutrient composition.
Table 21.1: Food Groups and Their Major Nutrients
43
a=
I Carbohydrates
t I
I
SAQ I
List the food items you had for lunch today, and using Table 2 1.1 classify them into food
groups and give their major nutrients. The first item has been worked out to give you an
idea. Check whether all the nutrients were present in your lunch.
- -
Food Items Food Groups Major Nutrients
Functions of Food
What do you think is the function of food?
Before you read on, write down the functions of f M n the space below.
SAQ 2
Give examples of various.typesof foods in the space indicated below :
Body buildingfoods ..........................................................
*
...........................................................................
Energygivingfoods...........................................................
Remember, a mixed diet of various cereals, millets and pulses can fulfil the total nutritional
requirements of vegetarians. Soyabean is the richest source of plant protein. In comparison
I to other legumes, it contains twice as much protein. Eggs are relatively a cheaper source of
1 high-quality proteins when compared to meat. In India, a large percentage of people can
afford only cereals which contain mostly carbohydrates. Protein foods are expensive, thou'gh
even the prices of vegetables are going up. Scientists all over the world are trying to find
ways and means of obtaining proteins from new sources. Methods of extracting proteins
Agkulture, Nutrition and from ordinarily uneatable green leaves, algae and other sources are underway. Proteins art
Health
complex substances and; unlike vitamins, cannot be manufactured in the laboratory at
present. There may be a time in future when it will become possible.
We should also know that an excess of proteins should not be taken in a single day,because
only a ponion of it will be used in building and repair of the body and the rest will be burnt
up to supplyenergy, or convened into fat. Since, proteins cannot be stored in the body, they
are wasted. On an average, an adult requires one gram ofprotein per kilogram of body
weight. The energy needs of the'body are better fulfilled by carbohydrate foods.
Vitamins
You are, probably, familiar with the names of some of the vitamins. They can be obtained
from plant and animal foods. Vitamins are required in small amounts and their prolonged
deficiency in food results in various diseases. In order to correct this situatibn, sometimes
vitamins have to be giyen as tonics or medicine. Vitamins are not a source of energy
themselves but they help in the release of energy from carbohydrates, and fats. Therefore,
food must contain required amounts of vitamins. There are various types of vitamins. A
particular vitaminpr a group of two or more vitamins, protect the health and assist in the
work of a particular organ of our body. Each vitamin has a specific function and cannot
sabstitute for another. Table 21.2 lists various vitamins, their sources and functions. Vitamin
A is needed for healthy eyes, smooth skin and glossy hair. Many children go blind in our
country because of vitamin A deficiency. This could be easily prevented, because foods
containing vitamin A, like carrots and green vegetables, are easily available. You will notice
that vitamins of the B group have many sub-groups. These have different functions but their
source is more or less the same. Sometimes children or even'adults complain of lack of
appetite. They never seem to be hungry for meals. This is due to the deficiency of vitamin B
group, which leads to undernutrition and retardatiop of growth.
Vitamin A Enables us to see in the dim light Butter, ghee, milk. egg-yolk
r ~ g21.1:
. Om year old Elmer Necessary for healthy eyes, smooth skin Fatty fish
MacCollum suffered from scurvy and glossy hair Dark.leafy vegetables
and there was no hope for his Required for normal bone formatiqn Deep )-ellowvegetable, fruits
survival. His mother happened to Vitamin B complex Essential for the functioning of nerves. Whole cereals
feed him apple peel. On finding B.B,,B,.B,,B,, bra~n,heart and other vital organs. Pulses. sprouted pulses
improvement in his health she kept Required for normal growth and Milk
' feeding him vegetables and fruits. development Egg
, Thus by keen observation she Helps in preventing anaemia Liver, brain, kidney
found the antiscurvy diet.
hterestingly, Elmer MacCollum Vitamin C Helps in rapid healing of wounds Amla, guava, papaya
grew to discover Vitamin A in Facilitates absorption of iron Citrus fruits
1913. Roper daily intake builds.resistance to . Green leafy vegetables
infections
Vitamin D Helps in the absorption of calcium and Egg, fish liver oil
phosphorus in the intestine Chicken
Required for the proper formation of bones Butter, ghee
Milk
Exposure to sunlight
Vitamin E Prevents vitamin A from destruction Vegetable oils
Cereals. cereal germ oil
Nuts
Legumes
Vitamin K Prevents bleeding in wounds by clotting of Green leafy vegetables
the blood
Vitamin C is present in fresh fruits and vegetables, especially in citrus fruits and guava. It is
essential for the health of the mucous membrane which lines our mouth, nose and inner
organs. It helps in building resistance against infections like common cold. Vitamin D,
wh ch is present in eggs, milk, butter, etc., helps in proper formation of bones. Its deficiency
leads to weak bones or physical deformities like bow legs in children. This is the only
vitamin which our body can make in the skin, by the action of sunlight which is plenty in
India and costs nothing. Vitamin D is also called "sunshine vjtamin". Fig. 21.2 shows
various foods rich in vitamin C. I '
.-
We should know that vitamins B and C are water sohble. Therefore, they cannot be retained
in the body and should be included in our daily m_eegls.Other vitamins are not water soluble.
Their excess is stored in the body. An overdose of vitamins can also cause illness. They
should be taken. as a tonic or medicine, only after consulting a doctor. It has recently been
found that indiscriminate use of vitamin B complex and vitamin C leads to wide range of
adverse effects on health, such as headache, im-tability,insomnia, nausea, etc.
Vitamins are susceptible to destruction under certain conditions. Therefore, great care
should be taken to retain them while cooking. For example, vitamin C and vitamins of B
group, being water soluble, are washed off when we cut or wash the vegetables or fruit.
Vitamin C gets destroyed in cooking at high temperature. Therefore, amla, green pepper,
lemon and other c i m s fruits which are rich sources of vitamin C, should be eaten raw,
instead of being cooked. Vitamin B,, which is present in milk, ceteals and vegetables, etc., is
destroyed by long exposure to sunlight.
In general, the following precautions should be taken while cooking, so as to retain
maximum amounts of vitamins in the food.
Minerals
Our bones and teeth contain large amounts of calcium. An adult has a total of about 1 kg of
calcium and a baby has about 30g in their bones. So, during the period of growth from a
baby to an adult, a large amount of calcium has to be added to the bones. Therefore, doctors
prescribe calcium tablets to children and pregnant women. Calcium is always present in the
body in combination with another mineral. phosphorus. Milk and green leafy vegetables are
a very good source of calcium. It is also required for proper working of muscles and for .
clotting of blood.
Another important mineral is iron which is required for making haemoglobin in the blood.
Haemoglobin gives red colour to the blood. In comparison to 1 kg of calcium, the total
amount of iron in the body is about 3 g. Iron is necessary for growing children and pregnant
women. During the menstrual period, women lose iron and therefore, they need extra iron.
Fig. 2 1.3 shows various food rich in iron.
About 17 different minerals are necessary for healthy functioning of our body, though their
amount is insignificant in comparison to the bulk of food taken by us. Hence, these minerals
are often referred to as "micronutrients". Some of these minerals are constituents of the body
cells and the body fluids, and as such take part in chemical reactions in the cells. Have you
heard of fluoride toothpastes? Fluorine is essential to produce strong teeth that resist decay.
That is why the toothpastes containing fluorine are being promoted these days. But excess of
fluorine also is harmful. Water of some districts in Andhra Pradesh and Punjab has excess of Fig. 213: Iron canmt in food stuff
flourine. Consumption of this water results in lustreless stained teeth and weakened enamel. per 100 g graded oa a.10 poinr scale
all take common salt in every meal. It is essential for the proper working of the body.
Common salt is a chloride of sodium. A minute amount of iodine is an important part of the
hormone produced-by thyroid glandin the neck. Its deficiency causes thyroid gland to swell,
a condition knowcas goitre: Now iodised salt i$ available in the market which can provide us
1 with iodine. .
~ A Q y' .
I .
:.a) Fill ii the blanks' :
I i) ............................... are those which our body can not synthesise.
ii)' Plant proteins ...... ,..... in some ............. amino acids.
. iii) ............ is the richest source ofplant. ..................
iv) ............. .........................a n d . . . . . . . . . . . . arehigh
quality proteins because they contain all the .......... ; ...
V) Excess of proteins taken in a day is converted into ............. and. ...........
Agriculture, Nutrition and vi) Energy needs of body should be met by . . . . .. . . . . . . .
Health
vii) A mixed diet of. . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . and . . . . . . . . . . . . provides as
good a protein as meat.
b) Match the vitamins and minerals given in column 1 with their functions listed in column
2 of the following table :
However, a major difference between a machine and the human body is that the latter is
combsed of the same fuel which it uses to provide energy. A machine cannot use itself as
fuel to run. But our body cah. Thus, during fast the body can bum its own fats to get energy,
resulting in loss of weight. If a body is supplied with more energy than is required to run it,
it is stored in the body in the form of fat for future use.
Energy requirements of the body are measured in terns of "calories" or kilo-calories (1000
calories), usually written as Calories, with a capital C. For example, a tea spoon of sugar (5
gm), when burnt, produces 20 Calories of heat. Scientists have studied energy requirements
of infants, girls, boys and adults of different ages and weights to find out how many Caloties
Flg 21.4: A key Nutritional they use in doing different things. You would be curious to know how much food is required
Experiment. In 1783 Antoine to keep our body healthy and active. In order to calculate this, we need to know :
Lavoisier and Pierre de Laplace
showed that body "bums" food i) energy value of different nutrients and
much as a fire does. In the
experiment shown above they ii) factors influencing the energy requirement of an individual.
n~asuredheat output (as the amount
of melted ice) and carbon dioxide Energy provided by different nutrients is given below and may be compared with petrol.
produced by Guinea pig, and found
them in the same proportion as Carbohydrates
produced by the burning of charcoal.
Proteins
Fats
Petrol
The energy and nutritive value of Indian foods is published by the Indian Council of
Medical Research. In Table 2 1.3 we have listed some common food stuffs and their energy
and protein content.
Table 2 1 3 :Energy and Protein Contents of Some Common Foods
Soyabean 430 43
Milk-Buffalo 120 4.3
Cow 70 3.2
Skimmed
Paneer
Cheese
Butter
Vegetable oils & Fats
Egg
Sugar
Peanuts
Coconut (dry)
Almond
Banana
Guava
Mango
Orange
Spinach
Meat
Fish
Let us now find out what determines the energy required by a person in a day. The energy
requirement of an individual depends mainly upon:
i) internal or basic processes of the body which is also called Basal Metabolic Rate
(BMR) and
-ii) physical activity.
Greater part of the energy. is spent for internal activities or for Basal Metabolism, which is
influenced by various factors like surface area of the body, sex, age, sleep, body
temperature, level of hormones, etc. For example, the BMR for different persons and states
is as follows:
Tall thin person > Short thin person,
Muscular person > Short fat person,
infant > Adolescent
Male > Female
Awake > Sleep
Young person'> Old person
During fever > Normal health
Cold climate > Hot climate
Physical activities depend upon the kind of work done by an individual, whether it is light,
moderate, or heavy work. The requirement for physical activities is generally lower than
BMR, except in case of persons engaged in very hard physical work like stone-cutting,
running, etc. You must have noticed that after hard physical work we feel very hungry arld
eat a lot more food than when we are sitting idle. The table below lists sedentary, light,
moderate and vigorous adtivities and expenditure of energy in Cal/hr.
~ ~ r i c u l t u rNutrition
e, and Table 21.4: Approxlmte Energy Needs for Various Kinds of Adlvlties
Health
Light work Moderate work Hard work Strenuous work
150 CaUhr 150-250 CaUhr 250-350 Callhr 350 CaUhr
The average total energy need of a moderately active person is often taken to be 2000
Calories per day.
Mixed cereals
Pulses and Legumes
Green leafy
vegetables
Other vegetables
Roots and Tubers
Fruits
Milk
Fats and Oils
Sugar and Jaggery
Total Calories 2800 2200 2200 2200 1200 1500 2100 2200 2500-
+300 +700 3000
Fig 21.8
Dlrring fever, fats like butter, ghee and vegetable oils should be avoided, but once the fever
has gone they should be included in the diet, becausethey are a rich source of energy.
Now thatyou have learnt so much about food, you must be feeling hungry. Have a break
and treat yourself with a snack you fancy, and then attempt the following SAQ.
SAQ 4
a) Strike off the wrong word(s) from those given within the! brackets.
i) Twenty grams of fat provides energy equivalent to (20g/45@@) of carbohydrates.
ii) Children require (low energyhigh energy) and (low pmtein/high protein) diet.
iii) A young person needs (monlless) energy than an old person.
iv) A person becomes obese because of (heredity/constitution/excessivtinlake of
energyhigh BMR).
b) A meal consists of the following items. Calculate its energy contents,;use the datagiven in
Table 21.3.
2 Chapatis (25g each) ..................................................
1 Plate rice (5Og) . .................................................
2 Servings dal(25g) .................................................
1 Serving spinach (50g) .................................................
1 Serving potatoes (90g) .................................................
.,
1 Mango (15Og) .................................................
1 Tabk spoon of fqt (1%) .................................................
- ---
Agrkulture, Nutrltlon and
Hcnlth ' 21.7 FOOD FADS
You may have picked up the idea from your family or friends that certain combinations of
food can be dangerous for your health. For example, fish and milk or radish and milk taken
together are dangerous because they result in a skin disease called leucoderma or white
patches on the skin. Milk should not be taken immediately after eating curd or with fruits
because it will curdle in the stomach. In fact, there is no scientific basis for such beliefs. Do
you know what happens to milk in the stomach? Our stomach contains gastric juices which
curdle milk before it is digested.
Some people also recommend certain food combinations to cure some illnesses. Such
suggestions may come from well-meaning friends, but they may not be safe to practise
because the diet may lack in some essential food nutrients. At such times we should take the
diet prescribed by a physician.
- - - -
Food allergies are different from food fads. Certain f d s seem to have strange reactions on
some people. Probably, you have come across a person who got skin rashes everytime he ate
eggs. Certain substances in food cause "allergy" to some people. Allergy is the scientific
name given to a disturbance which arises when a person is sensitive to a substance. Some
people are allergic to pollen, others are allergic to skin-contact with some materials. Allergy
to medicines is also common. In fact, before giving a penicillin injection, doctors first test
whether the patient is allergic to it. Foods which cause allergies are, fish, eggs, milk and
milk products. Substances that cause allergy are protein in nature.
Food allergies are manifested in the form of skin rashes, skin eruption called eczema.
asthma, frequent sneezing, one-sided severe headache called migraine, vomiting, diarrhoea,
etc.
Food advertising agencies also mislead people by making false claims a b u t their products.
A close guard against such propaganda is also necessary. What can be done to stop such
practices? Government should enforce strict rules against adulteration of food items, and
give exemplary punishment to the guilty. The consumer can also form consumer welfare
society through which they can give expression to their grievances and also build public
pressure against such practices. In USA such societies are very powerful and they closely
monitor various products in the market.
Are you familiar with the term malnutrition? Malnutrition means either lack of sufficient
food or imbalance of nutrients in the diet, resulting in the impairment of health. Protein-
calorie deficiency and the resulting malnutrition are prevalent in India and in other Food and Nutrltbn
developing nations of Asia, Africa and Latin America.
At the social level, we should not waste food. We often find that in large festive gatherings.
whether of affluent or of poor people, substantial amounts of food are thrown away. We
should also avoid eating excess of food either in terms of protein or calories.
Let us continue with our discussion on the problem of malnutrition in India. The inadequacy
of food results in nutritional deficiencies and reduces the intake of one or more nutrients.
This results in poor health, increased susceptibility to disease and in reduction of the life
span. Money spent on treatment of ill health and disease could possibly have improved
nutrition to avoid disease!
Diseases due to Protein-CaIorie malnutridon
The developing countries of the world today are faced with diseases due to Protein-Calorie
malnutrition. The most affected group are the little babies and children of the poor and
uneducated class, which constitute a majority of our population.
Two severe diseases due to deficiency of proteins and protein-calorie are Kwashiorkar and
Marasmus, respectively. Millions of children die annually and millions more go through a
miserable life. They retard the child's physical growth and weaken its natural immunity to
various infections. In extreme cases, children are mentally retarded and they never reach
maturity and thus become a burden to the family and the nation.
Kwashiorkar
This disease was first recognised in 1935, in African children and it is named from two
words of an African dialect, meaning first and second, i.e. sickness that strikes the first
child, when he is soon displaced at his mother's breast by the second born.
Why do babies lose weight during weaning? On weaning, a child requires more than twice
as much protein in relation to body weight as do adults. In spite of the nutritional status of
the mothers, breast milk provides enough nutrition in quality and quantity for babies up to 6
months, and it IS free of infection. For proper growth, children, after six months, require
supplementary food which is not available due to some of the following reasons :
Agriculture, Nutrition and 1 Increased financial burden, if the next child is born.
Health
2 Because of ignorance, the best food is usually given to men who are supposed to be
bread winners; children and women eat whatever is left.
3 Babies prefer breast milk, they are fussy about taste, and refuse new items included in
the diet.
4 As most Indians can afford only vegetarian diet, it, therefore, becomes very difficult to
. provide sufficient proteins to a child, unless the food is consumed in large quantities.
Due to meagre energy food and protein intake, the child gradually loses appetite and often
develops weaning diarrhoea. It is generally believed that diarrhoea is due to teething. This is
incorrect. In fact, diarrhoea during teething is due to infection. Because of sensation in the
gums, babies like to chew hard things and also pick up whatever is lying on the floor. Thus,
they get infection from dirt or from chewing unwashed vegetables, fruits, etc. This, often,
misleads the mother, who further restricts the diet mainly to carbohydrate gruels. Thus, the
child is deprived of the much needed protein diet.
Fig. 21.9: Marasmus: Severe wasting of muscle Fig 21.10: Kwashiorkar: (a) The severe deficiency of
and loss of subcutaneous fat is due to deficiency proteins is characterised by pot belly and oedemu fb) on
of calories and proteins. The child looks like a feeding high proteins oedema disappears but underlying
living skeleton. malnutrition becomes apparent.
Marasmus
This is caused due to the severe deficiency of both proteins and calories in the diet.
Nutritional surveys among pre-school (1 to 5 years) children show that more than 90% of
children of lower economic groups do not get required calories per day. Therefore, such
. ' children become victims of marasmus. This is manifested by severe retardation in growth,
loss of muscles and subcutaneous fat.
Deficiency due to iron and vitamin A causes anaemia and eye lesions respectively. There are
other diseases prevalent mainly among low income groups due to deficiency of other
vitamins and minerals. Some of the diseases can be cured by making certain foods available
to the people. Figs. 21.9 to 21.13 show deficiency symptoms of some of the diseases.
So we conclude that to curb malnutrition. our country needs to produce and distribute
sufficient food to meet the basic energy (calorie) requirements of our vast population. And
once this need is fulfilled, ways of supplementing the food with proteins, vitamins and
minerals can be worked out to improve its quality.
Fig 21.11: Rickets: Deficiency of Fig. 21.12: Pellagra: Deficiency of Vitamrn Fig. 21.13: Goitre: Deficiency of iodine causes
Vitamin D results in rickets in children. B, causes Pellagra characterlsed by typ~cal enlargement of thyroid gland. Disease is
Weekend bones curve laterally. These th~ckeningand spottlng of the skin. common in Rajasthan and Himalayan territories.
early deformities of bones persist
throughout life.
21.11 SUMMARY
In this unit we have tried to explain that the nutritive quality of a diet greatly determines the
health of an individual. We have provided you with the knowledge about the type of
nutrition necessary for us at various stages of our life. Due to insufficient fwd and its
inequitable distribution, the energy demand of most of our people is not fulfilled. The
. problem of malnutrition continues and severe deficiency diseases are prevalent in our
Roasted gram
I b) Peanuts I
-- --
d) Boiled Egg
-
e) Bread Pakora
f) Orange
g) Campa Cola
h) Potato chips
~ g r h h r eNubltbm
, .ad 2) In comparison with an average adult what type($ of extra.foods would you mommend
Haltb for the following categories of people?
3) Arrange in increasing order the energy needs of the people of same weight involved
in various activities.
Cycling, coolie type work, washing clothes, typing
4) We have listed some diseases in column 1; write down the corresponding deficiencies in
column 2.
Meews Deflckney
a) Night blindness
b) Goitre
C) Kwashiorkar
f) Rickets 1
g) Anaemia I
21.13 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions
2) Body building foods--milk add milk products, egg, meat, fish, pulses, legumes,
soyabean, etc.
Energy giving f o o d d e r e a l s , millets, fats and oil, sugar, honey, jaggery, potatoes
Protective foods-green leafy vegetables, deep yellow vegetables, fruits, etc.
3) a) i) Essential nutrients ii) lack, essential iii) soyabean, proteins iv) milk, fish,
eggs and meats, essential amino acids v) energy and fat vi) carbohydrates
vii) cereals. millets, pulses.
b) a) vii b) v c) iii d) vi e) i f) iv g) ii h) viii
4) a) (i) 45 g (ii) high energy, high protein (iii) more (iv) excessive intake of energy
b) 812Cal.
Termid Questions
I ) a) Carbohydrates, Roteins b) carbohydrates,' Fats, Proteins c) Carbohydrates, Fats
d) Proteins, Fats, Vitamins e) Carbohydrates, Fats f) Vitamin C g) Carbohydrates
h) Carbohydrates, Fats.
2) b) energy foods c) Body building foods, Rotective foods, Calcium and Iron d) Body
building foods, Calcium e) Body building foods, Energy foods, Calcium
3) typing < washing clothes < cycling <coolie type work
4) a) Vitamin A b) Iodine c) Protein d) Calories e) Calcium and Vitamin D f) Iron.
UNIT 22 HEALTH AND DISEASE
Structure
22.1 Introduction
Objectives
22.2 What is Good Health
22.3 Disease
Types of Diseases
22.4 Infectious Diseases
Discovery of Microbes
Microbes are Resent Everywhere
How do Microbes Enter Our Body7
Body's Battle Against Germs
22.5 Spread of Diseases or Transmission
22.6 Prevention of Diseases
Revention in Ancient Times
The Modem Concept of Preventive Medicine
Control of Environment
22.7 Health Care in India
22.8 ADS
22.9 Summary
22.10 Termlnal Questions
22.11 Answers
22.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit on food and nutrition we have dealt with the importance of balanced diet
in maintaining health. You have also learnt that a majority of $)urpeople suffer from many
'deficiency diseases due to malnutrition. In this unit we will discuss how lack of clean
drinking water, inadequate living conditions, poor environmental sanitation, lack of health
education, etc. result in diseases. These factors affect the health of not only an individual but
of the community as a whole. Disease results from a compli~atediateractibn between man
and his environment. Furthermore. physical and mental stress which greatly affect our health
is also determined by the environment we live in.
Diseases can be prevented by taking appropriate social measures, and prevention of disease
is perhaps far less expensive than its cure, particularly when millions of people are involved.
Health education of common people, therefore, has crucial importance in the maintenance of
health.
In the first section of this unit we will talk about the causes of infectious diseases, and how
they are transmitted. The causes are no more a mystery. Infectious diseases are caused by
tiny invisible creatures. You will know about their discovery, modes of entry into the body
and the way they quickly spreid from one person to another. You will also learn that our .
body has an elaborate defence system to fight them. In the following section we will discuss
the measures necessary to prevent these diseases.
Finally you will be introduced to health care system in India. We will discuss why we have
failed in establishing self-reliant health services for our society.
Objectives
After reading this unit you will be able to :
understand what good health is,
distingujsh between infectious and non-infectious diseases,
. realise that common beliefs and dogmas related to the cause of disease are often
unscientific,
Agriculture, Nutrition and acquaint yourself with the discovery of disease-causing organisms,
Health
find out how disease-causing organisms invade our body and spread from one person to
another,
learn about the defence mechanism our body possesses to combat disease-causing agents.
explain why pure drinking water, cleq food, hygienic habits and environmental
sanitation are necessary for t'le prevention of infectious diseases,
discuss the reasons for shortcomings of the health services in rural India.
adopt methods necessary to control the rapid spread of AIDS.
SAQ 1
Fill in the blank spaces with appropriate words.
i) All the organs of the body work ..................... in a . ..................
person.
ii) A healthy person cap make use of his ....................................
and physical resources within the social and physical environment he lives in.
DISEASE
All of us, at one time or another, have suffered from fever, aches. vomiting, nausea.
diarrhoea, flu, cold, general weaknessetc. Illness can arise from a number of factors, sucn as
failure of some part of the machine, i.e. our body, or inheritance of some tendency or
malfunction from the family, or problems due to aging or due to some infection etc. As you
have learnt in the previous units, it can also be due to some deficiency or even lack of
nourishment.
AIDS -stands for Acquired
Immune Deficiency Syndrome. You be familiar with the names of some of the serious diseases such as cancer,
m.j;i
tuberculosis, typhoid etc. A recent addition to the deadly diseases is the one called AIDS in
which the body loses all natural power to fight a disease.
We could say that a disease is a departure from the state of health. Any variation in the
normal structure or function of a tissue or an organ of the body could mean disease. Doctors
have various meth'dbs and instruments to f!nd out if a person is suffering from any disease
These are :
physical examination, like testing of eyesight or hearing the sound of heart beats, or Health and Disease
i)
observing the movement of the limbs,
ii) biochemical tests performed on the tissues and fluids of the body, like testing if there is
sugar h the urine or too much fat in the blood,
iii) microscopic examination of the body fluids and/or excreta- the familiar examples are
blood, and stool test etc.,
iv) use of biophysical methods like X-rays, to detect fractures of bones, or to examine the
condition of the lungs,
v) surgery and other methods to locate diseased organs inside the body.
Infectious Non-infectious
Disclrses Diseases
In this unit we will discuss only communicable diseases. The major problem of community
health has always been their control and prevention. If they are not prevented, they
sometimes spread rapidly over large areas and we say that there is an "epidemic". Since the
manner in which they spread is known, most of these diseases are preventable. Prevention of
these diseases requires many social measures, such as (i) clean drinking water supply,
(ii) effective sewage disposal, (iii) proper housing,.(iv) clean food. (v) control of pollution,
(vi) proper health services. (vii) mass vaccination programmes etc. The success of these
I Agriculture, Nutrition and measures largely depends upon the personal as well as collective effort of members of the
Health
community. kbout 150 years ago, these diseases were very severe in countries and regions
I like USA, Canada and Europe also. But now they are well under control. However, as long
as they exist in any part of the world, communicable diseases could reach the countries
which are free of them. That is why there is a world-wide concern for their eradication from
I
the globe.
In the following sections of this unit we provide you with preliminary understanding of
infectious diseases and their modes of transmission. We will begin with the discovery of
microbes as a cause of infectious diseases and learn how they invade our body and how our
body combats them. With this knowledge, you will be able to appreciate different preventive
measures necessary for the control of such diseases.
SAQ 2
a) Which of the following statements are true or false; indicate by putting T for true and F
for false in the given boxes.
i) Diseases which are present from the birth are called infectious diseases. 0
ii) Communicable diseases rapidly spread from one person to another. 0
iii) Absence of disease is an indicator of good health. 0
b) List the names of five diseases familiar to you. Classify them into infectious and non-
infectious diseases.
-
7- -v
Infectious ..............................................................
The discovery of microbes and the fact that they cause infectious diseases is one of the great
advances in science, which has helped us in understanding, preventing and eradicating
1
gb~,
Y
various diseases. Before this no-one had imagined that such tiny creatures could create
havoc in the life of human beings.
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (Fig. 22.1), a-Dutch, was an expert in making lenses. He was the
first person to observe bacteria about 300 years ago. Out of curiosity, he examined the water
of marshy lakes, rain water. human excreta and scraping from his own teeth and was
astonished to find tiny living creatures in them. He named them "animalcules". They spun
about like a top or darted through water like little fish in a pond. He was perplexed, and he
pondered about their origin and role. He sent his observations to the Royal Society of
London. The Queen of England also came to see these "animalcules". van Leeuwenhoek
also made another significant observation that the scraping from teeth. if examined soon
after drinking hot coffee, contained only dead animalcules. His observations could not be
explored further by other scientists because he was a very suspicious and secretive person Fig. 22.1 : Antonie van
and did not teach anyone else to make lenses. Leeuwenhoek ( 1632-1723). opened
the door to the hidden world of
Another class of microbes were observed in the eighteenth century. but scientists took them microbes when he first observed
as idle curiosities of nature, because to blame disease on micro-organisms was to break with bacteria with the help of a lens.
Although only an amateur scie-tist,
century old tradition rooted in religious beliefs and dogmas. Lceuwenhoek's keen inleresl in
optics and his diligence led him to
In the middle of the nineteenth century, a famous French scientist, Louis Pasteur showed this imponantdiscovery.
that where disease was rampant, air was full of microbes, but where the air was clean.
disease was uncommon. You have read in Unit 12 about the experiment Pasteur conducted
to show that living organisms do not arise spontaneously. He also established that diseases
were due to germs. A few years later Robert Koch of Germany (Fig. 22.2) showed that a
specific kind of bacteria is responsible for anthrax. another for tuberculosis, a tliird for
plague etc. This splendid work motivated many scientists to identify and study bacteria that
were responsible for various diseases. It was found that malaria is caused by protozoan
called "plasmodium" which is carried by the female mosquito Anopheles. Their findings
often led to posiible cures of the diseases. Thus, the mystery of disease was unfolded. It is
worth giving a thought that if the first discovery of Leeuwenhoek was followed up instead of
being ignored because it went against established beliefs, perhaps millions of lives could -
We distinguish microbes into four groups (i) bacteria (ii) virus (iii) protozoa (iv) fungi.
Figure 22.3 shows structure of various microbes as seen under microscopes. When a
patient's blood or spit or excreta are examined, and the microbe present is idmtified, the
disease of the patient is determined or diagnosed, and treatment can follow. In Table 22.2
we have listed some common diseases caused by different kinds of microbes and worms.
Here we have also listed diseases caused by worms. They enter the human body mainly
through unclean water or food, and sometimes by puncturing the skin. They live in the gut
and lay their eggs which comeout in faeces. Unhygienic conditions expose people to
diseases caused by worms. These worms cause loss of weight. abdominal pain and
occasional dysentery. After entering the body, they penetrate other organs of the body such
as the liver or the lungs. Millions upon millions of our people suffer from diseases caused
by worms. One child specialist said that almost 80% of her patients have worms.
Agriculture, Nutrition and
Health
SAQ 3
b l i c h of the following statements arc TrueFalse; indicate by putting T for true and F for
false in the given boxes.
i) If a clean person lives in a clean house, he will not catch infecfiots diseases.
ii) Diseases are caused due to fate of the inditiduals.
iii) Infectious diseases are caused by germs.
iv) vaqteeuwenhoek saw living germs from scrapings of his teeth after drinking
hot coffee.
Mouth /(
Contaminated
>& h 1
l n w t Bites
Our eyes get germs from infected air or dust. Each of these natural openings leads to a tube
which reaches other organs. Thus germs get into our body and infect our organs. The tubes
are lined with soft mucous membranes which can resist penetration only when a person is ih
a state of g d health. In case of common cold, the mucous membrane itself is attacked, and
g e n s sit and multiply on it.
Gems are invisible invaders and it is not easy to check their entry. The major physical
barrier to their entry is our skin. As mentioned earlier, a large number of them live on our
skin and most of them are harmless. Some germs do cause boils and pimples, invade roots of
hair and set up local infection. If the infection is not controlled it may spread deeper under
the skin. If the skin is cut or scraped off by injury. bacteria get under the skin. and the
M.Lh
Chiaka and Susruts of Ayurvcdic
wound becomes septic.
period gave vivid descriptionsof the Insects are also carriers of many disease germs. The blood-sucking insects on biting,
disease and associated it with the
bites of mosquitoes. In 1897 Ronald puncture the skin, and thus introduce germs into the body. For example, the female mosquito
Ross who was w h i n g on malaria at Anopheles injects germs of malaria; worms of filaria are also camed by a kind of
Sccunderabad (Andhrn Redesh) mosquitoes. Similarly, plague and sleeping sickness are caused by bites of fleas and a fly
confirmed that mosquitoes transmit
called the tse-tse, respectively. Many worms, such as hookworm can penetrate through the
malaria.
skin and enter the blood stream. Eggs of pinworm enter through the mouth by contaminated
fingers or infected food or water. As'you know, the bite by a mad dog is almost always fatal.
This is because the dog cames germs causing rabies. Dirty and infected syringes used for
injections can also cause disease.
You may wonder how such tiny creatures can give all kinds of diseases. Their main strategy
is that they multiply in our body very fast. Every twenty minutes bacteria can reproduce by
division. In a few days, a single bacteria can produce millions of bacteria, thus, infecting
millions of cells at the site of infection.
Virus can only reproduce inside the living cells. After entering the body cell, it takes over
control and dimts the cell to make its copies. The numerous virus so formed are released in
the body, killing other cells.
SAQ 4
'a) Which of the following statements are truelfalse; indicate by putting T for true and F for
falie in the given boxes.
j) Virus cqreproduce outside the living cell.
ii) Bacteria reproduce by fission.
iii) All-bacteria are harmful.
iv) Millions of bacteria live on our skin.
V) Malaria is caused due to a protozoa.
vi) Some bacteria help us produce useful materials.
b) Fill in the blanks
i) The major physical barrier to the entry of germs is our. ....................
ii) Mucous membrane can resist penetration of germs only when a person is. ........
iii) Germs can reach our mouth through .................. and. ..............
Gcnn WBC.
b
(b) Neutdhtlon of T o h
$ 8
Tbxins Antibodies
(c) T a d d~erma
AntibodiZs
Fig.26.6: Different mechanisms by which White Blood Cells destroy the germs.
Vaccination
Now let us see how vaccination protects us from disease.
We have mentioned above that the W.B.Cs. produce antibodies which neutralise the toxins
produced by the invaders. These W.B.Cs. are of different kinds and each kind consists of
Edward Janerwas the first prmon millions of cells which recognise and combat a specific foreign invader. Once a class of
to dilcomMlllll POX in W.B.Cs. has encountered a particular kind of invader, it develops memory and is thus
17%. He tgted h i s vtxcine on his
own m. trained to ward off future attacks. In this way the body becomes "immune" to that infection
and the process is called immunisation.
Thus, our body regularly develops natural immunity as a variety of fighting cells are
produced by actual attacks of infectious agents. Artificial immunisation is a clever idea. It is
done through "vaccination", that is by artificial introduction into the body of a weak
infection, which triggers off a defence mechanism, and produces W.B.C. trained to combat
that particular infection.
UQ3
Fill in the b U qmxs with appmp&e wadr.
i); W.B.C. destroy invdere either by. .................... or by pmducing
chemicalr known as .....................
which rmtralise ..................
ptuduood by the invader.
ii) Many dicurer rnoted by tanorilu or quack8 m acnully taken can of or cued by our
own.....................
Ui) W.B.CI.wayinMoodu ..................... and .....................
thmuwt the body.
-iv) A paknr will p i n nand health if the invader is. ....................
Infected Human \
Fig. 22.8: Water source is made unsafe to drink as a result of people urinating, defecating or simply
washing in it.
If the infected faeces and urine are passed in an open field, as is unfortunately done in most
of our villages, germs or eggs may be carried to the source of local water supply, such as
ponds or'rivers. Bathing or washing of utensils in such water, or drinking it, can infect other
people. Sornetinies in slum areas, the latrines are too close to handpumps and thus drinking
water becomes a source of disease. It goes without saying that people who are obliged to
live in such areas, or wh;have inherited a life style of using fields for toilet, are the ones .
who suffer mob! from water borne sickness.
Health and Dlsense
'The other reason for the spread of.these diseases is negligence in personal hygiene by
infected persons. If the infected persons do not wash their hands carefully after defecation or
urination, the-handsare likely to cany some germs or eggs of worms which will be In ~ u l y1988, cholera epidemic
transferred to other objects like food, utensils or furniture. When these objects are touched o m m d in Delhi due to infect*
water from handpumps which were
by a healthy person, the germs find their way to him (Fig.22.7). not deep enough, so the.sumunding
source of infection, seeped into
Food Borne Diseases them.
If the food handler, like the cook, suffers from some infection and is not careful about
washing his hands after defecation, the germs or eggs of worms will reach the food and
people will get infected. Typhoid, bacillary dysentery and other stomach infections are.
spread in this way. Flies sitting on food always deposit germs there, which they pick up
while sitting on excreta or filth. Vegetables and fruits also get contaminated by night soil
which is used as fertiliser. Food, which is exposed to flies or even air for long hours is
likely to pick up bacteria which easily multiply in it. Such food gets "spoiled and could be
a potent source of disease. In its strongest form it is called food poisoning. The common
symptoms are abdominal cramps, nausea, vomiting. and diarrhoea. Generally bacteria are
killed in heated food. but toxins produced by them are heat resistant.
Diseases Spread by Insects or Other Carriers
We know malaria is transmitted by the female Anopheles mosquitoes. Dengue fever and
filaria are also caused by mosquito's bite. These insects suck blood and also inject some of it
back into the body. Mosquitoes get the germs by sucking the blood of someone suffering
from the disease, and transmit them to others when they puncture their skin or '!bitemthem.
Houseflies are also caniers of germs of intestinal diseases. Simparly many fleas also spread
diseases. Rats are reservoir of many diseases. Innumerable. outbreaks of plague were caused
by them. Lice, ticks, cockroaches, etc. also carry germs of various diseases. Guinea worm
disease is quite common in India. The adult worm is about a metre long and it migrates from
the stomach to the leg and produces larvae which are released in water as shown in Fig 22.9.
.Leprosy Diarrhoea
Cerebrospinal Amoebic dysenery
Meningitis Round worm dysentery
Chicken pox Guinea worn
.
SAQ 6
Write the mode of spud of fdbwing diseases
Chickell pox I
Malaria
I
22.6 PREVENTION OF DISEASE
--
Now that we know that infectious diseases are caused by microbes, it should be possible to
prevent diseases by controlling their transmission and properly treating them.
SAQ 7
Answer the follo\wing auestinnc hiiefly.
Give two examples of how people in ancient India took -vent diseases.
ii) Give masons for prevalence of diseases among labourers, during the Industrial
Revolution.
......................................................................
iii) Why were diseases Controlled by clearing away filth?
Housing
Housing is an important component of healthy environment. Probably you are aware that
housing conditions for the vast majority of people in India are not up to the standard for a
healthy living. Villages have hardly any lavatories, and drainage being poor, they are
sakounded by pools of uncleangenn-infected water. As more and more people move to the
Agrleultun, Nutrltlon and cities, the problem of housing becomes acute and a large.percentageof people live in slums
Hulth or on the street without shelter. Poor housing by itself does not cause disease, but it does
contribute to spread of infections and ill health. A house should be sunny and well ventilated
to ensure gentle movement of fresh air throughout the area. Proper ventilation reduces the
concentration of micro-organisms to a safe level. Communicable diseases, such as lung
infections, diphtheria, whooping cough and tuberculosis are often associated with poor
housing. In closed rooms, the concentration of micro-organisms builds up rapidly and thus
the risk of the spread of infection increases. ~ a m ~ n eand
s s moisture also help in the spread
of these diseases. A house should be kept free of pests such as rats, mice, cockroaches, ants,
houseflies and mosquitoes because they are carriers of harmful germs.
Water
We all know that safe drinking water is essential for good health. Many of the diseases in
our country are due to lack of supply of safe drinking water. ~nfortunatel~~ only 18% of the
population in rural area gets reasonably safe drinking water. The vast majority of our rural
and urban population depends upon surface water, i.e. water from rivers, streams, reservoirs,
lakes, tanks and ponds, which generally get their water from rain. Although rain water is the
purest water in nature, it becomes impure as it passes through the atmosphere or fl,ows on
the ground. It gets contaminated with dust, soot, gases and micro:organisms. Therefore,
surface water possesses all this contamination plus additional contamination due to human
activity, such as bathing, washing clothes and utensils, or washing after passing stools. The
'water obtained from wells or tube wells, springs or handpumps is generally superior to
surface water, because this water is filtered through the ground itself and is free of
contamination, unless of course the handpump is not deep enough or is too close to e source
of infection.
Earlier, you have learnt the names of the diseases which are spread through contaminated
water. Disease rates are directly related to the quality of water supply. It has been shown that
with the improvement of water supply in some of the States in India, disease rates have bee"
drastically lowered.
Drinking water must be free of disease-causing agents or harmful chemicals. Human activity
pollutes water supply through negligence in disposing faecal matter, sewage, industrial
waste, fertilisers, pesticides and radio-active wastes. In urban areas only a small proportion
of our population enjoys the fac 3ty of sewerage system. Over 70% of the people living in,
rural areas defecate in the open fie% leading to great hazards in spreading various bacterial
diseases. Proper disposal of huma;. excreta is an essential quirement of community health.
At home, drinking water can be made safe by filtration and boiling. Filtration removes most
of the suspended impyrities. Disease-causing microbes are killed by boiling.
Air
Air is essential for life. Hence pollution of air is detrimental for health. Respiratory
problems like chronic bronchitis and lung cancer are associated with increased air pollution.
The most common pollution of air in India is by dust and smoke. In the evenings, you would.
find little Indian villages completely enveloped and hidden from view by a cloud of dust and
smoke. The air in large cities like Delhi, Calcutta or Bombay is polluted with exhaust fiom
scooters, motor cars/trucks: You would be surprised to know that a power station like Indra
Prastha Power Station in Delhi, throws out about eight tons of ash from its chimneys
everyday.
Air po,lu,tion can be controlled by prevention of escape of toxic substances into the
I environment from industries, motor cars or spraying of pesticides. Air c& be disinfected'by.
mechanical means, ultraviolet radiation. chemical vapour or special filters for air coming
into rooms.
,In residential places and offices, ventilation helps to replace polluted air. The quality of
incoming air with regard to temperature, humidity and purity is also an integral part of
I
ventilation, which ultimately provides an environment for comfort and is free from the risk
I
of infection. We know that green plants purify air. Green belt area should be increased in
I
big cities as they enhance the self cleaning power of the environment. A practice for
i growing green plants around the house is good for health.
Radiation
High doses of radiation are very harmful for human health. Do you know about the disaster
ceated by the first atomic bombs which were exploded on two cities of Japan, Hiroshima
68 and Nagasaki in 1945?They killed thousands of people and injured many more badly. The
effects of exposure to intense radiation took years to appear as burns or cancer in human Health and ise ease
beings. After a couple of decades, the effect on babies born to mothers who were exposed to
big doses of radiation, began to show up.
Then there are man-made sources of radiation in modern era which have become an
indispensable component of our life. Diagnostic medical and dental x-rays affect patients,
doctors and technicians. T.V. sets, radioactive dial watches and luminous markers etc. add
small amounts of radiation to man's environment, while nuclear power plant waste, if not
disposed of properly, is a great risk to human health. Major hazards of radiation are testing
of atomic and nuclear bombs.
Radiation, like x-rays, gamma rays, alpha and beta particles penetrate the body tissues and
injure them. The extent of damage is related to the total dose of exposure. Higher doses
affect immediately and are fatal. They affect the blood cells and soften the muscles. Acute
radiation sickness is a well defined disease. Somewhat lower doses show delayed effects.
They cause some cells to divide more rapidly than usual. 'Ibis leads to various forms of
cancer like Leukaemia or other malignant tumors. Unfortunately, some of the damages are
not recognisable within the life span of the exposed person, these will become manifest in
the coming generations.
Other factors
We must mention some other environmental factors which also affect our health.
I We know that temperature varies during a day, over the seasons, and in various places. It
depends on altitude. It is affected by the direction of wind and closeness to sea. However,
I
heat gained by the body should be equal to the amount of heat lost by it. Too high or too
low temperature causes not only discomfort, but human beings suffer from many disorders
I as a result of heat stress. Some of the effects of heat on human body are heat stroke or high
fever caused by heat, heat exhaustion, heat cramps. On the other hand severe exposure to
cold results in trench foot or frost bite. Rapid cooling of the body. i.e. chilling reduces the
body's resistance to disease organisms. That is why people catch cold through sitting in
draught.
Excessive noise not only causes annoyance and mental stress but can also result in auditory
iefects like deafness, interference with speech and adverse physiological changes
SAQ 8
i) Ljst the diseases which are spread due to poor housing.
Health status of the people is determined to a large extent by h e social, political and
economic forces existing in the country. Let us briefly hscuss the health system in India
from the ancient times to the present.
In Indus Valley period, the standards of environmental sanitation were very high. The city
of Mohenjo-daro of 5,000 years ago had publlc health facilities. Almost all households had
bathrooms, latrines, water closets and carefully built wells. Although, it is difficult to
imagine the nature of health problems they faced, the evidence surely indicates their great
concern and emphasis on preventive and promotive aspects of health care.
As you have learnt in Unit 3, during the Vedic period, m d c i n e took a momentous step
from "magico-religious" approach to a rational way of dealing with the subject. People in
those times understood that interaction between body and environment matter determines
Qseased or a healthy body.
s exactly what we understand about disease in the present time i.e. disease results
T h ~ is
from a complicated interactions between man and his environment. Therefore, we ~bserve
that there was more emphasis on environment. l%s tradition of preventive aspect of health
continued during the golden age of India.
During the period of decline of Indian science, the growth of our indigenous m d c a l
system also almost ceased. During the colonial period, there was complete disruption in the
way of life. Health practices, which we had developed over centuries, were adversely
affected. Now m d c i n e was left in the hands of incompetent people. So, the very scientific
basis of our ancient medical system was totally eroded. Besides, colonial exploitation
increased poverty and created environmental conditions detrimental to health. As a result,
the incidence of diseases increased. The western system of medicine, which had evolved
only a few centuries earlier, was denied to our people because it catered to the needs of a
small number who had money and lived in cities. The effort of western drug manufacturers
to sell their gmds exclusively in the Indian market created an atmosphere of distrust among
educated people of the InQan systems of medicine.
Table 22.4: Statistics Showing S t a b of Population, Birth Rate. Death Rate, Growth Rate and Life
Expectancy in India since Independence.(Source: Prof. Harcharan Shgh, 1997: Paper presented at Silver
Jubilee Conference of Indian Association of Preventive and Social Medicine held at Gandhi Medical
College, Bhopal)
Year Population Birth Rate Death Rate Growth Rate Life Expectancy
(million) ( w r 1000) . . (per 1000) (Percent) (inyears) .
1947 340.5 40.0 27.0 1.3 2.7
3.
1971 548.2
- 41.2 19.0 2.22 50
1997 960.0 28.3 09.0 1.73 62 -
The population has doubled ~njust 32 years from 480 million in 1965 to 960 million in
1997. In comparison to deqth rate which has come down to 9.0 per thousand population, the
present birth rate has come down to about 28.3 per thousand of the population.
Therefore, the annual growth rate, which was 1.3% in 1947 has increased to 1.73% (Table
22.4). India's population is projected in 2001 a billion plus and it may become the most
populated country, even more than China, in the world. It is so frightening. Unfortunately,
most of the programmes launched for family planning did not make any headway at the
grass root level.
In the area of Maternal and Child Health (MCH) services, the infant mortality has been
reduced to 74 and maternal mortality to four per thousand live births respectively. Thls
success rate is far behind when compared with western world. The Government of India has
launched special health programme to improve the quality of MCH care.
The communicable dseases continue to be the major health problems in our country. Only
a partial succcss has been achieved in their control since independence. We have witnessed
resurgence of malaria in mid seventies and again in 1994. In addtion just in a period of a
decade, the HlV infection has spread in all parts of the country. Almost the whole world is
gripped by AZDS and the disease is spreadmg rapidly. T h ~ disease
s may dilute or even erase
most of the efforts made to improve social and biological health of various communities
particularly in developing countries.
Table 22.5 : Status of Infectious Diseases Since Independence. (source: Prof. Harcharan
Singh, 1997: Paper presented at Silver Jubllee Conference of Indian Association of Preventive and Social
Medicine held at Gandhi Medical College, Bhopal)
Year Malaria TB Prevalence Leprosy Per Cholera Small Pox Diarrhoeal HIV
L P
(million)
P P
(9'0)
~
10.000
1947 100 NA NA NA NA
1951 75 2 NA 1,76,307 1,57,487 (1950) NA NIL
1961 2(1958) 2 NA 14,167 1,68,216 NA NIL
0.1 (1958)
(1965)
1971 5(1975) 2 58 4 17,140 1,436 NA NIL
6.4 (1958)
(1 976)
I 1981 17 2 38.6 8,717 NII, 12 3 NIL
(1986) (1984) (1985)
1991 1.81 2 19 5 7,088 NIL 9.9 5,588
9 74 (1993)
L 1997 2.8 1'3 (1994) 20,800 NIL 8.0 6,600
5 --
!
The National Health programmes could not reach the desirable targets because more
attcntion was paid to the cure of diseases than to their prevention. In other words, a
I
i "curative approach" based on western models was adopted to solve our health problems.
Most of our health institutions remain predominantly curative in character and there has
been neglect in preventive and promotive aspects of health care. These have proved to be
I inappropriate for the needs of our rural people. The established hospitals, well equipped
i with sophisticated equipment, have served largely to the upper crust of society rcsiding in
i! urban areas. We can see from health manpower statistics that there has been a sigmficant
increase in the number of medical and para-medical staff. In 1997, there were 4,89,189
I doctors, 19,525 dentists and 5,59,896 nurses registered in the country. At the time o f independence the doctor
i population and nurse population ratio was
I
1 According to 1991 census, our total population was 846 million, out of whch 218 mllion 1 :7, 165 and 1 :2,4340 respectively. In spite
, (25.6%) lived in urban arcas and 629 million (74.4%) lived in rural areas. However, the
of such a large ingease In population the
doctor population and nurse population ratio
number of hospitals, dspensaries and their bed capacity in urban and rural India is far from in 1997was l : l , 962 and 1:1.714
satisfactory (Table 22.6). From these data we can calculate that 79% of the hospitals and respectively.
86% of the beds are in the urban areas.
Agriculture, Nutrition and Table 22.6 : Medical Care Statistics in Rural and Urban sector (Source :Ninth Plan document, mimieo).
Health
---
Total 1 Urban I
I
Rural
Hospitals , 13692 9382 ] 4310
16.323 . 11.080
-Dispensaries 27.403
In spite of great increase in number, doctors are largely urban based, and poor rural people
who stand most in need, are deprived of them. Most villages do not have potable drinlung
water supply or basic sanitation.
The integrated rural health services developed after Independence through Health
Centres (PHCs), form the institutional core of the national health services. The role of
PHCs is to deliver comprehensive health care to population. By 1997,there were 21,889
PHCs and 1,33,498 sub-centres run by doctors along with accessory para-medlcal staff such
as nurses, multi- purpose workers, health assistants, h s , etc. It was envisaged that such a
large network of PHCs spread throughout the country would be essential to acheve "Health
for All" as targeted after Alma Ata Declaration.
Table 22.7 shows health status of urban and rural India based on mortality indicators. These
results reflect inadequacy in the functioning of the health service.
Fig. 22.7: Statistics Showing Status of Health in Rural and Urban India (values per thousand of population).
(Source: Ninth Plan document mimieo).
In most states, there is virtual collapse of health mfrastructure. Health services are not free
as they were aimed to be. Most people are forcefully drawn toward private medical care,
which turns out to be very expensive for them.
The various health programmes have largely failed to obtain the participation by
individuals and the families, which is necessary for establishing a self-reliant community in '
rural area. Instead, they have tended to enhance the dependency on "curative centres",
i.e., hospitals and dispensaries. The working of our institutio~lsfor education, training and
research, and established hospitals is such that we are heavily dependent on western
countries for books, equipment, medicines, and even ~deas.
The tenn Indian Systems of Medicine
covers boththe systems. whlch
originated in India and outside but were It is very unfortunate that all along this period our indigenous medical systems were totally
adopted in India m course of time. ignored. Had these been encouraged along with modem systems of medicine the health
These systems are Ayurveda, Siddha, status of our nation would have improved. In March 1995, the Government of India created
Unani, Homeopathy, Yoga and
Naturopathy. These systems have
a new Dept. of Indian systems of Medicine and Homeopathy (ISM and H).
become a part of the culture and
trAtlons of our country. In order to involve the community to solve its own health problems, a "multi-disciplinary"
approach was also adopted. This tequired a joint effort of biomedical and social scientists.
However, many of the social scientists also presume that western practices are "modern,
good, and desirable", and they should be adopted.
In fact, a inore comprehensive social scienses approach to health services in rural areas is
reqtured. It is pecessary to know how exactly people perceive their health problems. What
do these problems mean to them socially and culturally? The programmes and delivery of
health services should be such that they blend with the existing culture of the community.
The western, the ayurvedic, unani, and homeopathic practitioners should all be h t t e d into
teams serving the medical needs of all citizens whether they live in cities or villages. Thus,
we have to work and evolve our own models for health services, especially for rural India.
The model should be such that it should promote self-reliance in health in the community.
Priority should be given to water supply, sanitation and proper nutrition within the means of
the people.
SAQ 9
a) ..Which of the following statements are truelfalse'?Indicate by putting letter T for true
and F for false in the given boxes.
i) The level of sanitation and health consciousness among people existing in India
today are in contrast to what it was during Indus Valley period.
ii) The health condition of Indians improved during colonial period due to
availability of modem drugs.
iii) "Curative based centres" have prwed inappropriate for the health needs of our
rural people.
u
iv) It is necessary to give away old traditional systems of medicine, such as ayurveda,
unani and homeopathy in order to improve health of our rural people.
22.8 AIDS
You have learnt about infectious diseases. For centuries, death from infectious diseases
was common and whole populations were often affected. One of the remarkable
achievements of modem civilisation has been prevention and control of the infectious
dlseases of the past. However, we still seem defenceless against the rapid spread of AIDS,
a deadly infectious disease of the century. AIDS stands for Acquired Immune Deficiency
Syndrome. It is caused by Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). Currently there is no
cure or preventive vaccine for it.
The first case of AIDS was reported in the USA in 1981. However, it has now become a
In India by the end of 1996, a total of
ltruly global epidemic with an estimated 22.6 million infected people. AIDS is reported 2.93 million individuals practicing
from most of the regions of the world. It is prevalent in South America, Sub-Saharan risk behaviors who were screened for
Africa, Caribbean, Southeast Asia, Central Asia-and parts of Europe. In India just in a HIV, 4,99,527 were found to be sera-
period of decade, the HIV infection has spread in alI parts of the country. It is prevalent in positive.
all states with exception of Arunachal Pradesh. About 3,16 1 cases of AIDS were reported
in India by the end of 1996. The epidemiological data indicate that the prevalence of
infection continues to increase from urban to rural area.
AIDS is fatal because the virus specifically affects our immune system and disables it. In
section 22.4.4 you have learnt that our immune system is the defence force of the body and
if it is damaged the body would lose the ability to protect itself from infection caused by
bacteria, fungi, protozoa and viruses.
A D S virus severely damages the immune system and therefore the infected person is Viruses are among the simplest life
vulnerable to other infections. Usually these secondary infections (termed as opportunistic forms that survive as obligate
infections) cause death in AIDS patient For example, AIDS patients generally suffer from intracellular parasites. This means that
viruses cannot replicate and make more
tuberculosis, which is now most prevalent infection associated with HIV. of themselves once outside the host
cells. A virus particle consists of a
A key to controlling HIV infection is to understand the routes of its spread. molecule either of RNA or DNA that
store genetic ~nfonnation,enveloped by
a protein coat. In some viruses,
The following are the modes of HIV transmission including HIV there is an additional
envelop of membrane outside the
1. Sexual contact - Intimate unprotected sexual contact between man and woman protein coat
(heterosexual) or between man and man (homosexual), when In AIDS virus the information is coded
one of the partners is HJV infected. in R N A You may know that in most
2. Blood - Transmission from an HTV infected source to the bloodstream of organisms the genetic material is stored
urmfected person (transfusion of blood or blood products in DNA. Viruses, which contain RNA
instead of DNA for storing genetic
contaminated with HIV, use of needles and syringes stained with information, are called retroviruses.
HIV infected blood).
3. Vertical transmission - Transmission from infected mother to fetus during
pregnancy (perinatcil period), during birth or during breast-
feeding.
Agriculture. Nutrition and AIDS 1s not a contagious disease, but due to ignorance, several prejudices about the disease
Health .
are created. AIDS victims are being isolated and are discriminated by individual and
society. You must remember that AIDS does not spread like many other air-borne or water-
borne infections. It is important that we understand certain facts about HIV.
ITIV is quite fragile in'the external environment and the virus dies quickly when exposed to
room temperature or light. It is quickly inactivated by contact with soap and water. It is
important to understand that it cannot be transmitted through air, water or vector or casual
contact like shaking hands, hugging, dry kissing, sharing eating utensils, sharing towels,
using same gadgets or toilet seat etc. Therefore living with victims of AIDS i.e., breathmg
the sama air or eating from same plate does not spread infection.
In an infected individual HIV is present in certain cells of the blood (macrophages) which
are probably the long term reservoirs of HIV since they are not killed by the virus. They
circulate in the blood and remain in the mucosal lining of the internal urogenital surface of
the vagina and penis, the lining of the anus, lungs and throat. Therefore, for the test, M V
can be isolated relatively easily from blood, semen and vaginal, cervical secretions
(including menstrual fluid). It passes through fluid containing HIV of infected person to
the susceptible cell (usually via blood stream) of the receiver. Blood and semen are the
most infectious fluids i.e. why injection drug user and unprotected sexual behavior are
greatest risk of HIV transmission. You must note that saliva, tears, perspiration, urine and
feces are completely or nearly completely free of live cells.
Other targets for HIV infection are oral cavity and the throat since these also have mucosal
lining. However, the efficiency or transmission through oral cavity is low.
Symptoms
The HIV infection cannot be detected in early stages because the infected person does not
show any sign of illness right away and appears a healthy normal individual. The infection
remains latent for 5 to 10 years. The set of symptoms of AIDS appear later. Nevertheless,
such a person is carrier of infection and can transmit it to other person.
You have learnt that exposure to the virus occurs by sexual contact, blood or birth. Even if
exposure occurs by any of the above routes, this does not always result in transmission of
the virus. Only a fraction of exposed people is infected by HIV virus. However, most
infected people ultiinately develop some disease symptoms. These are the indirect result of
damage to the immune system by HIV. .As mentioned earlier that most people infected
with HIV never show symptoms at the time of initial infection. This period is called '
asymptomatic period. Some people may develop relatively mild disease symptoms such'
as swollen lymph glands, sore throat, fever, headache and s h n rash. However, these are
not specific to HIV Infection only and appear in many other viral infections. Therefore,
HIV infection cannot be diagnosed by such symptoms. Instead, HIV antibody test is
performed to detect the virus. However, this test is not foolproof.
Initial Symptoms
i) Shingles (Varicella) - painful rash condtion that often occurs on the torso.
ii)
iii)
. Candida - The fungus forms white plaques in the mouth and harms other mucosal
surfaces.
Hairy leukoplakia - White plaques appear due to the abnormal growth of papillae
cells of the tongue.
Opportunistic Infections
1) TI3
ii) Pneumonia
iii) Fugal Infections
iv) Protozoan infection (gastroenteritis)
-
v) Viral Infection -.
vi) Bacterial Infection (TB like) A New York based orphan .
vii) Cancer project estimated that nearly 1
viii) Tumors of the blood vessels (Kaposi's Sarcoma) million children under 14 years
of age have been orphaned by
ix) Lymphomas AIDS in Kenya, Rwanda,
,
a. Tested positively for HIV antibody detected by two separate tests using two
Merent antigens,
and
Any one of the following criterion:
.
(Spurce : Annual Report National AIDS Control Organisation, Ministry of Health and family welfare.
Government of India, Dec., 1996)
To see if an individual has been exposed to HIV, his serum is tested for antibodies to
HIV virus proteins.
The presence of HIV specific proteins indicates he is infected. There are potential
problems with the HIV antibody test because about 0.1% individuals who are not HIV
mfected show the test antibody positive.
Agriculture, Nutrition and '
SAQ 10
Health 111 the following statenients choose the correct altcrnative word given in the
a)
parentheses.
i) A D S is caused by a (virushacteria).
ii) It is transmitted vla (sexual contact/blood/airdroplets)
iii) The vinis specifically disables (nemous/immune) system.
iv) hIV (canJcmot) survive outside the body.
b) Indicate whether the following statements are true or false? Write T for true and F for
false in the given boxes.
22.9 SUMMARY
In t h s unit we have tried to show you how technological developments led to the unfolding
of mystery of disease and saved millions of lives. You have learnt that
I iii) /UDS
-
V) Malaria
vi) Conjunctivitis
-
"" 22.11.ANSWERS, ,
$!
Self Assessment Questions
1) i) properly, healthy ii) i n t e k c t d , emotional
2) a) i) F ii) T iii) F
b) Use Table 22.1 to check your answers.
. ,'
3) i) F ii) F iii) T iv) F
i 5) i) engulfing, antibodies, toxins ii) defence system iii) guards, circulato iv) defeated
2ig4 v) killing vi)train, body, weakened.
6) i) air ii) water food house fly iii) air iv) air v) water vi) air vii) air viii) mosquitoes
7) i) a) Washmg of hands before and after meals.
b) Entering into the htchen only after bathing.
ii) During the Industrial Revolution the labourers were living in extremely filthy
condiuons. There was no sewerage system, piles of garbage collected in front of
houses and the slaughter houses were full of flies.
iii) Some of the diseases are caused due to bacteria which breed on filth. Clearing
away of filth removed the breeding grounds for bacteria and thus helped in control
of diseases.
Terminal Questions
1) i) Bacteria ii) Fungi iii) Virus iv) V i m v) Protozoa vi) Virus viii) Worm
alpha and beta particles: harmful radiations emitted by radio active substances,
amino acid: the building blocks of protein molecules,
.anaemia: deficiency in the circulating haemoglobin or red blood cells,
antibody: a protein substance produced in an organism to counteract harmful organisms or
substances,
arid land: regions not having enough rainfall to support vegetation,
basal metabolism: energy expenditure of the body at rest in the postabsorptive state,
beriberi: a deficiency disease caused by lack of vitamin B and characterised by extreme
weakness. nervous disorders, edema, and cardiac failure,
bubonic plague: a higMy fatal bacterial disease of the blood, spread by the fleas and
respiratory secretions,
calorie: a unit of heat measurement; in nutrition, the kilocalorie is the amount of heat
required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water 1°C.
congenital: existing at or before birth with reference to certain physical or mental traits,
critical irrigation: the essential requirement of water by a crop at a particular stage of its
growth, 1
pulmonary oedema: presence of abnormal amount of fluid in the inter cellular spaces of the
rickets: a deficiency disease of the skeletal system caused by a lack of vitamin D or calcium
or both, and often resulting in bone deformities,
shelter beds: rows of trees and shrubs planted alongside field to reduce wind velocity and to
increase soil moisture.
FURTHER READINGS
1 A History of Agriculture in India, Volumes I to IV, M.S.Randhawa, I.c.A.R., 1980.
2 Fkds and Agriculture (M.S. Swaminathan and Movement of Self-reliance),
S. Ramanujam, E.A. Siddiq, V.L. Chopra, S.K. Sinha, Indian Society of Genetics and
Plant Breeding, I.A.R.I., 1980.
'
3 Finds and Integrated Rural Development, M.S. Swaminathan, Concept Publishing
Company, New Delhi, 1982.
4 Handbook of Food and Nutrition, M. S. Swaminathan, Abappco Publication.
5 Nutritive Value of Indian Foods, C . Gopalan, B.V. Rama Sastri and S.C.
Balasubranianian, National Institute of Nutrition, I.C.M.R., New Delhi.
6 New Guide to science, Isaac Asimov, Penguin, 1987.
-
COURSE CONTENTS
23.1 INTRODUCTION -
Do you know that one of the most complex systems in the world lies within your own head?
Over centuries, the brain has been comptred to various man made machines. The most
recent, of course, is the computer. Though the activities of the computer are fast, they are
limited, in the sense that the computer works according to a programme given to it, by a
human being. No machine can rival the brain, with its billions of nerve cells intricately
connected so as to give it the ability to receive, store, recall and process informatiin and to
think new thoughts. Scientists are working very hard to create what may be called,
intelligent computers, but that is another story.
If we look through the history of human civilisation, the mind and its mental have
always been a fascinating and controversial subject among philosophers. Until fairly
recently, we did not know or understand much about the nature of the mind or its
relationship with bodify functions. There was controversy even regarding the relationship
between the mind which was considered spiritual, and the brain, which was thought to &.
material.
In this Unit, we expose you to an elementary scientific description of the Mind-Body
relationship and to a physical description of the human nervous system and its working.
There is special emphasis on the brain which .is the seat of all thoughts we think and our
response to people, events and most importantly to ourselves. In addition, we will look a t d l
the other parts of the nervous system that cany messages to, and from the brain and the
spinal cord to the rest of the body.
r
Some other parts of our body that e important for understanding behaviour are certain
glands that put out chemicals calle hormones .which play a part in regulating body function.
What you study in this unit would provide a foundation for a further study in unit- 24, of
human behaviour and the development of the mind from infancy onwards.
Objectives
After studying this unit you should be able to :
0 describe the structure and functionsof a nerve cell,
describe the general organisation and major parts of the human nervous system and its
working,
identify the parts of the brain and describe how human senses, reactions and bodily
functions are associated with different parts of the brain,
recognise and define a flex reaction,
realise that hormones and the nervous system work closely together to coordinate the
internal functions of the b d y and also affect an individual's behaviour,
realise that this is a vast subiect and vour knowledee is oniv rudirnenk.
3.2 MIND-BODY QUESTION
1 the Vedic times, in India, philosophers held the belief that man consisted of a r m (soul),
,anas (mind), indriyan (sense organs) and sarira (body). The sadra was taken to be the
nse for the indriyan which were located in its vqious parts. Manus was one of the 11
gans thought to be present in the body and, it was considered to be the organ for memory;
nowledge and feeling etc. The atma was capable of knowing, feeling and action but
~ithoutthe manas, indriyan and sarira, it could not function. In later times, Yoga and
Tantra came to view the brain and the nerves as the organs of the soul. The mind, however,
lad always been regarded as of great importance and all activities such as hearing, seeing,
'esiring and believing were assigned to it.
;y the 19th century, scientific explanations for the functions of the body were available,
,sed on concrete observations and experiments. Mental processes were seen to be linked to
.ivity in the brain. It was recognised that the mind cannot exist without the. body. Our
rception about the world, its sights, sounds and smells isentirely determined by our
isory system, i.e., the eyes, ears, nose, skin etc., and.the brain.
'ou can perhaps see that our description of ancient and philosophical views about the mind
d mental processes is too brief to do justice to the philosophers. But our purpose is not to
into details of what people have thought about mental processes in the course of
~usandsof years of human history. Our purpose is to give you, again briefly, what is
.cientifically known at present about the human mind and behaviour.
'he entire functioning of the human body is coordinated by the nervous system which
nsists of the brain, the spinal cord and the peripheral nerves. The working of the brain
nained a mystery for a long time. Even today, there is a good deal we do not know about
w the brain works, although a lot of information has been pieced together from observing
haviour of patients that suffer from diseases related to tumours or other physical defects in
brain. However, the properties of individual nerve cells that make up the brain and the
of the nervous system are well understood now. From these properties we can attempt to
lain the operations of the entire nervous system.
I.
._-,.,,., ~lreulcalstudents to 23.3 FUNCTIONAL UNIT OF THE NERVOUS
dissect cadavers. The internal
systems of the human body thus SYSTEM - NEURON ---
'became known.
The human brain is composed of more than one hundred billion (100,000,000,000 or 1011)
cells called 'neurons'. This number which is comparable to the number of stars in the Milky
Way, gives us an idea about the size of the neurons also - because 10" of them fit in a
space which slightly more than a litre of water can occupy. Since these neurons are the
functional units of the whole nervous system, let us become familiar with some of their
basic features. You can see some typical neurons in Fig. 23.1.
Neurons can be categorised into the following kinds according to their functions :
a) Motor neurons : send signals from the nervous system to
muscles and glands.
b) Sensory neurons : carry signals from the receptor cells in sense
organs in the body to the nervous System.
For example, signals generated by touch or
smell or hearing etc.
c) lnter neurons or association neurons : process the sensory information received
from other neurons, and convey messages.
For example, when an insect bites, the
fingers are given a command to~cratchat
, that point. Most of the brain's neurons fall in
this category.
The neurons are specialised to carry iqformation from one part of the body to another. These
messages are referted to as nerve impulses. The nerve impulse occurs in response to some .
stimulus or event which excites them.
Notice in Fig. 23.1 that in every neuron, fhe portion of the cell with the nucleus is called the
roll hndv The thr~arlike e u t ~ n c i n n cn f rhe r ~ l that
l h r i n u c i n f n r r n a t i n n f r n r n n t h e r t v w c hf
....
v. mm. Puwsa, n.nm~wncupc, 3'Av 1
Insight Fill in the blanks with suitable words from those given below
i) In a neuron, ..................carries messages away from the cell body, while ....................
cames messages towards the cell body.
ii) The gap between the ends of an .................and the dendrite of the next cell is called a
....................
...
111) ...................... take messages from sense organs to central nervous system.
iv) .....................take messages away from the central nervous systems to muscles and
23.4.1 Brain
The centre piece of the nervous system is the brain which IS possibly the most organised
form of matter known. It is unlike any other organ of the body, as ~t alone can recelve,
handle and analyse information and issue necessary commands.
The human brain containing billions of neurons with their axons and dendrites, is soft matter
whlch has a folded appearance. Since the brain is a delicate organ, it is extremely well
PERIPHERAL protected by three tough membranes and floats In a special fluid which helps to absorb
NERVES
shocks. The whole organ is then enclosed In a bony skull. (Flg. 23.4). The brain is very well
supplied with oxygen, whtch is carried by blood. In fact, 75% of the body requirement of
oxygen is used by the bra~n.Four ~nter-connectedarteries carry blood to the brain so that
even if two are blocked there are still two alternate passages. These four arteries are
connected to mill~onsof blood vessels called capillhries whlch reach every part of the brain.
If the flow of blood is interrupted for even 10 seconds, we become unconscious and an
interruption of a few minutes may cause permanent damage to the brain cells. These
damaged brain cells cannot be replaced as the number of neurons in the brain does not
increase after the age of five years. In fact, some neurons die every day. But, fortunately, we
have them in such large numbers that it does not make too much of a difference. This slow
but permanent loss of neurons is thought to be responsible for the loss of mental ability in
old age. Becausefhe loss of neurons is irreplaceable, diseases like poliomyelitis that destroy
neurons, lead to muscular disability, called paralysis as muscles connected to the destroyed
neurons do not receive any messages.
Even though the total number of neurons deerease, as ane grows older, the number of
connections amongst them in the brain increase. It is thought that learning involves the
establishment of new connections or circuits in the brain and once they are established, they
are relatively permanent. Persons with larger heads are not necessarily more intelligent, but
persons with more and complex interconnections are.
Fig. 23.3: Nervous system o f man
showing central nervous system and Let us now have a brief overview of the major regions and structures of the brain. It would
per~pheralnerves be best to read this section without trying to memonse all the new terms. You could refer
I
back to them as needed. The major regions of the brain are showo in Fig. 23.4 and Fig. 23.5.
These are forebrain, midbrain &d hindbrain. The forebrain itself has many parts which
we will now describe. .
RIGHT
HEMISPHERE
SPINAL CORD
Fig. 23.4: The human'braincut in the medial plhe showing its majy divisions. Fig. 23.5: Frontal view of brain showing the band of nerve
encased in the bony cranium and the spinal cord encased in the vertebral colunin. fibres connecting the two cerebral hemispheres.
Forebrain
The largest part of the brain that you see in Fig. 23.4 is the cerebrum. It consists of two
halves or hemispheres joined together by a band of nerve fibres (see Fig. 23.5). Interestingly
the crossing over of nerve fibres here causes the right half to control the actions.of the left
side of the body and vice versa. The outer surface of the cerebrum is the cerebral cortex. It
is often referred to as the 'grey matter' because of its colour. It is profusely supplied with
blood vessels.
The cortex was explored in a very fascinating way, particularly by a Canadian neuro-
surgeon, Wilder Penfield: Since 1900's it was known that the brain cpntained no pain
:ceptors and.henceit could be operated upon, without making the person unconscious: '
'ith local anesthesia, the top of the skull could be removed like a cap to expose the cortex.
Penfield did exactly this and he stimulated different parts of the cortex, one by one, by
~chingthem with an electric wire or probe. He was amazed to observe the reactions of the
dtients. On touching one part of the cortex with the probe, the patients could see, hear or
nell or feel! Patients could revive old memories. Some reported hearing the sound of a
articular song; one woman felt as if her daughter was in the room talking to her; another.
erson could actually recollect the smell of flowers! Stimulation of other regions caused
notor responses such as the movement of an a m or Ikg.
In Fig. 23.6, you see a sideview ofi the cerebral cortex where some functions associated with
specific portions have been shown.
MOTOR
SENSORY .
Fig. 23.6: Sidev~ewof human cerebral cortex showing functions assignea to sevolal uoas.
for linguiscc abiliiy, mathematical and scientific p;4msolving drill.,
is responsible for artistic, musical, pcrcep:ual intuitive alnlities (
General1y analytical processes an assbt5at.d 86
5<0s
lil t -
n ouii..., di ihe sidevie& of the human heod (Fin.
ceretrum, cerebellum. thaladcls, hypothalamus and midbrain
. 23.8): 'h,
'on; function of each of the, above stated parts of the brain,
Mid and BodJ
1 23.5.1 Reflexes
-
It is of interest to +ow, that all sensory information does not have to go to the brain before
we can react to a stimulus. Our responses to certain stimuli are simpk;hnianed and quick.
For instance, if a finger is too close to a burning match, receptor cells on the skin send the
infarmation on a nerve to the spinal cord, and a 'reflex action' is taken to move the finger
away f m the fire. Such 'reflex drcuits' are well distributed and one is shown in Fig. 23.9.
AXON OF
SFvS{o"NY
SENSORY NEURON
Part of a routine physical The brain is not normally involved in such simple reflex actions. Only after the event, is
examination involves testing a the brain informed and we become conscious of what has happened. The time gap
person's reflexes. The condition of between the stimulus and the response is about 1115th of a second and this is often
the nervous system, part~cularlythe crucial for survival. For instance, a person who is driving a car has to apply his brakes
functioning of the synapses, may be
determined by examining reflexes.
to avoid a sudden collision with another car. His reflex action timing is important if he (
In case of injury to some portion of has to avoid the accident. Similarly, the reflexes of an airplane pilot have to be fast to
the nervous system, testing certa~n avoid disaster. Human capacity to handle equipment and machines is limited by the
lrpflexes may indicate the locat~on time taken by one's reflexes.
and rrrtent of the injury. Also, an
anesthesiologist may try to iflitlate Simple reflexes have these important qualities:
a reflex to ascertain the effect of an they are inherited and not learnt. Therefore, not forgotten,
anesthetic.
they are not normally under our control, therefore, they are automatic, though some
reflexes can be controlled by will power,
for any given stimulus the response is always the same.
SAQ 3
Put the following in correct order for a simple reflex circuit. lndicate this order by putting 1
2,... etc., in the boxes given against each statement. We have done one for you as all
example.
a) message travels through motor neuron n
b) message travels through sensory neuron n
c) muscle is stimulated to contract n
d) receptor cell or organ is stimulated
e) message travels through inter neuron
I st
. i) :interacts with con ious nervous activity to affect the body functions
ii) controls activitied that are volunta~
iii) controls act~vitiesthat are involuntary and self- regulatory M'-d and BOay
HYPOTHA
PITUITARY
GLAND
THY ROlD
PARATHYROID
GLAND
Fig. 23.10: Location of some endocrine dlands. The figure shows both ovaries and testes for convenience.
Each hormone acts on a certain organ in a specific way. Many of the effects of hormones are
long term changes, for example, the changes that take place in the body during growth and
sexual maturity. However, some of the changes may be quick like the ones that occur when
the heart rate and breathing rate is increased or decreased. l
A lis of some of the major endocrine glands a!ong with the hormones they secrete is given
b
in Ta le 23.1. You are not expected to remember each of them. The information is provided,
in case, you are curious to know more about these glands.
You can see that these hormones are vital for the proper functioning of the body. They
regulate the chemical reactibns in the body and consequently play a critical role in
maintaining n o h a l physical conditions or homeostasis. If hormones are to serve a
regulatory function. they must be produced at the proper time. in proper amounts. This. is
controlled by the brain, receiving information from all parts of the body and giving
appropriate signals to the glands. This feedback system is very much like a thermostat that
controls temperature in a machine. Any break in this feedback system leads to severe
consequences. For exainple. the thyroid gland produces thyroxine which controls.the
metabolic rate in the body. Oversecretion tends to make a person thin, overactive and
anxious while undersecretion makes him over-weight and sluggish. Thyroxine deficiency, in
fact, causes mental as well as physical retardation which can be prevented if the deficiency
is discovered sufficiently early and the right amount of the hormone is given.
The hormones work in close coordination with our nervous system. For example, in a
situation of danger or fear, the sense organs convey the information to the central nervous
system and the autonomic system is activated within seconds. The adrenal glands arc also
activated to release a hormone called adrenaline. When adrenaline reaches the alimentary
canal and the skin. their blood vessels conwact, diverting the blood supply to the muscles;
the pupils of the eyes are dilated and glucose is released in the blood to speed up the rate of
breathing. All these changes help a person who requires increased activity such as running
away or fighting. You would be able to identify all these actions with those initiated by the
autonomic nervous system that you have studied in sub-section 23.5.2.
Sex hormones
Pancreas Insulin W e s body to metrbolile nu*, nph
sco~gcoffrtr
Glucagon hcrmcs level of sugar in blood
Ovaries Estrogen Regulates functions of u W . pwnasl
secondary r e x d chuacten
Testes Testosterone
Nervous control evokes these reactions very rapidly in the time of danger; hormones provide
a backup that maintains the response after the initial shock is over. This explains the state of
'nervous energy' that remains even after the final exam or a performance is over.
Often we see that in combination with the nervous system, hormones can change the
behaviour of a person. Some of the abnormal behaviours shown by an individual may well
be due to over or tinder secretion of certain hormones. ~ d d athe~ ,science of biochemistry
has made it possible to synthesise hormones, which can be administered to the body by
means of injections or given orally, if the glands are unable to produce the right amount
needed at different times. The most common example is that of insulin, which has m a
diabetic people live a longer and normal life.
SAQ 5
Tickemark the correct alternative from the words given in each parenthesis.
i) The effect of hormones is (slowerlfaster) than nervous action.
ii) Hormones are (vitallunimportant)for the proper functioning of our body.
iii) Hormones (cannotican) be supplemented externally if the body is not able to
produce them in adequate amounts.
-
are
The H w N m a u System
( * Functions
-
nervous rca%on that does not involve the brain. The s~mplest
MVCI
a 6emmy neuron, an inter neuron and a motor neuron connected
qWem ~aIhighly
I integrated sys&mcapable of coordinating and
8 e~hievean enonnous range
MBYM#W b d 8 ~ to - and choice of responses.
3 Keeping in mind the properties of simple reflexes. explain briefly whether coughing is
a reflex or voluntary action.
5 Tick the correct statements in the boxes provided alongside the statements.
i) The right half of the cerebral cortex controls the left side of the body and vice
versa.
ii) Only the left hemisphere of the cerebral cortex is specialised for language. -
iii) Motor areas of the brain control the voluntary muscle activity.
iv) The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord.
V) The millions of possible inter-connections between the nerve cells in the brain
are responsible for complicated actions. learning, memory and intelligence. .
vi) Hormones secreted by endocrine glands work as a separate system of
coordination.
23.9 ANSWERS
Self-Assessment Questions
1) i) axon, dendrite
ii) axon, synapse
, iii) sensory neurons
iv) motor neurons, glands
v) neurotransmitters
2) Compare the labelling with Fig. 23.4. ~ i n and
d Body
Cerebrum - thinking, speech, taste and other complex responses
Cerebellum - coordination of movements; maintains balance of body
Thalamus - relay centre for incoming sensory messages to the cortex
Hypothalamus - controls thirst, hunger etc., maintains homeostasis
Midbrain - decides which stimuli should reach the concerned parts
of the brain.
3) a) -4
b) -2
c) -5
d) -1
e) -3
4) Correct statements are (i), (iii) and (iv).
5) a) slower
b) vital
C) can
Terminal Questions
1) a) 4 cell bodies i) of pain receptor cell
ii) of sensory neuron
iii) inter neuron
iv) motor neuron
b) 4 synapses i) between pain receptor and dendrite of sensory neuron
ii) between axon of sensory neuron and cell body of inter
neuron
iii) between axon of inter neuron and cell body of motor
neuron
iv) between axon of motor neuron and muscle cell
2) Damage to cerebral hemisphere affects voluntary actions, while damage to medulla
disrupts body functions that are vital to life like heart beat, breathing, blood pressure.
These functions are involuntary and must go on if life hss to be sustained.
3) It can be both. You can cough deliberately but normally it is a reflex action.
i) because it is an involuntary response when the throat is imtated or if food
accidentally goes into the windpipe.
ii) The response to such situations is always the same. One does not forget them.
4) a) messages travel along nerves and nerve fibres while hormones are secreted directly
into the blood which takes them to the target organ.
b) Messages are conducted much faster by nervous system within a second while
action of hormones is slower-from 4 few minutes to days.
C) The response for nervous impulses is immediate while for hormones, the response
may be over years.
5) True statements are: (i), (iii), (iv) and (v).
UNIT 24 PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF
BEHAVIOUR
Structure
24.1 Introduction
Objectives
24.2 Learning
Stlmulus and Response
Reward and Punishment
Cognltlve Leamlng
24.3 Intelligence Quotient
24.4 Creativity
24.5 Adolescence
24.6 Aspirations, Conflicts and Frustrations
24.7 Aggression
Instlnct or Leamed?
B~ologrcalBasls of Aggress~on
Aggress~onas a Learned Response
24.8 Human Factor Engineering
. 24.9 Experiments with Man in Space
24.10 Summary
24.1 1 Terminal Questions
24.12 Answers
-
24.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous Unit we studied the structure and working of the brain and the nervous
system. We found that all our behaviour is conditioned by the activity of the brain, the ,
nervous system and the endocriie system or the ductless glands which secrete various ,
ho$hones. But because of the complexity of the human brain and the hard-to-define nature
of such activities as "thinking", "imagining" or "intuition", there are still large gaps in our
knowledge of the functions of the brain. In many ways, therefore, it is more practical to
study the behaviour of the brain and the nervous system in terms of the signals they receive
and the response they show, rather than the internal working of the brain. This Ieads us to
discuss some aspects of psychology and human behaviour. Several other questions such as
the stages of mental development, and the role of learning, creativity and personal
characteristics will be briefly explained.
We also give you a brief description of human factor engineering, a science that takes into
consideration the capabilities and limitations of the human body while designing any
-machine, tobl or place of work. T+e desire to understand how human beings adapt to
unusual environments leads to various experiments with them in space. We will try to make
you aware of some of the observations that were-made during such explorations.
,
0bjectives
After studying this unit you should be able to :
describe three foims in which learning takes place
distinguish between intelligence and creativity
identify some physical and behavioural changes that take place during adolescence
explain whether aggressive behaviour is instinctive or learned
give reasons for developing the principles used in human factor engineering
describe some psychological experiments performed on man in space.
24.2 LEARNING
When we talk about learning, we usually mean acquiring a new skill, new info6atioRor
new ideas. For instance you may be learning to ride a oicvcle or play a game or swak a new
language. Coming to think of it you have learnt numerous things in the course of your life-
from learning to walk and talk, to the learning of history or geography etc., and again to the
learning of social behaviour and ideas about right and wrong, just and unjust. In fact, all
your attitudes, y&es a d beliefs, all that distinguishes y6u as a person different from others
is a result or continuous learning. Everyone of us is exposed to new situations and Psychological ~ s p e c t of
s
experiences everyday and all of us are constantly learning from them. Our behaviour Behaviour
strongly depends on the learning we have gone through either by way of training, study or
experience. Of course, it does not mean that all behaviour is rational or reasonable. As a
child, a person may have picked up unhealthy habits, like not keeping his or her body and
clothes clean, or being lazy and slothful. Wrong values are also "learnt", sometimes from
family and friends, like considering other people untouchable, or worth despising, simply
because they speak a different language or profess a different religion. However, some
behaviour is "instinctive", i.e. belonging to human species, even without learning one would
do certain things-for example, a mother protecting a child from injury.
:b 24.1: PAVLOV'S EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS. One of Pavlov's famous dogs stands surrounded by the
apparatus devised by the Russ~anscientist to test learned reflexes. Saliva canied by a tube to beaker, acttvated a lever
connwted to the pen beyond the screen at left. Each dmp of saliva was registered by a mark on the revotvtng drum.
The dogs evidently learned to enjoy their work, hopping up onto the platform without being asked. +
This, of coutse, is a natural response of any dog. He begins to salivate when he gets his
food. But a strange thing happened. The dog began to salivate at the sight of the apparatus or
the experimenter even before the food was placed in front of it. Pavlov could have treated
this as an experimental nuisance but being a scientist he started asking questions.
Pavlov knew that salivation at the sight of food was a natural reflex action. It happens in every
dog since birth, but the other reaction was something new, what we can call a learned reflex.
Now he decided to investigate if the dog could be made to associate food .with other stimuli.
In a typical experiment, a bell was sounded just before the meat was given to the dog. This
was repeated several times. Pavlov noticed that the dog now began to salivate as soon as the
bell was rung even if food was not given. The animal associated the two stimuli, food and
bell, therefore, one could be substituted for the other. Table 24.1 shows the steps in this
training process.
Table 24.1
Steps in Pavlov's Experiment
Stimulus Response
-
B e f o e training Bell Attention of the dog but no sal~vatton
Food Salivat~on(Natural Reflex)
During training Bell and fqod Salivation
After tralnlng Bell abne Sal~vat~on
(LedrneJ Reflex)
Even human beings learn things according to this simple niodel. If a person has done good
to you many times, you may begin to associate goodness with the person. Sometimes, cheats
use this technique to first gain your confidence by a few simple acts, and then when your
trust has grown, they might run away with your belonging!
Table 24.2 Psychologlral Aspects of
- Behavhnr
Developmental Stages of the Child 3
Stage Behaviour associated with each stage You are adnseo 1 6 see the vidm
-
programme entitled Jean Piaget-
Sensorimotor Period This is the time to coordinate sensory information with motor responses Developmental stages of the
Birth to 2 yrs Sights. sounds and smells are at first signals associated with feeding, \child.
cuddling and all good things. But soon the infants struggle to judge
distance and catch things with their hands. Already they discover by
about 10 months of age that if a thing is hidden from view it still exists.
This is known as 'object permanence'. They will search for a face or a
toy that is hidden frpm them. They learn to walk, and begin to talk. The
ability of babies to put words in reasonable grammatical order and to
make sensible sentences is a subject of considerable wonder among
psychologists.
Preoperational Period Soon children begin to use symbols and ,language, bur they are
2 to 7 yrs of age preoccupied with themselves and cannot see other people'b viewpoints.
They consider themselves as the centre of the world. Their reasoning
ability is very limited. They cannot understand that the amount of
something will remain the same even if the shape changes. F& example.
a child will understand that glass containers A and B which have similar
shape (see Fig. 24.2). have the same amount of liquid but if the liquid Fig. 24.2
from B is poured in a narrow tall glass container C. he will say t h a ~C
contains more liquid. Children at this age can have very good memory;
they can memorize easily. but they also forget unless memory is
refreshed.
Concrete Operations Thought processes become logical. Children will not befooled by the tall
7-1 1 ,yrs glass now. However, they can deal with only theconcrete and immediate.
Parents and teachers may get frustrated if they try to teach children.
things far removed from their actual experience or abstract concepts like
'justice' or 'integrity'. Children also acquire the ability to compare two
things on a dimension such as weight and size, e.g.. if A is taller than B
and B is taller than C, then they will say A must be taller than C .
Formar operations Children can begin to think in abstract terms now. They can reason and
I I yrs upwards find out the elements of a problem. In the next few vears, adult thinking
emerges.
--
You have to remember that all these are based on general observations on children in
Switzerland. Our country provides different type of family life to children and hence our
children may not exactly conform to these average situations. Again, individuais can be
widely different because of biological factors-some children may be ahead of averages and
some may be behind. If you have children around you, you may try to find out for yourself
some of these stages in their mental development.
Onsthe other hand, the course of mental development from the youngest to the age of 12-15
years shows that there are limitation to what children can learn at different stages of their
lives. This is a fact of great significance for educationists who design courses of study. If we
do not pay any attention to this fact and try to give abstract concepts to a child who hasn't
developed the mental ability to handle such concepts, it will have no option but to memorise
answers and give a false impression about his learning. Unfortunately, this is very common
in our lives and memorisation or rote-learning has become more important in the practice of
our schools and colleges, then the learning process as a whole.
S4Q 1
a) Fill in the blanks usmg words from the t en list.
i) Any behaviour that is specific and not affected by practice is ......................
ii) ..................... decreases the probability that a response will be repeated.
iii) Feelings of revulsion at the sight or smell of certain foods because of bad
experience with those foods is a ......................
iv) Training a dog to help the blind involves learning mostly through ......................
v) Learning and remembering information in a text book involves
.................................................
-
(puni~hment,~cognitive
learning, learned reflex, instinctive, rewards)
Not too long ago, however, it was believed that intelligence was fixed at birth and
unaffected by anything in later life. But studies conducted on different groups indicate that
inadequate nutritional conditions before birth and during early years of lifq, not only dwarf
the body but dull De mind too.
mhfdth~~
1 2 3
ITCQb =T 11 -
Draw the m~ssingfigure.
C--
+
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
Tests for general intelligence correlate highly with achievements in school and to a lesser
degree with achievements in later life. For example, a most successful businessman, or a
cricketer, or a politician need not necessarily have a top level IQ.
To do well in a typical intelligence test, the subject must be able to recall and to recognise,
and to solve a problem in an analytical manner but he need not necessarily be able to invent
new things--such as write poetry, paint a picture, invent a new kind of engine, or create a
new theory. These latter abilities are involved in "creativityw-which we will discuss next.
24.4 CREATIVITY
The ability to come up with novel ideas, is not entirely based on reasoning.- because
reasoning will lead every person to tread the same path, and reach the same conclusion. One
has to go beyond reasoning to state a new idea, which then may be tested for its usefulness.
Sirvlilarly an artists paint a new pieture, not because of geometrical considerations but
because of an impulse to create something beautiful. Imagination is said to play an important
role in creativity. People who are able to fluently think of many, and even unusual
alternatives in a given situation are said to possess fluency and flexibility of ideas, which is
conducive to creiitivity. It is this rather unusual ability, different from reasoning, analysis
and synthesis, which is the source of major advances in our understanding of the world, and
equally of great works of art which have been universally admired. Newton and Einstein are
examples from science, Tagore and Tansen from the arts, and Marx and Gandhi from social
science.
Information, Knowledge, It has been found that those who excel in generating uncommon ideas are also not rigidly
Qsight bounil'to many traditions and rules, they are more independent minded, free thinking and
unconventional in their ways. Students who show such qualities are not always the
favourities of their teachers, and schools prove even a hurdle to their careers. Since creative
people make a large contribution to advancement of society, we should be keen to develop
education and schooling so as give them a chance to show their worth.
A sample of the types of tests which have been evolved to measure creative potential is
shown in Fig. 24.4. Several such tests were devised to find a relationship between the
intelligence and creativity of a person. The results showed that there was only a low
correlationship between IQ and creativity.
If a person has a low IQ his creativity was low too.
If creativity was high then IQ was above average.
But high IQ did not necessarily mean high creativity.
Within a group of subjects with bbove average intelligence, there was no relationship
between.creativity and IQ.
Before proceeding further tr)l this SAQ to check what you have learnt in the above section.
SAQ 2
a) Tick mark the correct statements in the space provided against them.
i) Measuring IQ is really measuring a person's mental age.
ii) Economically deprived people are bound to have\ a low IQ.
iii) IQ tests used in Amenca are the best to use in India.
iv) Highly creative people must have an IQ of 140.
V) A student's ability to reason,,analyse and synthesise depends
on his .or her schooling.
vi) Intelligence is to find a single solution to a problem, and creativity is
to look for many possible solutions.
b) See Figure 24.4 and try to complete the creativity tasks indicated there.
c
-
24.5 ADOLESCENCE
In Unit 23, Mind and Body, you have already studied that certain hormones are essential for
proper physical development of an individual. Around the age of 12, starts a period when
special hormones are secreted in the body and transition from childhood to adulthood takes
place. This is kndwn as adolescence, a period of very rapid physical growth, accompaniqd
I
1
-.
by a gradual develbpment of reproductive organs and secondary sexual characteristics such Psyehdogicd k s p c c t ~of
as beard for men and breasts for women. The age limits of adolescence roughly extend fnnn .BehovTollL.
I
around 12 to about 18 years when physical growth is nearly complete.
During adolescence, not only is physical growth rapid, but its sex-related character changes
the social position of the individual. Cognitive development and knowledge base also
reaches a point when a person is able to formulate his or her ideas, fairly clearly, about
various questions in life. People are able to develop a world outlook or an ideology of their
own, and hence personality. At the end, they are no more boys or girls, but they are men and
women, generally able to stand on their own. The five or six years of adolescence stage are
very crucial for everyone, and since they generally correspond to classes 7th or 8th to 12th
or first year of college, they are important for teachers to keep in mind while dealing with
'theit students. The transition can be clumsy and confusing, too aggressive or too timid for
the young person, but it is also a wonderful experience to grow out of childhood and face the
world as a c o n f l d e n e @ - d y to cnatfge it.
i
SAQ 3
Choose the correet-#rord from those given below to fill in the blanks.
I
i) ........................... is a, time of transition from childhood to adulthood.
ii) Hormones produced by testes and ovaries are responsible for the ...........................
........................... seen in boys and girls.
iii) Adolescence is often a period of stress and emotional instability because it involves
a search for ...................:...................
24.7 AGGRESSION
We often k v e difficuliy hdealing with our a g e r and hostile feelings and this leads to
pggres+.,We he& to define what we mean by that. Aggnssion is often described as the
intention to injure another person either physically or verbally or to destroy property. Notice
I tncbrmation, K&C, the word intention has been italicised. If you accidently step on someone's foot in the crowd
*Imi~ht
I and apologise immediately, the act would not be termed aggressive because you did not step
on the foot intentionally.
1
24.7.2 Biological Basis of Aggression
-
Studies show that mild electrical stimulation of a specific region of the hypothalamus
I produces aggressive behaviour in animals. When a cat's hypothalamus was stimulated by
' . implanting electrodes in the brain and passing an electric current, it's hair stood on end; it
hissed and arched it's back and would strike at anything that was placed in its cage.
In higher mammals like monkeys this instinctive pattern is not observed. Their behaviour
was seen to be more controlled by the cerebral cortex rather than mere stimulation of the
hypothalamus. The hypoth;~llr~nus may send a message to the cerebral cortex that its
aggressive centres have bcen stimulated, the cortex then chooses the response considering
what is going on in the environment, and what has been stored in the memory from past
experiences.
We too have centres in thc brain that can make us behave aggressively, but thefactivation is
under cognitive control. Some brain damaged persons may react to stimulation with
aggressive behaviour, which would not elicit any response from normal persons. In such
cases, it was found that the cerebral cortex was the damaged area ot the brain. In normal
persons. we can say that aggressive hehaviour is determined largkly by social influences and
personal experiences.
Fig. 24.5: ,Frustration1s one of the causes for Fig. 24.6: Aggression is instinctive in
76 aeeressive behaviour. ' animals.
e further, let us assume that you are preparing for an exam or reading
~ o d a b r a t this Psychological Aspects o f '
something that requires concentration. Your neighbour plays his radio at full volume. You Behaviour
would probably first go and request him to lower the volume. If he refuses, you have to
think about what to do.
you could get very angry and exchange some harsh words or,
you might even beat him up,
another alternative would be that you let your temper cool off, or move away to a quieter
place. This might enable you to take up the matter with your neighbour when both of you
are in a reazonable mood.
Out of these three, the response chosen by you would be one, that has been the most
successful in the past in a similar situation.
Unpleasant situations often lead to aggressive behaviour. In a study involving two groups,
one group was made to work in a stuffy and hot room while the other was maie to work in a
cooler and pleasant room. A person was made to behave aggressively with each group. The
reaction csf the group work~ngin uncomfortable circumstances was significantly more
aggressive to this person than the group that was' working under comfortable conditions.
Children, too, learn to respond aggressively by imitation of elders. In some studies, children
who watched an adult behave aggressively learned to imitate him and thus behaved in a
more aggressive fashion like, hitting each other or pushing one another around. While
another groups of children who hadn't been exposed to such adult behaviour showed no
increase in their aggressive attitude.
Aggressive behaviour is learned through observation and is often reinforced by its
consequences. For instances, if adolescent who is larger and has more muscle power than
other boys sees that he can get what he wants by threatening or beating smaller boys he will
repeat this act as often as he can.
.'id Sometimes we can't t e e out our aggression directly on whoever is the cause of our
q
$1
frustrations. What happens then is a case of displaced aggression. For example, a boy of 15
or 16 wants to go out with his friends for a weekend and his parents refuse to give him
$; 6
pe-mission. The boy may not be able to do much about it but may, in anger, break a few
$1
:;IS
things in the house or bang the door or go and quarrel with the neighbour.
,:it
Sodetimes, this displaced aggression can lead to much more serious consequences than
what we are suggesting in ourexample. A group of striking students or workers may go on a
rampage damaging public property, and may hurt even innocent bystanders, just because of
frustration in their attempts to cause ham-to the authority eo&erned.
>I<
1
SAQ 4
F Match the term on the left with'correct phrases from the list on the right.
b
.;,;I a) Frustration
b) Aggression
-
-
i) Indirect anger
ii) Caused by blocking or confusing of goals
a
[7
C) Conflict - iii) Intention to hurt another person or object
d) Aspirations - iv) Having to make choices
e) Displaced - v) To want to reach a goal . '
aggression
With the advances in science and technology, we have to constantly interact with machines To get a better perspective of&
and engineering systems. The range is wide, whether it is a worker in a factory, or a driver subject you are advised to listen tc
the audio programme - 'Human
of motor vehicles or a farmer using farm implements like threshers and tractors or an Factor Engineering'.
individual using a sophisticated computer. In each case it is important that the machines and
manner of their operation should be suited to human abilities, if the maximum work output
is to be realised. The study of the efficiency of a person in his working environment is called
human factor engineering or ergonomics. The people who are trained in this branch of
applied psychology are known as human factor specialists.
How was the importance of suitable working environments and machine designsrealised?
During World War 11,457 US Air Force accidents took place in a 22 month period. An
Infornlation, Knowledge, analysis of these accidents showed that pilots confused between two control levers, one
ldlght related to landing and the other to wings. Often they didn't even know if they had enough
petrol to complete their missions. Soon it was realised that selection and training alone
. would got produce efficient pilots. The equipment itself needed to be redesigned.
For the first time, design engineers started working in collaboration with psychologists to try
and ensure that the machine systems will suit human requirements and abilities. The shapes
of the controls for landing gear and wings were so designed, that the difference between
them was obvious and chances of mistakes were eliminated. Similarly, the markings on the
fuel gauge were changed to indicate fuel quantity as FULL; HALF FULL; EMPTY
instead of in actual gallons. You must have noticed this in present day buses and motor cars
etc. Thus, the esseiitial job of human factor specialists is to see that machine systems are
designed with the user in mind, so that they can be run with maximum efficiency and
minimum error. For this purpose, they study the effects of work environment such as
ventilation, noise and illumination. This leads to improvement in the design of the work
place, to make it more comfortable, safe, and conducive to performance. The duration of the
shifts is also studied in relation to production, to see how long a person can work with full
concentration. The speed of the workers' reflexes and motor movements has also to be taken
into consideration.
The result of human factor engineering may not always be obvious, especially if the effecs is
of convenience rather than safety. The telephone instrument is one machine that can be easily
operated by men, women and children alike. So every change in design is preceded by elaborate
tests and calculations. For example, in 1937 a new handset was designed and 2000 male and
female heds were measured before they decided on the dimensions indicated in Fig. 24.7.
(1 IN = 2.54 CM)
Almostlall of us use the chair for varied lengths of time during the day. Some of us use it for
more than 8 hrs. a day. May be you are sitting on a chair while muling this unit! Jiro Koharo
of Chiba University in Japan has studied how chairs affectaur body. He found h a t if the
seat of a chair is too high or too long it may disturb the cirCulation of blood in the thigh
blood vessels. If the back of the chair does not support the spine properly, abdomenal and
back muscles get tired and cause discomfort. Soft cushions in chairs cause the maximum
discomfort because they do not help the body balance, so muscles must work continuously
to maintain the balance of the body.
Psychological Aspects d
Behwiaur
Fig. 24.8: Relating chairs to body mechanics. Suppon for the spine. X-ray photograph of an office Worker
showing where the back rest of the chair presses. After seeing the X-ray, it was suggested that the backrcst be -.
lowered by 2.5 cm. to make sitting more comfortable.
We often do not realise it, but most of the things we use in our daily life have been designed
;.'
i:
keeping the human abilities and conveniences in mind. The slabs or shelves inrhe kitchen
for example, are of a particular height so that the user is least tired while working.
We have already discussed the usefulness of space flights in Blocks 3 & 4. One is able to
make astronomical observations from satellites; get meteorological information; Obtain
invaluable data on resources of the earth and the condition of crops and forests. The human
urge to know the unknown and, if possible see what the conditions on the moon or planets
are like, has also been a great factor in space exploration. Human ingenuity and creative
power have given us the opportunity to cany out much of this research and exploration with
the help-of instruments which can be controlled from the earth. For example, samples of soil
from the moon have.been brought back to earth by automatic machines and rockets, without
Actual human presence on the moon.
Nevertheless, there is nothing like a human eye observing the panorama of the moon, and
describing the scenery-beyond what a camera can do through a picture. But, space travel
for human beings is a very difficult proposition, and in order to make it possible, lot of
research has been done by sending up other biological organisms and animals, such as virus,
bacteria, mice, dogs and even monkeys.
Human beings hate to travel in h e most unnatural circumstances-if there is a single
astronaut, he has absolutely no company for as long as he travels, and most unfamiliar
scenes-looking out of the window, he sees nothing except stars. This loneliness, and !
absence of sensations from outside has been found to be a source of great mental stress.
Man is a social animal, and he has to receive sensations through his eyes, ears, nose and skin
etc.. to feel normal. Travelling in a satellite, one feels "weightless"-if you turn a glass
Infop~1.tlon;Knowkdg. upside down the liquid aoes not rail out! So, food also does not naturally move down the
htstght throat--even water is not easy to swallow. It seems our whole body-(digestive system, and
even blood circulation) is accustomed to earth's gravity, and if it is nullified, we cannot be at
x\
ease. Even movement of muscles is difficult. The air inside the space vehicle is kept under
artificial pressure, because outside the vehicle there is near absolute vacuum and no sound of
any kind can reach the space craft. Of course, there are great problems in washing, or taking
a bath or in passing stools. Obviously any space traveller would feel out of sorts - but that
is a mild word, he or she can feel absolutely confused, lethargic and psychologically
unstable.
But practice is a great help. Modern astronauts go through a long period of training. If they
know what to expect in space, they are mentally and physically prepared for it.
Weightlessness is also simulatd so that a space man or woman can be adjusted to its
peculiarities. Communication iinow much better, the travellers can receive television
pictures and can make telephone calls. They are made to take exercise. It is now the practice
to have a group of men, or men and women in space rather than single persons. That is how,
in one Soviet space craft, people have spent more than a year at one stretch without adverse
effects. The tasks of control and communication are also numerous for the spacemen and
hence a team is needed.
All this shows that our body and mind are attuned to live under normal conditions of
pressure, gravity, sensations and communication. Abnormal physical environment puts our
system under great stress, which shows serious physical as well as psychological effects. But
many of these aspects have come to light only because space had to be conquered and
human beings had to get adjusted to new living conditions. If a colony is made on the moon
or elsewhere, there will be other conditions to be experienced, and hopefully man will prove
equal to the task.
24.10 SUMMARY - -
Psychological Aspects ~i
Behaviour
2 Sudha who is 12 years old, always comes first in her class. She was tested for
intelligence and creativity both by her school psychologists. The score on the IQ test
was 15 points while that on creaivity test was rather low.
a) Calculate her IQ.
b) Why do you think she did not score well in the test for creativity?
3 Listed below are examples of changes that occur during adolescence. Indicate whether
each change is physical, mental or social.
a) Fifteen year old Ramesh sings very well and used to sing and show off before
groups. Lately he blushes and cringes when his parents ask him to sing for their
friends.
b) Thirteen year old Mohan has been asked to withdraw from the group song to be
sung in his school function because he seems to be out of tune with the rest of the
boys.
C) Now that Krishan is 16 years old, he seems to be more understanding. He has
begun to understand individual human rights and dignity.
4 There is a society in New Guinea where aggression and conflicts within communities
are virtually unknown. Adults are extremely cooperative and have a spontaneous urge
to help and share food, affection, trust, work etc. Among children, even accidental
aggressive behaviour during play does not persist or get encouraged. What would you
deduce from these observations? Is aggression instinctive or learned behaviour.
5 Give some examples from your experience where you think human factor engineering
has benefited the user and has improved work output.
6 k h a t are the three main factors that affect the psychological stability of an astronaut in
space?
24.12 ANSWERS
Self-Assessment Questions
1 a) i) instinctive
ii) punishment
'hiormation, Knowledge, iii) learnPedreflex
Insight
iv) rewards
V) cognitive learning
b) a) matches iii)
b) matches i)
c) matches iv)
d) matches ii)
2 a) i T
ii) F
iii) F
iv) F
v) T
vi) T
b) There are no 'correct' answers to the task in Fig. 24.3. Creativity involves finding
novel answers!
3 i) adolescence
ii) secondary sexual characters
iii) personal identity
4 a) matches ii)
b) matches ' iii)
c) matches iv)
d) matches v)
e) matches i)
Terminal Questions
1 a) Stimulus-Response
Commercial advertising uses the model of stimulus-response. They pair their
products with attractive places or people. Repeated viewing of such advertisements
causes favourable response from the customers when they see the products.
b) Reward and Punishment
Recruits in the armed fofces learn to maintain discipline through the principle of
reward and punishment.
c) Cognitive Learning
If you go to a new place and have to remember your way back, you use cognitive
learning to do so because you will make a mental map of the way, remember the
road signs or landmarks etc., and then recall all of it when you come back along
that way. You can, of course, think of many more such examples toillustrate the
three forms of learning.
2 a) Sudha's IQ is 125
b) because high IQ does not necessarily indicate high creativity.
3 a) mental
b) physical
c) social
4 In human beings aggression is generally considered to be a learned response. As the
children never encountered aggression they did not learn it.
5 You can think of several other examples to illustrate the principles of human factor
engineering. We have given these two:
i) The typewriter's keyboards have been designed so that the letters that are most
often used are easier to reach.
ii) Brooms with long handles do not strain the back as much as short handles.
6 Isolation, lack of sensory stimuli and weightlessness.
A-
I 25.1 INTRODUCTION -
IC
In the two previous units you have studied the relationship between mind and body and
I
c
various aspects of psychology and behaviour. In this Unit, we shall discuss the role of mass
media in social, economic and political awakening in the broad framework of priorities set
I
for national development. We shall also discuss the role of media in promoting education
I among our vast illiterate masses. reaching out to larger number of people and diversifving
education to make it more meaningful. India is a country of great cultural diversity; where
i media can play a very positive role in mutual understanding and appreciation between
i different cultural groups and in the evolution of a composite culture. In the next unit, we will
describe various modes of communication.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to describe the role of media in :
creating social, economic and political awareness,
promoting ed~icationby reaching out to broad masses of people and helping in making
education more meaningful,
promoting understanding among different cultural groups and in evolution of a composite
culture.
---
l i
8.3') '- OF COMMUNICATION
FUNCTIONS -- -
~ : b a d the
~ ~ main
, role of communication in a social system is :
Receiving and conveying.information which may be facts, messages or op~nions;this
may take place in discourses, debates or discussions.
Motivating a person receiving the message, whether through an individual or through a
medium of mass communication like radio, television, newspapess/journals, books or
films, towards a course of action. This can extend from adopting a method of family
planning, changing one's food habits, to working for a social or political cause.
Providing education and culture; from a class-room situation where knowledge and skills
may be imparted, to dissemination of cultural heritage and values as well as cultivation of
artistic interests.
Entertaining, whether for personal or collective enjoyment through public music, drama
or sports.
Influencing opinion to serve certain economic or political interests.
These are some broad functions of communication. Most of our activities fall under one
34 category or another.
$. -
Informqtipn and
25.4 ROLE OF COMMUNICATION IN CREATING Communicatiofl
AWARENESS
In this section we would discuss the role of oommunication in the economic development
and political and social awakening in.our country. But before we take that up, a few broad
facts may be useful to recall.
The State Governments have their own field units and extension services to promote state
~ e v e l o ~ m ebogrammes
nt and schemes,arrdto m.oti'vatepeople to actively participate in them:
Information, Knowledge, Here, we cannot evaluate the efforts either of the central media or the proaarnmes of the
Insight
state governments The point is, that the role of communication in economic development
has been recognised in this country since Independence. It has also been realised that multi.
media combinations, i.e., utilising not only broadcasting through radio and television but
also video and tape cassettes, slides, films, hooks and inter-personal commur cation. are t a ,
be employed to help economic developine: -
-7
- +
SAQ~
Would you like to try and tist at least two areas each fbr the rurk and urban populatibn;
where cbmmunication can help in economic activity?
I
ccept certain ideas and programmes, and therefore, there is a crucial role for
ommunication in bringing about a social change. Social role of communication is to build
'dges of understanding among these groups whose objective interests are the same. This,
id fact, is the crucial challenge before media in the country.
In the social context also, communication is ex$cted to serve the immediate interests and
1
needs of individual citizens. People have to be served with information about their rights,
which under the law of the land, they are expected to enjoy. There are several benefits to
which people as citizens are entitled but, if they are not aware of these beneficial provisions,
how do they make their claims? To illustrate this with an example, not very long ago, the
Indian Institute of Mass Communication conducted a study in selected rural area in the
Khanna dismct of Punjab. This was to find out whether the agricultural labourers knew that
I there was a minimum daily wage fixed for them. The investigators went to several villages
in which the labour was engaged in harvesting of the crops. The lakurers were mostly
migrants from Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan who come to Punjab year after year for
employment during the season. To their utter surprise, i~vesfigatorsfound that hardly any
one of the labourers knew that he or she could ask for the minimum wage.jried by law. This
information never reached them. Obviously there is a section which profits by the ignorance
of the labourers. They w'efe, in fact, being paid much less than what they were entitlgd ro.
Labourers were mostly illiterate and had no means to get information +om radio. Eveh when
they had any access to radio listening, such information was not broadcast. This resulted in a
clear case of social injustice and economic exploitation. If this was the situation in Punjab,
whichis a prosperous state and where the cor~manicatibnsystem is reasonhbly satisfac~ry,
one can only imagine the state of ignorance in backward and remote areas.
Even in urban centres, lack of information can deprive the citizens of social benefits. Certain
sections of the community, women for example, are often more ignorant of their social
nghts than others. Even after the much discussed !d*vc regarding divorce or separation, how
many of the affected women, in fact, know of their .:ghts or obligations? The question calls
for a study in both the urban and rural areas.
The role of communication in social and economic development in our country has, .
thefefore, to be seen against the state of our economic development and social diversities
and inequalities. The communication system has also to give priority to political education
in order to strengthen the institutions on which our democratic system is based. In all respects,
the media, whether under govemment control or privately owned, have a national responsibility.
m11form8tion,Knowledge, SAP 3
1-t Give social relevance of communication in the following areas:
i) rights and privileges of women
ii) national integration
Doordarshan started with syllabus-based lessons for school children in Delhi, in 1961. The
in~tialaim was to improve standard of teaching, particularly in science subjects, because at
that time, even in Delhi, not all schools had laboratory space, equipment or qualified
teachers. Since then, educational programmes, whether for children or for adults or for other
groups like farmers, have become regular TV features. It has been noted that AIR or TV
- programmes provide not only direct learning and broad awareness, but they also'create a
desire to know more and tend to improve the atmosphere in the classrooms. Thus, they play
a doubly important educational role.
.SAQ 4
btscuss briev tke role ofmedia-inany two of the follow~ng:
i) Extending educational opportunities
..............................................................................................................................................
~nfdrmation,Kmwledge, ii) Enrichinn learning experience
Insight
ii) Through understanding and appreciating each other's culture, we can help evolve a
composite culture.
.........................................................................
25.7 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have studied the importance of information and communication, especially
the role of media in :
providing information and creating social, political and economic awareness which is so
necessary for the democratic process:
extending educational opportunities, creating an educational environment and making
I
education more meaningful.
promoting mutual understanding and appreciation of each others' culture, leading to
national cohesion and a national composite culture.
.
25.8 TERMINAL QUESTIONS
-
......................................................................................................................................................
.........................8........................................................................................................................".
.........................................................................................................................................
L.....
Kna
..........................................
........................................................................................................................................................
,.
......... ............................................................................................. ..........- .....................................
............................................................................................................,..*.........................................
..........................................................................................................................................3.............
........................................................................................................................................................
ii) In order to participate in the political process, people need information.
........................................................................................................................................................
".........................
.............................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................
.*"
Information and
25.9 ANSWERS Communidtion
Self-Assessment Questions
1 Rural-in banking, raising loans etc.; in the use of adequate fertilisers; formation of
cooperatives.
Urban-consumer rights. You can expand the answer further.
2 i) adult franchise; ii) speech, expression;
iii) interpersonal communication; iv) objective, political issues.
3 Hints
i) communication through discussions, newspaper articles, could help women become
aware of their rights to obtain education and equal job opportunities.
ii) communication can play a major role in national integration; in spite of belonging
to different religious groups and communities, people still have a common thread
connecting them.
4 You could talk about the role of communication in :
i) extending educational opportunities through distance education; open universities
air. examples.
ii) enriching learning experience by means of radio and TV programmes.
iii) creating a learning environment by extending knowledge to deprive men, women
and children of all ages on a large variety of topics.
5 Hints
i) for example people in one part of India can know and see diverse cultural groups
on TV and realise the great diversity and unity in our cultural heritage.
ii) by appreciating each other's culture we can leave out the undesirable features and
adopt the good points of other cultures. The exchange of literary dnd artistic forms'
between diverse groups can lead to a composite culture.
iii) for example if two religious groups do not interact, each group has a very wrong
idea about the other's customs. This often leads to severe conflicts of various kinds.
Terminal Questions
1 You could discuss your answer:
'
INTRODUCTION
In the previous Unit, you have studied the role of mass media in national development. In
this Unit, we shall describe various means of mass communication in their historical
perspective and also the role that technology has played in making media available to the
vast masses of our country. We shall also discuss the impact of information technology on
culture; as well as in the social and economic spheres.
Information plays a very important role in international relations. With proper
communication between peoples of different countries, information can be an instrument of
understanding and sharing of knowledge. However, the collection and dissemination of
information is, today, in the hands of a few international h s , leading to unequal sharing of
information. Hence, the need for a New World Information and Communication Order,
which would make it possible to have a balanced and equitable sharing of information
between the developed and the developing countries. Taking note of the relevance of the
'New Order' in our own context, we would discuss how we could improve our national
communication order, leading to better understanding between different groups and sections
of people, and to the emergence of a composite culture.
Objectives
After studying this Unit, you should be able to :
understand the historical perspective in which these media grew and their role and
effectiveness in the Indian context,
describe the role of technology in mass communication,
appreciate the impact of il~formationtechnology in socio-economic and cultural spheres,
realise the importance of balanced and equitable sharing of information and the relevance
of New World Infomation and Communication Order.
II
26.2.1 A Historical Perspective
Role of communication during our freedom struggle has been briefly discussed in the
previous Unit. But it must be said here, that Gandhiji was the greatest communicator the
country has produced. Those of us, who were there to attend some of his prayer meetings,
will recall the influence his addresses at these meetings exercised on the minds of the
I people. He was not an impressive public speaker, in the conventional sense. He did not
indulge in rhetorics, bqt used popular language. His language and idiom were the same, as
of the oidinary people of India. He shared his th~nkingwith his audience; he did not appear
to impose his ideas. Above all, he spoke with conviction and with genuine concern for the
welfare of all human beings. Sincerity and simplicity characterised his communication with
the people. Gandhiji's message reached the length and breadth of the country. It may be
called that during his satyagraha, Gandhiji was able to involve ordinary men and women
from all walks of life. Take the 'Salt Satyagraha' in 1930. Salt is consumed in every home.
When Gandhiji decided to launch a satyagraha against the tax on salt and to make salt from
sea-water, it was a unique strategy in communication, of which there are few parallels in the
world. The peoples' boycott of the British goods brought into sharp focus the economic and
political aspirations of the people and strengthenedtheir resolve to fight agaifist the foreign nllr.
Infotmatbn, Knowlcdgo. SAQ 1
~nslght Classify the following as p e ~ n acommunication
l (P)or as mass communication (M).
i) Your discussion with your friend regqrding the performance of India in a
cricket test match.
i *
0
ii) lndira GandhilNational Open University sending study mat)erials to the
students.
iii). Gindhiji's address in the prayer meeting.
.
a
f v l Editorial of a newspaper.
, controversial statement and you can have your own views on this subject. However, there is
yet another constraint in the effectiveness of films as a medium of mass communication and
that is the limited number of cinema houses in the country. The number is estimated to be
I .only 12,000. For a population of 800 million this is, indeed, very small.
I
Newspapers and Journals
Newspapers and journals have an important role in o w communication system. The number
uf newspapers and periodicals in various languages was about 22 thousand in 1984 and their
total circulation was about 6 million. However, there are two points to be considered in
assessing the effectiveness of newspapers in communication. First, only the literate
population can take advantage of the newspapers, even though in certain situations, the
literate persons also share information with others. And, secondly, the reach of newspapers
in distant and remote areas is restrained by problems of transportation etc. Circulation of
newspapers is still largely confined to metropolitan towns and other urban centres. However,
the credibility of the printed word in o w society is very strong. People are more gullible than
discerning in this respect. Also, the newspapers and journals are mostly free from
gQvemment control and.claim better acceptance by the people. This statement, can be
--
Information, Knowledge, challenged because a number of newspapers indulge in sensational news and views which
Insight may attract the readers, but may not f&lp hkEi to understand news and views in a larger
perspective. The essence of the matter is that whether it is radio listening, or TV viewing or
newspaper reading, the receiver of the message, that is people in this case, has to have a
critical judgement of its own.
-
SAQ 2 '
Choose any two media of mass communication described in the text. Discuss their
advantages, and limitations.
which are separated by Jea or difficult terrain, satellite transmission offers the only viable
afid feasible means of linkage. The Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE)
conducted in our country during 1975-76 was possible only with the help of an American
satellite, but in 1978, Government af India decided to launch its own programme of
Information, Knowledge, multi-purpose satellites for expanding the communication network in the entire country.
Insight INSAT- 1A was launched in 1982, but it developed technical snags. INSAT- 1B was then .
launched in 1983, and INSAT-1C in 1988. These satellites have been providing widespread
coverage to the media, in addition to many other services like in the fields of mete~~ology,
resource surveys, telecommunication,and research etc. (Fig. 26.4; 26.5)
\
\ @.
RURAL
TELEGRAPH
TERMINAL
STATION a
rmT=F=F
Computer
The other most important component of communication technology is the computer. The
computer, which started as a "calculation machine", is today called the "electronic brain".
The area of its utilisation had been vastly extended. Simply put, a computer receives, stores
and analyses almost any kind of data, and in vast quantities. It can process information wiih
incredible speed. Computers can accept or reject messages, reduce or expand them, file
them, index them or answer back with their own messages. In fact, the computer has '
transformed man's access to ana use of information on any subject. The price of computers
has come down due to new technologies of manufacture, and they are already finding places
in offices and homes.
Broadly, it is the convergence and integration of telecommunication technology, computers
and satellites which have brought about a revolution in communication systems. The three
together have transformed broadcasting, telephone system, business operations and even the
social and personal life of individuals.
-
Modes of
P W d ~Grn-tion Techniques Co#hmunication
SWleSwleof.the novel services which are being introduced in coimmes like the United States
a &pan;b which may be used on a wider scale in the next decade or so afe as follows :
a ~i&wphonts for W n g on phone, where picture will be carried in addition to the sound.
. ifanep m p u t e ~which would help in buying all necessities sitting at home after the
rrrcosmellt of prices and availability in shops, transferring funds, buying and selling
, &afe,.knowing all the latest information of weather, transportation, schedules of
&dines, trains, etc.; hotel reservations and so on.
0 , Tektex which is the enhanced telex services at high, eeds, transferring whole texts
, Jling both uppcr and lower case letters.
Videotext which is the two-way interacthe computerised data retrieval service using
$lightly modified television receiver and telephone line (Fig. 26.6).
1 Users'
Keypad
____I
finerntor
informa~ion
provider
terminal
I tekvision
rtctiver
Telephone
network
1Computer
%% 'bbtext b 8 laviain which drt.am provided to subscribers from the source via television signals.
e
,
. Rw rubrribers m i v e the data on theu television sets.
T@efaxwhich is an electronic mail service used to transmit documents from one
' hc&dc (pictun) system to another via the telephone network.
r)#ukxwhich is a digital high speed facsimile service over the public data networks.
?his includes error connction and automatic opemtion.
....
?lmc tire all the possibilities within reach in some of the developed countries. It will be
@b s o d h e befon deveI+g countries can think of uslng these techniques. However,
,
- teletex), is k i n g &on a limited scale in India. .
Fm-4- ;
In- tvdme two ways in which INSAT-IB has enabled you to get information which would
not have been possible &wise.
hformation, ~ n o w l e d ~ e ,
b) Which of the future communication techniques would be most useful in the lndian ,
Insivht
context and why?
.....................................................................................................................................................
Quite obviously a society which will utilise advanced communication technology in the
ways mentioned above, would develop an entirely different social and economic system. It
would be a transformed society with an entirely different life style. Besides the impact on
industry, administration, public institutions and social services, even family life would
undergo change. Using new technology, newspapers are already being published
simultaneously from many cities, railway and airline bookings are being made by computers
that carry booking information updated every moment, doctors in one country can treat
patients in another, conferences can be held with people sitting in their own offices; these
are wonderful developments. We have mentioned, in Block 3, how communication and
remote control of devices have made it possible to land a craft on the moon and to fly it back
with a sample of moon soil, entirely automatically. Entire factories are being run
automatically, by robots in the advanced countries. All this communication revolution is
there, but the main question, however, is whether the advance communication technology
will, in fact, benefit all countries equally and all sections of our people equally. There is
already reason to believe that the advanced countries not only have q monopoly of
technology of communication, but also the power to'distort and display information in the
way they like. Moreover in any one country, those who already have greater access to
information are likely to benefit more than the others-probably making the rich-poor
divide sharper. A simple example is advertising on TV or other media, which can create a
demand for things we do not need, or promote a culture of superficial westernisation. Of
course, it allows the bigger firms to beat smaller ones which cannot spend equally on
advertisement.
The impact of information technology on our traditional communication system has also to
be considered. In other words, what impact will the new'communication technology have on
our traditions and culture? In our country, traditional forms of communication have been
used for such purposes as dispellirig superstition, outmoded perceptions and unscientific
attitudes. These have been found effective and acceptable to the people because people are
familiar with them. Practitioners of the traditional media use a subtle form of persuasion by
presenting the message in artistic and yet all too familiar forms. Examples abound where
song, drama, dance groups and thelike are used to campaign against social evils or for
advance in farming, health, nutrition and family welfare.
The task before our communication system is touse the traditional media whether they are
local folklores, ballads and story telling or even such proverbs which have their origin in our
mythology. Jatra in West Bengal, Burrakatha in Andhra Pradesh, Villuppatu in Tamil Nadu,
Tamasha in Maharashtra or Alha and Qawwali in Utter Pradesh, all have the capability of
being used for eradicating social evils and for encouraging peoples' participation in
development programmes. Some of these forms were effectively used in our freedom
struggle to awaken national consciousness.
3;
We have to examine the implications of the effect of sophisticated communication
technology on these forms which, besides their effectiveness, are an integral.pafl of our
cultural and social life.
SAQ5 .
What are the other functions ot traditional media aDart from entertaining the masses?
................................................................................. :..-............................................................ Modes 01
Communlcntion
......................................................................................................................................................
In 1973, the Non-aligned Summit Conference at Algiers, for the first time, called for co-
operation in the reorganisation of communication systems with a view to establishing direct '
and fast communication between the non-aligned countries. The Summit suggested mutual
exchange and dissemination of information through national and regional channels which
would remove or at least reduce the reliance on the transnational agencies. This was rather a
mild expression of an otherwise deeply felt resentment against the domination of the western
media. Therefore, at that time, the western powers and media controllers chose to ignore it.
Over the years, however, this stand of the non-aligned countries was further amplified. A
more specific concept of cooperation was developed and the non-aligned countries decided
to set up an ~nst~tution
for exchanging of news among themselves. In 1976, the first ever
conference of the information ministers and representatives of news agencies of the non-
aligned countries, was held in New Delhi. The Conference expressed its determination to
rectify the imbalance and concretise arrangements for effective cooperation in all fields of
information, mass media, social and cultural information. Also, for- thefirst time, a linkage
between political and economic dependence on the one han4and the information monopoly
on the other, was sought to be established. The demand for a new Iliternational Information
Order, through collective endeavours, to safeguard their political and economic
independence was thus set forth. The Colombo Summit, that followed, ratified the
recommendation of the New Delhi Conference. The Summit also gave a call to all non-
aligned and developing countries to co-ordinate their activities in this regard in the United
Nat~onsand other international forums.
Article VI of this Declaration rays: "For the establishment of a new equilibrium and greater
reciprocity in the flow of information, which will be conducive to the institution of a just
and lasting peace and to the economic and political independence of the developing
countries, it is necessary to correct the inequalities in the flow of information to and from
developing countries and between those countries. To this end, it is essential that their mass
media should have conditions and resources enabling them to gain strength and expand, and
to cooperate both among themselves and with the mass media'in developed countries."
Some of the Western countries expressed strong reservation about another resolution which
recommended a direct involvement of UNESCO in international communication. However,
the 1980 General Conference of UNESCO held in Belgrade approved the Final Report of
the MacBride Commission. The Resolution on the New World Information and
Communication Order, which w'as accepted after hard and protracted discussion covered a
wide range of issues, such as:
SAQ 6
Give two reasons which led to the demand for a New World Information and
Communication Order.
.....................................................................................................................................................
..,-. --
26.6 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have :
defined what mass communication is and described various means of mass
communication.
described the role technology has played in the communication system and stressed that
the benefits of mbdem information technology should not remain confined to a small .
section of urban people, thus widening the gap between the rich and poor or the urban
and the rural. Technology should also not damage our traditional forms of
communication which are the symbols of our regional as well as national culture.
discussed the need for balanced and equitable flow of information between the developed
and the developing countries which has led to the demand for a New World Information
and Communication Order; and the ways in which NWICO can help in mutual
understanding at the national and international levels.
1 How does modem information technology affect the life style of individuals and the
society?
2 What, in your opinion, are the rights and responsibilities of the communication system in
our country at present?
3 Why is it important to have a balanced and equitable flow of information?Why was the 'Old
Order' not acceptable to developing countries?
26.8 ANSWERS
Self-Assessment Questions
1 i) P ii) P iii) M iv) M
2 For example, if you choose newspaper as a medium of mass communication the advantage
would be that it has circulation in different 1anguages:It usually contains infotmation not
controlled by the government. So it is more acceptable to general masses, The
disadvantages, however, are that it is useful for t@ literate people only. It may not reach
remote areas. So the circulation is not as wide as some other medium would be.
3 a) The medium of communication should be able to reach all groups and sections of the
society.
b) It should be cheap so that it is accessable to every one, for instance radio.
4 a) i) For example, live transmission of events to all parts of the country over television.
ii) Long distance calls without the use of operator
iii) Disaster waming systems.
b) Home computers or telefax could be very useful in my opinion, you could of course
differ.
5 You could think of these functions.
Social awakening; campaigning against social evils; for adult education.
6 Because of western media domination and a growing sensitivity to the way the Third
World Countries were projected in the western world.
Terminal Questions
1 Hints: The individual is better informed about his rights and privileges and
opportunities that are available. For example, 'Employment News' publishes about job
opportunities.
Better information about health care on radio & TV.
High profile advertising is affecting the life styles of rural and urban populations,
creating demands on their home ecanomy which might be difficult to meet.
2 Hints: Unbiased, free flow of information, helps in creating a new social order; helps in
economic development.
.3 Refer to sedtion 26.5.
GLOSSARY
abra cadabra:'magical words.
, anaesthesia: artificially induced insensitivity to pain by some substance.
cadavers: corpse, or dead body.
t
charkha! spinning wheel.
cognition : the process of perceiving, learning, remembering, using language, solving ,
problems, thinking..
cortex: outer part of an organ like brain, kidney, adrenals.
frontal: front view.
instinctive behaviour: unleamed patterned behaviour characteristic of a particular species.
interpersonal communication: direct interaction between communicators on a one to one
1 basis or in small groups.
1 learning: a relatively permanent change in behaviour as a result of practice or experience.
1 learned reflex: learned or acquired response to a stimulus that normally did not pmduce the
t responseoriginally.
mass communication: public communication transmitted by electronic ormech&ical
means to people who are wjdely dispersed.
medial: middle section.
medulla: central part of some organ.
object permanence: the understanding that objects or peqple continue to exist even if
hidden from-view.
operations: a set of rules for transforming or manipulating information.
Infc~rmation.Knowledge,
Insight
receptor: a cell that responds to an environmental stimulus which may be chemical, sound.
light etc.
Bt1
i
response: behavioural result of stimulation in a person in the form of movement or secretion
in a gland.
sensorimotor: the first of Piaget's stages in which cognitive development is acquired
through exploration of the worlwrough sensory perception and motor skills.
- -
FURTHER READING
pppp-
.--
p -
p -
-
1 Biology-A Text book for class XI-XII, part one, NCERT, 1988.
2 Child Psychology-A Text bWk for class XII, NCERT.
3 Psychology: An Introduction to Human Behaviour-A Text book for class XI, NCERl
4 'Text hook of cliild Behaliour and Development', P. Kuppuswamy. Vani Educational
Books (1 984).
5 'Communication Media Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow', P.N. Malhan, Publication
Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt . of India (1985).
6 'Communicating', A. Taylor, T. Rosegrant. A Meyer, B. Thomas Samples, Prentice-
Hall, Inc. Englewood Cliff, N. Jersey, 07632 (1977).
COURSE CONTENTS
27.1 INTRODUCTION
A look into the history of mankind tells us that science WAS being put to practical use,
consciousIy or unconsciously, through the centuries. But it was not until the mid-eighteenth
century that the Industrial Revolution in Britain showed what a profound effect advances in
technology can have on.everyday life. The harnessing of energy gave a-boost to
industrialisation. The Industrial Revolution in Britain triggered off similar revolutions in
various other countries,.and the resultant economic progress of these countries has
encouraged the remaining ones to take up rapid industrialisation.
The dominating feature of the contemporary world is the intense cultivation of science on a
large scale, and its application to meet a country's requirements. It is only through the
scientific approach and method and the use of scientific knowledge that reasonable material
and cultural amenities and services can be provided for every member of the community.
And it is out of a recognition of this possibility that the idea of a welfare state has grown.
,.In this unit, we shall take a look into the interdependence between science and industry. We
shall also see how the two together can help us create a welfare state.
Objectives
After reading this unit you should be able to :
discuss the current status of science and technology in India;
describe the role technology can play in improving productivity, leading to economic
development, I
explain the need for mobemisation of our industrial machinery and processes,
summarise the importance of R & D in industrial growth, and national development,
interpret natibnd devel4mejt hfokation and suggest an approach to solutions of some problems in
tius field.
One aspect of the development of science and technology is fuller utilisation of the wealth or
resources with which a country has been endowed. Without science and technology, neither .
could'electricity be generated from the water running in m r r i m s , nor could theoil resources
buried deep under land or sea be tapped,. nor even could our books and newspapers be prhted
on the paper obtained from the forests that we have. Science provides the key for unlock~ng
the wealth of our natural resources.
When we study science, we look into the laws of nature which, in their turn, indicate the
methods of utilising the natural resources of the cQuntry for the production of the necessities
of life and for their efficient distribution. Mere indication of the methods is, however, not
enough. To implement the methods indicated, one has to do work, and here again science
comes to our aid. Science provides power, machines and tools for doing the work; devices of
all types-those for work involving only muscular effort,for work demanding manipulative
skill and, in recent years, even for work requiring briiin & ~ t (Fig. 27.1). Without such aids;
the rate of production would be extremely low and the country would not be able to produce
enough to be wealthy by any standards.
Fig. 27.1: Dev~cesfor work involving (a) muscular effon ( b ) manipulative,skill (c) brain power
We look at India with about 35% of its people living under the poverty line. The reasons for
tne poverty of the masses In India are:
1) Methods of product~onare out of date by and large. In recent years, however, some
remedial measures have been taken.
Aperson is saidto live underthe 2) Since 2/3rd of the work force in agriculture
- and industry is illiterate, the knowledgeand
-
poverty line if shehe is not able to skills are very poor. This factor affects production.
provide 1SO0 calslday for herself
or himself. 3j In India, where 70% of the people are engaged in agriculture, the use of methods to
lmprove production i s m the soil and to protect crops 1s not In keeplng W I L ~the actual
need.
4) In agriculture' the small means at the disposal of a farmer and small holdings make it
impracticable to use modem technology.
5 ) Industry, in gqeral, and private industry, in particular, has been unwilline to invest its
profits in modemising the machinew. A typical case is €hatof the-jute industry, which is in
\rev bad shape now.
6) The lndustrial Policy Resolution, which had been adopted at about the same time (1958)
as the Scientific Policy Rebolution. has not been implemented effectively due to a number
of socio-economic and political constraints.
Again, even where the proauction methods have been sought to be upgraded, our unit cost of
production of many items, for example, steel. is much higher. This is mainly due to the low
levels of skill and managenent in our industries.' For instance, Japan and some other
countries import iron ore from India. They have high labour cost but because of the
efficiency of their production systems. thtir unit cost of production is lower than ours.
. . .Further. a curious phenomenon is noticeable. We have imported technology for alloy steels
some 30 years back. But we have been unable to keep pace with the modem developments in
the production of alloy steels through our indigenous efforts. As a result, we still have to
imnort werial steelc from develnned co~~ntriec
But what is a developed country? Try to solve this SAQ and match your answer with the one Science and Technoio@f~ '
Induktry
given at the end of this unit.
SAQ 1
Which of the following countries would you call a developed country? Make a tick mark in
the appropriate box.
i) A country rich in natural resources.
ii) A country with a high per capita income.
+ ...
111) A country with advanced health and social security schemes.
iv) A 'country with a high per capita productivity.
-
Lead Times of Scientific Development
When we compare the current status of scientific development and technological fall-out
from the same, we find that the lead time of scientific discovery and its applications is much
shorter in the developed countries. This is because of thelr constant efforts of research and
development for technology upgradation which, unfortunately, have been lacking in our
country. It is to be admitted that e v y in developed countries there is a wide variation in the
lead times of different discoveries. These lead times may be quite long in certain cases and
quite short in others. For example, aluminium was first obtained in pure form in 1825 and lt
was only in 1886 that the process of its large scale production was finali5ed. The lead time
in this case was 60 years. On the other hand, the process of hydrogenation of oil in the
manufacture of vanaspati originated in 1905, and by 1911 Procter and Gamble Company,
U.S.A. had placed its hydrogenated cotton seed oil, which is s~milarto vanaspati, on the
market. As you can see, the lead time in this case was very short: only 6 years.
Fig. 27.2 gives us an idea of the lead times of certain inventions.
1953 ,1955 2 yrs Solar battery
1948
8 1951 3 yrs Trans~stor
6 56 yrs Telephone
1727
1 I
?
The lead times of scientific discovery and its applications in the field of computers have
been among the shortest. One can, therefore, say that the application of any scientific
. discovery relates to the needs, or compulsions of the situation. It is also a fact, that this
depends, to a large extent, on the state of industrial d~velopmentof the nation and the
priority given by the nation to that particular area. From the Indian example we can say, that
in such sophisticated areas like nuclear science and technology and nuclear power
production, our lead times have been very short. This was possible as appropriate facilities
were created, resources were made available, and scientific responsibility clearly given to an
, organisation. On the other hand, in agricultural technology, India is one of the
backward countries in the world, in spite of the fact that 70% of our population llves on
agriculture and our primary products are our major foreign exchange earners.
Science, Tcchnokgr and Now, if you have understood the points discussed in this section, you will be able to solve
Dcvclopmcnt this SAQ.
SAQ 2
Do you think we have been able to take advantage of the benefits of science and technology?
Give reasons for your answer in 4-5 sentences.
Similarly, imported tallow, which was once a major raw material for our soaps and
detergents has been totally banned. Indian scientists had to adopt other oils for preparing the
same quality of soap, and many processes have' been developed. For example, stearine and
tallow substitutes have been prepared from castor oil, (one of our industrial oils) by chemical
reactions. Such examples can be multiplied from other industries. Further, it would not have
been possible to effectively utilise imported technology in many other important industries
without the help of skilled human resource. In this resDect, trairiing of slulled human resource and
maintenance of research laboratones ana organisatlons have played a major role.
From our first five year plan onwards, efforts have been made to increase scientific and
technical human resource by creation of engineering and technology departments in our
universities. We now have about 200 such institutions as against 21 before independence. In
addition to the university departments, six Institutes of Technology (IITs) have been established
qt Kharagpur, Kanpur, Mumbai, Chennai, Delhi and Guwahati. The first five were set up with the
help of developed countries, such as U.S.A., U.S.S.R., U.K. and West Germany. Even before
independence, the three old universities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras, the Indian Institute of
Science, Bangalore, engineering colleges like that of Roorkee and Bengal Engineering College,
the National Council of Education, the present Jadavpur University, had created many
engineering departments.
However, in practice, industries have retained a lot of dependence on imponed technology.
Often industry prefers to have "turnkey" technology, that is, technology and machines which
can be installed and can start producing on turning a key or pushing a button. Thus, the pace
and character of their development have reduced job opportunities for engineers and
Sclence m d Technology in
technologists who are being trained in our institutions. The result is that many of our skilled ,
Industry
technical personnel and scientists have to seek opportunities abroad in developed countries
like U.S.A., 0rU.K. This is called "brain drain". Our ~ o u n ~ ~ l o s e s ~ c rofo rrupees
es
every year, as the expense incurred o n themining of these persons, and the much needed
technical h u m resource is lost to India.
[STATE
mPRIVATE
CENTRAL
YEARS
Fig. 27.5: Trends in national expenditure on R & D. (R & D srat~slics1984-85. Dep~.of S & T)
b'
You can alsp see from the charts that a major share of the R & D expenditure in our country
is borne by the government. This situation is different from the one we find in the developed
countries. In those countries a large amount of R & D work is'carried out by the private
industry. The capital spent in financing R &.D units is seen as a good and necessary
investment towards future economic progress of that industry. In India. industry spends a
very mihor fraction of total money spent on research. In Table 27.1 you will find that only Science and Technology in
Industry
I1 leading industrial groups account for 86% of the total expe~iditureof R & D incurred by
industry in our country.
There have also been a number of cooperative research associations in our country. The first
such institute was set up in 1950 in Ahmedabad for the textile industry. There are many
rnoperative research associations now in fields like jute, rubber, tea. wool. c a s h e ~ n u tetc.
,
Since small industrial units are not able to bnance a complete R & D set-up on their own,
such cooperative efforts are the best way out.
A developing country like ours aims to reduce its technological dependence on other
countries. We shall be able to achieve this by increasing our R & D efforts. Products and
procesges developed in our own country will be based on local raw materials and will take
into consideration other local factors such as weather. In the process, we will also have the
requisite manpower for maintenance as well as further improvement of technology. We
should match our R & D efforts with the objectives and policies of.our country. Apart from
the government laboratories, private industry should take roore and more active part in
research activities. The commercial application of scientific discoveries can be carried out
more easily if there is a direct link between the laboratory and industry. In other words. it
would be better if industrial units have an R & D set up within themselves.
Our indigenous R & D units should try to reduce the threat to our environment through
innovations in industrial proce_sses. Pollution of environment by industries is a very serious
menace in the developed countries. As you know. most of our big indubtries were set up
before the oil prices sky-rocketed in 1973. As a result they rely heavily on oil as their source
of energy. With the unprecedented rise in oil prices, and also taking itito conhideration the
limited world reserves of oil. we should try and look for alternative source\ ot' energy which
will increase our profitability in the long run. Some experiments are being done with holar
energy, and it has a ~ s dbeen put to use in some places. But we haven't yet t.~ppedits full
potential.
I t may be noted that the concept of modernisation is integrally related to thc Improvement of
processes and products. But modernisation as mere gimmickry. for cxiunplc.. to introduce
i,computers where one can do without them. or installing remote control co~nmu~iication
systems and'the like can only increase overheads and lead to handicaps in trade. A balanced
approach to modernisation xemb to be the need of the hour. and w e need to \trengthcn our
own-,R & D efforts for this. See if you can do this SAQ now.
Science.Teekmlogy and won't be able to Compete in the international markets. The use of technology also helps
Developmnt
us produce goods on a large scale. This mass production helps to bring down the cost
per unit. If our goods are reasonably priced, they stand a better chance in the
international markets.
3) India should follow the example of Japan. If we keep importing the latest technologies
and do not strengthen our base of R & D, we shall always remain dependent on other
advanced countries. And unless we become self-reliant, we shall have to bow down to
the wishes of these advanced countries even though they go contrary to our ideals. At
the same time we cannot remain isolated. We have to imbibe the latest technology to
fulfil the basic needs of the entire population and to abolish poverty. If we try to acquin
the latest technology entirely through our own efforts, it will take a very long time, and
we may not be able to catch up with other nations.
If some other countries have already developed modem technologies, we should try and
import them to revamp our industry. But once we have imported these technologies we
should keep them up-to-date with our own R & D efforts.
!-
4) There are many reasons for our productivity being lower than the acceptable norms. o n ~
reason is that our industry does not use the latest technologies because of the heavy
investment needed to install modem machinery. Even where modem machinery has
been installed, it is nat being properly utilised since the workforce is not adequately
trained.
Sometimes entrepreneurs do not realise the importance of constantly adapting their
technologies and refuse to finance R & D programmes. This adversely affects their
productivity as their counterparts in other countries are able to achieve'a higher
productivity by the use of new production processes.
UNIT 28 TECHNOLOGY AND ECONOMIC
DEVELOPMENT
Structure
28.1 Introduction
Objectives
28.2 Technology Policy
28.3 Technology Transfer
Import of Technology
Lab to F~eld
Export of Technology
28.4 Current Technological Developments
Energy Sector
Some Key Industries
28.5 Limited Access to Technology
28.6 Summary
28.7 Terminal Questions
28.8 Answers
28.1 INTRODUCTION
When the Second World War ended in 1945; the political situation changed considerably.
Many colonial countlies that had been struggling to achieve independence got their chance.
Our country became independent in 1947 and, since then, many large and small countries
have won their freedom. The economies of these nations had remained backward due to
exploitation by the colonisers. On achieving independence the question that has faced them
is how to rapidly develop their economies and reform their societies so that their people
have a decent standard of living, and access to basic education and culture. In India also YOU can listen to our audio
there has been considerable debate about what basic policy to adopt in order to ensure rapid programme "Technologytransfer'
at your study centre.
economic and social progress.
As a result of this debate, the Scientific Policy Resolution was drafted and adopted by the
Indian Parliament in 1958. (We have already discussed some aspects of this policy in Unit
s l u t i o n clearly stated that "the wealth and
27) T h ~ m of a nation depends on the
effective utilisation of its human and material resources through industrialisation". The same
resolution further said that "national prosperity depends upon the effective combination of
three factors, namely, technology, raw materials and capital. Of these factors technology is
perhaps the most important". The reason given in the Resolution is that "the creation and
adoption of new scientific techniques can, in fact, make up fm adeficiency in natural
resources and reduce the demands on capital. But technology can only grow out of the study
of science and its applications." In our country numerous steps have been taken to promote
education and science, but a clear statement of our technology policy was made only
in 1983, a full 25 years after the Scientific Policy Resolution.
The Technology Policy Statement is again a clear formulation of tbe realities of the national
and international situation with regard to technology, because, just as technology is essential
ror industrialisation and proper economic development of the country, it is also the field
where interests of many countries clash. For example, to establish our economic strength, we
may need to obtain technology which may already have been developed abroad. But why
should the developed countries, which maintain their economic superiority on the basis of
their technology, help us to cut loose from their intluence and hold? In order to intelligently
follow the crucial problems of our social and economic development, it is necessary to
understand the main features of our technology policy and the situations in which transfer of
technology from one country to another takes place.
In Section 28.2, we discuss 1ndia's.technology policy. 111Section 28.3 we describe the
problems of technology transfer. The current technological developments in some industries
Scknee, Technology and in India is given in Section 28.4. Finally, in Section 28.5, we make a case for making
Development
technology accessible to all levels of our society so that India can really progress as a whole,
and be counted among the developea nations in the future.
Objectives
.
After reading this unit you should be able to :
give reasons for the need for developing our own technology,
discuss the aims and objectives of our technology policy,
explain the different aspects of transfer of technology,
list some recent technological developments in a few important Indian industries.
give reasons for the benefits of our technological development not reaching all strata of
our society.
I thought to even small improvements which could make better and more cost-effective use of
existing materials and methods of work. Our development must be based on our own culture
I and pe-cnv.lity. Our fgture deynds on our ability to resist the imposition of technology
which is obsolete or unrelated to our specific requirements. and of polic~eswhich tie us to
systems which serve the purposes of others rather than our own, and on our success in
dealing with vested interests in our organizations: governmental, economic, social and even
I intellectual, which bind us to outmoded systems and institutions."
The paragraph mentions "attainment of technological self-reliance" as our immediate need.
This refers to the competence of our scientific and technological personnel,who should be
well-versed in modern knowledge and "know-how". They should be able to innovate
I technology accordiiig to our need. and develop new technology. For example, they should
be able to harness sources of energy. such as solar energy, in which our country abounds: or
they should be able to effectively use the raw materials that we possess in plenty.
...and lastly, I must thank a11 the foreign collaboratorh, foreign technicians
and toreign advihers who put up this great plant which is truly a national
achievement ... !
Fig. 2 8 ~ 1
So you see that "self-reliance" is a \imple word, hut. in practice, i t means developi,ng our
own capabilities through planning, coordination. education and resear-h.
Science, Technology and We now give another excerpt from the Technology Policy Statement, in which its aims and
Development
objectives are listed.
"The basic objectives of the Technology Policy will be the development of indigenous
technology and efficient absorption and adaptation of imported technology appropriate to
national priorities and resources. Its aims are to :
a) attain technological competence and self-reliance by making the maximum use of
indigenous resources, to reduce vulnerability, particularly in strategic and critical areas;
b) provide the maximum gainful and satisfying employment to all strata of society, with
ernpha~i5on the employment of women and weaker sections of society;
C) use traditional skills and capabilities, making them commercially competitive;
d) ensure maximum development with minimum capital outlay;
e) identify obsolescence of the technology in use and arrange for modernisation of both
equipment and technology;
f) develop technologies which are internationally competitive, particularly those with export
potential;
g) improve production speedily through greater efficiency ahd fuller utilisation of existing
capabilities, and enhance the quality and reliability of performance and output;
h) reduce demands on energy, particularly energy from non-fenewable sources;
i) ensure harmony with the environment, preserve the ecological balance and improve the
quality of the habitat; and
j) recycle waste material and make full utilisation of by-products."
Thus, we see that the policy stresses attainment of self-reliance in technological development
and utilisation of our own resources for indigenohs technology.
The aims of the technology policy also show the government's concern for the
environment.
ii) Disposing of solid waste: For example the ash from thermal power plants or the waste
from cement factories should be properly disposed of.
iii) Treating industrial eftluent: Effluents, that are discharged from chemical factories into
rivers or oceans should be appropriately treated to make them free from toxic materials.
A Ganga Pollution Control Authority has been creited by the Gbyenunent of
India forcleaning the river Gangathroughout its stretch by using appropriate treatment
plants.
iv) Prevention of soil erosion: Through social forestry farm forestry, grassland and
wasteland development, measures must be taken to control soil erosiori, which' has many
untoward consequences (see Unit 15).
The Department of Environment was set up in 1980. It conducts research, creates public
awareness and runs training programmes related to the environment.
For implementing the Technology Policy Statement, a Technology Policy Implementation
Committee (TPIC) was constituted by the Government. A special plan to provide funds to
institutions of higher education on a se~ehivebasis is now being implemented by the
University Grants Commission. The aim is to enable the institutions to strengthen and
, modemise their infrastructure for undertaking work in front line areas in science and
technology. The Department of Science and Technology (DST) has been the focal
organisation for supporting research of a multi-disciplinary nature. Many of the States have
been persuaded to set up sepgrate councils of science and technology. The DST has been
providing secretarial support to the Scientific Advisory Committee of the Cabinet since
, March, 1981. The researcc programmes supported by the DST are being utilised to improve
actual production processes.
Having read about the Technology Policy of the Government, see if you can solve this
SAQ now.
SAQ 2 Technology and Eeonomic~
Development
Match each of the following sentences with an aim of our technology policy that it
represents. Indicate the aim by putting the :orresponding letter (as on p. 20) in the box
provtded.
i j Utilise all our human resources.
.ii) Uses should be found for waste material.
iii) Develop to the maximum extent at least cost.
iv) Achieve development without creating ecological imbalance.
V) Replace, by suitable development, outdated technology, machines and processes.
This table shows how the cost in foreign exchange keeps mounting.
On the basis of the arguments presented in this section you can J o thi5 SAQ.
SAQ 3
Fill in the blanks from the words given after the paragraph
When importingtechnology; the receiving eoatrtq-mu'srefisure&t it is the.. .............
technology; that it will be possible for them to manufacture all the items ..................within a
reasonably.shortperiod of time; that the donor country doesn't attach .....................strings or
exert any pressure on them. Th~z,will ultilnately lead to the ................nation being ................
___ ,
&
- -
political, latest, self-reliant, indigenously, receiving.
1 If indigenous efforts are not considered adeguate at thepolicy-making lcvcl of the Mercnt
ministries, a new policy is formulated for updating technology and for the import of
I technology from the developed countries. The Department of Science and Technology,
I Planning Commission, Science and Engineering Research Council and various Scientific
Advisory Committees attached to the ministries monitor the technological needs of India.
SAQ4 '
Tho Indian Councii of Agricultural Research has initiated the Krishi Vigyan Kendra
(K.V K.) project. One component of this project is to train rural women in food technology,
post-harvest technology, use of non-conventional sources of energy, etc.
Is this a form of technology transfer? Give reasons for your answer, In about 50 words.
.....................................................................................................................................................
We end this section with a short paragraph on technology exports from India.
So far'we have discussed the ways in which research and development can be used to make
technological progress. In the next section we will give examples of some ~ndustriesin
which recent developments in technology have taken place. But let's do an SAQ first.
SAQ 5
Fill in the bianks in the fdowing paragraph
In 1955 ~ndiawas.. .. .: ...... a lot of technology. By 1975 our sclcrlusts were ablc
to.. .............various technologies to suit our own conditiotls Thcsc . . . . ..develop&
technologies were.. ...........to the field, the o h of transfer being.. . . . . . . . . . Now wc
f
are in a siti ion to.. .............know-how re ated to electroilics to countncs llkc...........
and ..............
Srience, Technology and
Dtvdopment 28.4 CURRENT TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS
In recent years R & D efforts in the fields of pure and applied chemistry, mathematics and
physics have helped a great deal in our progress from agro-based industries to the areas of
heavy industries, chemicals, steels, textiles, sugar, pharmaceuticals, computers and
electronics. T o give a few examples, the developments in the field of metallurgy have
depended on the applications of the principles of chemistry, physics and engineering. A large
number of manufacturing operations in the chemicals, steel, textile, sugar and
pharmaceutical industnes depend on chemical conversions. The development of computers
and electronics have been based on fundamental physics and mathematics with the help of
electrical, mechanical and production engineering. Research in materials science has led to
experiments with fibre glass. This can be used in making lighter aircraft and lighter luggage,
among other things.
One has to remember that the whole process of technology involves the processing of raw
materials into useful and profitable products. These products are used both as consumer
goods and as an ~ntermediatefor further chem~caland physical modifications to yield
consumer products. For example, in the chemical industry, about one-quarter of the total
chemical output IS utilised in the manufacture of other chemicals.
' The Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) has a chain of laboratories in
almost all areas rclating to the national dcvclopment cffort: fuels. cerarmcs and glass,
chemicals, metallurgical and electro-chemical products, etc. Silk & Art Silk Manufacturing
Research Association (SASMIRA) in Bombay and Indian Jute Industries Research
Association (IJIRA) in Calcutta. which are maintained jointly by the collaborative efforts of
the Government and the industries concerned, are active in their fields. Regional research
laboratories maintained by the CSIR at different places like Trivandrum, Jammu,
Hyderabad; ~ h u i a n e s h w a rand Jorhat, look after the regional research and development
needs.
Before dealing with current technological changes in some industries, let us look at tne thrust
of our developments in the area of energy.
From Unit 17, you know that among the energy sources available in India are fossil fuels
(like lignite, coal and petroleum) the sun, wind, geothermal energy (for example, hot springs)
water (hydro-electric power) and human and animal labour. The cost of energy varies. It is the
lowest in the case of direct combustion of biomass and peat, which is wet, partially decomposed
organic matter. The cost of energy is also quite low in the case of fossil fuels. Large deposits of
lignite have been found in Tamil Nadu. But it costs more than coal, as it has tobe processed into
briquets before it can be used. Gaseous fuels and manufactured gas, such as fuel gases like coke-
oven gas. water gas, producer gas, etc., cost much more. There have been attempts to
prepare ethyl alcohol by biomass conversion and methane by fermentation. Vegetable oil,
in recent years, is also being used as a replacement for diesel.
Among the other energy sources, nuclear energy is considered to be one of the proven
alternat~veenergy sources, and, in some countries, such as France, 70% of their energy is
now derived from nuclear sources. In the Bhabha Atomlc Research Centre, apart from
uranium, thorium, obta~nedfrom monazite sands from the beaches in Kerala, has been
successfully used to produce nuclear power. The first such reactor has been commissioned in
Kalpakkam near Madras There arc o w r 550 nuclear power plants all over the world
. Indla. at the moment. has OIIIV five A few morc power plants are soon to be put lnto servlce.
Other energy sources which have received considerable attention a& geothermal energy, Technology and Economic
Develepment . ,
wave and tidal energy, solar energy, ocean thermal energy and electro-chemical cells which -.
generate electricity. Conversion of biomass into biogas needs particular mention. In India, at
present, fossil fuels. hydro-electric power, biomass conversion. and nuclear power are the
ones which are being used. Others still remain more or less in the experimental stage as far
as practical utilisation is concerned.
Some of these drugs are prepared by isolat~onfrom natural raw materials. For example,
Serpasil, a drug given to patients suffering from high blood pressure, is obtained from a plant
called Rauwolfia Serpentina. A drug against blood cancer, Vincrystine, is obtained from a
common plant, Vinca-Rosea. Digitalis, a drug for heart patients, is got from the fox-glove
plant.
But many drugs are prepared by synthesis. For example, Aspirin, the common analgesic. is
obtained from salicylic acid. Antibiotics Iike'Penicillin or Streptomycin were originally
prepared by fermentation. or through a process of biosynthesis. Now they can be prepared
synthetically. Again, the chemical compound, Isoniazide, is one ol'the most potent and
selective medicine5 against tuberculosis. One of the important developments has been in the
manufacture of Insulin, an anti-diabetic drug. Earlier this was being produced from the
pancreatic glands of animals. Now, it is prepared by gene splicing, of which you-will read
more in Sec. 29.6.1.
Two public sector undertakings, Hindustant Antibiotics Limited and Indian Drugs and
Pharmaceuticals Limited, manufacture many of the 50 commonly used drugs mentioned
earlier by processes of synthesis and/or isolation from plants or animals.
Steel Industry: In India this industry has developed significantly since Independence, and is
now under acentral authority, namely, Steel Authority of India Limited (SAIL). Somesteel
plants come under the public sector, such as those at Durgapur, Bumpur, Bokaro, Rourkela?
Bhi1ai;etc. Some are in the private sector such as the Tata Iron and Steel Company at
Jamshedpur. The most significant development has been the use of a multi-pronged
approach in getting technology from a number of developed countries. The earliest Tata
plant was put up with American technology. Now we are using Soviet technofogy at Bokdro
and Bhilai, and German technology at Rourkela. The Tatas are trying to develop indigenotls .
technology.
Chemical Industry: Under this heading we include the manufacture of caustic soda, ,
chlorine, cement, carbon, coal, urea. nitric acid, super phosphates and gases like hydrogen,
oxygen and nitrogen. We have a sizeable glass and ceramic industry, surface coating
industry, food and food by-product industry. Our agrochemical industries have developed
indigenous technology for the manufacture of pesticides and insecticides. Our soap and
detergent industry manufactures soap, detergents and glycerine. Our oils and fats industries
manufacture vegetables and animal oils and fats. A major breakthrough has been achieved in
the field of petrochemicals. We have a number of petroleum processing plants and
petrochemical industries, the biggest being in Baroda. India produces two-thirds of her
petroleum requirements. The rest is imported from countries of the Middle East, the Soviet
Union, some East European countries and some South American countries. We have a
number of petroleum refineries situated in, Bombay, Visakhapatnarn, Assam, Bihar, West
Bengal and Kerala. Some more are expected to come up during the present plant period. ,
. Electronic Industry: In recent years the whole world has seen a revolution in electronics. It
is a very important part of practically every industry, as well as many spheres of human
activity like communications, transport, education and entertainment. The computer industry
has been radically altered in recent years due to a shift from the analogue to the digital
technology. This has led to a very big change in communicatit-ms technology. A combination
of analogue and digital technology has made distant or remote control of machines possiMe.
Computerisation has also helped in various fields of engineering. In the old days, in
mechanical, civil or chemical engineering, it would take a long time from the first stage of
designing to the last stage of creating the actual product. Since the advent of computers,
through computer-aided designing methods, much of the labour and cost involved is saved.
Also, with the help of the computer, the sensitivity, accuracy and dependability of a Technology and Economic
Qevelopmenr
particular design can be tested quite easily.
The general outlook ofthe electropics industry seems to be bright. There have been
substantial growth rates recorded in computers, office equipment and software exports. In
the coming years the communication sector is expected to grow rapidly.
To conclude, it can be said that industries in India are progressing, but we have far to go.
Often, we need to import current technology. According to one estimate, 35% of druis and
pharmaceuticals, 70% of agricultural machinery, 7 5 6 of electronics, and almost all
petrochemicals and fertilisers are products of forkign technology. This position has to be
changed by conscious policy and careful planning combined with increasing support for
educatio", research and development.
$.A() 6
Fill in the blanks:
II A recent development in the .....................industry is the manufacture of .....................
fibres for reinforcing plastics. They can be prepared from ......................
ii, ......................a drug 10 combat diabetes, is now prepared synthetically.
iii) In the steel industry we are still .....................technology from a lot of .....................
nations.
i\l) In the chemical industry, the major recent development has been in the production
of.. ....................
28.6 SUMMARY
We end this unit by summarising what is covered in it.
11
Why is necessary for India to develop its own technology. I
The Technology Policy Statement.
Technology transfer encompasses import of technology from developed nations,
exporting technology to lesser developed nations and transferring indigenously i
If you have been through the unit you will be able to answer the following exercises.
1) Give three reasons for the need for a nation to develop its own technology.
-2) While choosing appropriate technology, that is, technology suited to our needs, we must
keep certain factors in mind. can you list three of these factors?
3) How does import of technology relate to self-reliance, in the Indian context? Answer in
about 100 words.
- - -
28.8 ANSWERS
Self Assesment Questions
1) i) T; ii) T; iii) T; iv) F
2) i) b; ii) j; iii) d; iv) i; v) e.
3) latest, indigenously, political, receiving, self-reliant.
4) Yes. This is a case of transferring indigenously developed technology to the field.
Technology does not consist only of machines or processes. It also consists of the know-
how needed to use these processes. The training programmes spread this know-how.
5) importing, develop, indigenously, transferred, lab-to-field, export, Burma/Malaysia/
Ethiopia/Mexico/Argentina.
6) i) textile, carbon, rayodcoal-tar/pitch/polyacrylon
ii) Insulin
iii) importing, developed
iv) petrochemicals.
7) i) T; ii) T; iii) F; iv) T
Terminal Questions
1) A nation should develop its own technology because
if it should be self-reliant,
ii) the basic needs of its citizens must be met,
iii) this will lead to an increase in its national productivity,
You can add many more reasons
2) There are many factors. Three of them are:
, a) The technology must utilise our human resources optimally.
b) It should utilise locally available natural resources
c) It should be geared towards energy conservation.
3) Since India was a colony, it did not have adequate opportunities to develop
technologically. Therefore, it has had to import technology from the technologically
advanced nations. But, import of technology has several drawbacks. Therefore, we shourd
not keep on importing technology. We must develop our own infrastructure so that, after
a certain stage, we can be in a position to develop our own technology. We should also be
in a position to improve the borrowed technology and adapt it to Indian conditions. This
is the way to self-reliance.
Thus, imp~rtoftechnology, to a limted extent, will help us to develop. But, if we always
rely on imported technology, and don't develop our indigenous technology, 'we will never
be self-reliant.
4) There could be several answers. The answer we give is
a) Flame proofing, shrink proofing of wool;
b) Introduction of telematics, production of high power microwave tubes;
c) Synthetic manufacture of Insulin, synthetic manufacture of antibiotics.
5) Rural women have far less access to information about technology than rural men
because, firstly, they are deprived of even basic education. Secondly, since their activities
are often limited to their homes, they are isolated from the world outside. Taking care of
their families and working in the fields takes up all their time. Therefore, they cannot
come into contact with various technological developments unless a special effort is
made by technocrats to reach them.
UNIT 29 MODERN DEVELOPMENTS IN
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY-I
Structure
29.1 Introduction .
Objectives
29.2 Laser : Putting Light to Work
Applications of Laser
29.3 Fibre Optics
Applications of Optical Fibres
29.4 Space Technology
Dividends from Space
29.5 Fission and Fusion Energy
Nuclear Fission: Splitting the Atom
Nuclear Reactor
Nuclear Fusion: The Ultimate Source of Energy
The Other Side of the Coin
29.6 What is Biotechnology
Genetic Engineering
Enzyme Immobilisatio~
29;7 Summary
29.8 Terminal Questions
29.9 Answers
29.1 INTRODUCTION
Products of modern science and technology have become a part and parcel of our daily Ilfe.
Whether we are situated in farflung villages or in the hustle and bustle of cities, we come
across these products everyday - in food and agricukure, in transport andkommunications
or in various other articles we use. You have already read about some of these technologies
in Unit 28. There are several modem technologies which we may not come across d~rectly,
but we do read about them in the newspapers or magazines. One day we are told about
exciting developments in semiconductors, computers, robotics or artificial intelligence,
another day about lasers, optical fibres or materials science and technology. Millions of us
have watched Squadron Leader Rakesh Sharma and astronauts from other nations make
successful trips in space -- a feat made possible'only due to the advances in space technology.
Biotechnology is a hot topic of debate and discussion these days. So is fission technolo&.
Fusion may replace fission as a source of nuclear energy by the beginning of the next century,
if the rapid pace of development continues.
You have studied, in Unit 27, that we shall be using in the next ten or fifteen years (or even
earlier) technologies that are now in the making. Hence, one of the last parts of this course '
tries to acquaint you with the emerging technologies. We would also like you to know and
think about the likely social impact of these technologies, about the benefits their proper use
might confer on us and the problems and difficulties their misuse might create for us. So
that, if the need arises, you could consciously react to and influence issues relating to these
technologies. What is being said about each technology is very brief. If some of you
develop an interest in any of these technologies and wish to study them further, a list of
hooks has also been provided at the end of the unit. In this unit we discuss lasers, fibre
O F $ ~ Sspace
, technology, fission and fusion, and biotechnology. In Unit 30, we will take
ug semiconductors, computer technology, robotics, artificial intelligence. and materials
science and technology.
Srience, Technology and Objectives
Development
After studying this unit you should be able to : ,
r --list properties that make light from a laser different from sunlight or light from ordinary
sources, such as fluorescent tubes, bulbs etc.,
state what an optical fibre is,
explain the-functions of rockets, artificial satellites and space probes,
describe nuclear fission, nuclear fusion and a nuclear reactor,
state what biotechnology is, and explain genetic engineering and enzyme immobilisation,
*
describe the applications of the technologies discussed in this unit.
ORDINARY LIGHT
COHERENT LIGHT
LASER
Fig. 29.1: (a) Light from an ordinary source is made up of many wavelenihs and the waves move in different
directions; (b) laser light is of a single wavelength and all the waves are in phase with one another. i.e.
the crests (hills) and troughs (valleys) af one wav- fall on top of the crests and troughs of other waves.
Laser light is made up of u~al*es of the same wavelength. Whai is more, all the nvavekin a
laser beam are organised to proc~edexactiy in step (in phase) with each other
(Fig. 29.1 b). This property of lasers is called coherence. It reminds you of contingents of
smartly dressed meanmoving in unison in the Republic Day parade. Or of the uniform
movement of oars in boat races of Kerala held on Onam. Does it not? As a result of
coherence, light waves in a laser beam can travel laige distames without spreading
apart. Because a laser beam does nor smead ou!. there is a large concentruriori of energy
h laser beam falls. "
per iinir area on the object on ~ ' h l c the
in eye surgery to treat detached retinas and to destroy abnormal blood vessels that form in
the retinas of diabetic patients. Earlier these diseases would result in blindness. For such
patients, laser is indeed a "miracle light". Lasers have become standard equipment
- . for ear,
eye and other delicate forms of surgery. From removing brain tumours, to stoppiag
(2)
bleeding from ulcers, and treating cancer of the bladder, lasers find a wide use in medicine
(Fig. 29.2).
Communications
Lasers have also become an important means of long distancecommunication. Travelling
through hair-like.glass fibres, laser light can be made to carry thousands of times more (3)
information than electric signals in conventional copper wire. Thousands of telephone calls
can be transmitted on a single fibre.
Fig. 29.2: A laser beam ( I ) guided
Other Uses by an opt~calfibre (2)burns he
I
Lasers may be used to measure the distance of objects like the moon from the earth. Here, block in the leg artery (3).
itime taken for a laser beam to reach the moon and be reflected back to the earth is measured.
As you know, light travels at the speed of 3 x lo5 km per second. Thus, the distance can be
found from the simple formula :distance = speed x time. Laser beams are also used to
1 read and play the music or
Among other things, scientists use lasers to monitor small traces of chemicals polluting the- images recorded on CDS
atmosphere because these molecules disturb the passage of the beam and thereby reveal (compact disks), and read the
information stored on CDROMs
themselves. Efforts are being made to transmit power by means of laser beams. Laser beams m computers.
are used to etch music and video pictures on records which look like ordinary gramophone
records. Such records can be played back by a laser beam and, thus, they never wear out. If
you happen to visit a science museum you will see holograms of various objects. These are
life-like three dimensional images created by laser beams.
Thus, you see that lasers can be put to endless uses for the knefit of h~imanbeings. These
uses seem to be limited only by the imagination of the scientistgsnd engineers. And the best
is yet to come.
SAQ 1
a) Using the words given below, fill in the blank spaces in the following sta(ements about
laseis and their properties.
i) Lasers are sources of a special kind of ......................which has several useful
properties.
ii) A-laser beam can carry energy or ...................... over ................. I.... distances.
iii) Lasers can direct a large ......................of energy per unit ...................... on the object
on which it falls because it does not ...................... out.
f
Fig. 293: Transmission of light through an optical fibre.
laser source
ieceived signal
-
I
optical fibre
4
modulated light beam
demodulator
Fig. 29.1: The fibre optic link between lelephonr exchange<. A laher ha111 u i ~ hthe \rfnnl tmprchsed on il. IS
directed at one end of the fibre. 11 emerge?,at the other rtid. A phototliode convcrl\ Ihi. l i ~ h he:~m
t into
electrlc currcnt. The tlemodularor rccclvcr\ thr. or~pllr,~l
kiptial
The use of laser beams in optical fibres enables the transmission of signals for thousands of
kilometres. Transatlantic undersea fibre-optic cables have been in use for ~ommunication
between USA and UK. Instead of being broadczst from antennas, TV programrnek can now
be transmitted through fibre-optic cables. The cable TV can, thus, make available several
channels to the viewer. Freliminary experiments on the use of fibre-optic technology in India
are being done so that we can also take adtantage of this technology in the coming years.
Indian research laboratories have already developed the technology of producing the special
I glass, drawing fibres from it and giving it a special coating so that internal reflection takes
place with a minimum toss. Indian industry is now manufacturing optical fibres.
The fibre optics technology has many advantages over the traditional technology. An optical
fibre cable, the size of an ordinary electrical cord, can replace copper cable hundreds of
times thicker. Optical fibres are light and sturdy. ?'hey are much less expensive than copper II is possible to interfere with
w e s for the amouvt of information they carry. Because optical fibres carry light beams, and disturb messages being sent
they are free from the disturbances. wch as you hear on the radio due to nearby electric on radio waves, by transmitting
other radio waves of the same
I disturbances. Fibre-optic communication is also advanrapeous for military communication frequency at the same time. This
because it cannot be "jammed" process is called 'jamming'.
There may come a day when optical fibre cables enter many of our h o u s ~ carrying
s not only
telephone calls but also television programmes, communication from computers and
electronic mail sent from person to person.
SAQ 2
a) Select from i) to vii) below the three true statements about optical fibres and write your
answer in the space given below.
An optical fibre is:
i ) a hollow hair-like thin transparent wire that carries light.
ii) a solid hair-like thin transparent wire that carries radio waves.
iii) a solid hair-like thin transparent wire that carries light.
i v ) made up of a transparent material like glass, quartz or polystyrene.
v) used to carry information to nearby places.
vi) used to carry large amounts of information.
vii)rnore expensive than a copper cable ..................................................
r b) The following is a summary of what you have just learnt about fibre optics. Fill in the
blank spaces using the words given below:
Fibre optics is a technique that provides a way of transmitting information. It transmits
information on ....................... Light travels in glass wires known as .......................
I I
Fibre-optic cables are ...................... and transmit more information without loss and
disturbance,when compared with ...................... and ....................... Optiiai fibres are
made from ......................material.
LIQUID
PUMP
1 COMBUSTION EXHAUST
PAY~OAD CHAMBER NOZZLE
I
PUMP
Fig. 29.5: Cutaway view of a liquid-fuel rocket. Pump drives fuel and oxidiscr to combustion chamber.
When the fuel in the rocket is set tofire, a stream of hot gases is expelled at a high speed
from its rear end (Fig. 24.5). As ireaction to the thrust of the,gases, the rocket moves in the
opposite direction. As long as the fuel in the rocket burns, shooting out gases, the rocket
continues to accelerate forward, and acquires great speed.
No single rocket fired from the earth can attain in one go the high speeneeded to orbit the
earth, or to escape its pull. Higher speeds are reached by using big and small rockets, in
stages. in the launch vehicle. As the large rocket soars into space and uses up its fuel, lt IS
separated from the smaller rocket and drops off. The smaller rocket already going at high
speed is then fired to accelerate it to an even higher speed. Three-stagerockets are usually
able to achieve speeds suitable for most purposes in space (Fig. 29.6). The final stage of the
launch vehicle carries the payload.
Activity
Verify the principle of rocket motion by releasing an inflated balloon with its neck open.
The different kinds of payloads that rockets carry into space include artificial satellites and
space probes to nearby heavenly bodies. The satellites and probes themselves carry
communication and research Quipment.
I Artificial Satellites-Tireless Servants in the Sky
The space crafts that move in an orbit around the earth are called artificial satellites. Most
Fig. 29.6. The multr-stage Indian satellites go around the earth &ce In about 90 minutes at a height of a few hundred
Rocket PSLV. kilometres. But it is possible to launch satellites with a proper speed at greater heights
(around 36,000 kms). They would then move around the earth once in 24 hours and
La*,- n
-
..
nn
.
. *A Ls r*n+;Lnn...r C.."L r"tnll;*nr ""lln,i frltpll;tp~
"~.~n~;nnnru
As you have read in Urut 26%our own INSAT series of satellkes are geostationary
,]lites Every night towards thc cnd of T v news on m y channel. we are shown Modern Developments in
plCtureS Of Clouds over Ind,a. These pictures He laken by INSAT Science and Techndogy-1
to earth, ~~a from monltofing the weather, INSAT satellites are used to
telephone calls. Television PrOgmmmes He also via these
-. .
-,satellites.
satellites carry equipment 10 survey the earth's natural resources and monitor weather.
India's satellite Programme has also provided useful information on agricultural land and
prospecting for ores and minerals. Recently, the satellite IRS 2D in the IRS (Indian
Remote Sensing Satellite) series has been launched to smrey India's natural resources
by remote sensing methods.
The effect of living in space on plants and animals is also studied in satellites. At present,
Russia has a space station called Mir going round the earth as a satellite. Crew members
and supplies are regularly sent to @isstation where three or:more personswork at
time, for periods as long as a year. Satellites can pinpoint sources of pollution, spot forest
fires and locate areas of disease in crops and forests. Weather conditions can be monitored
by satellites enabling us to predict storms and prevent damage. Satellites also help in
locating and guiding ships. But-the maximum use of satellites .-
is made for communications.
~
furnace, atoms were made to split, under strict control, to produce energy. Fermi had indeed
ushered in a new world. Today, in the giant atomic power stations around the world, or'in
nuclear weapons, we can see how far this discovery has taken us.
Fission
fragment
/ -
I
/ Energy ,-
----A
SAQ 4
a) State In the hoxes given, which of the following statements about nuclear fission
are true (T) or false (F).
i) Nuclear fission is the process in which two light nuclei are formed wh'en a U
heavy nucleus $plit\.
ii) The 5uln of the mas$es of the resulting nuclei is exactly equal to the mass u
of the parent nucleu\.
ii'i) When an a~omicnucleus splits, it only gives off energy and nothing else.
iv) In nuclear fission a small amount of matter disappears and is converted into
energy.
V) The ainount of energy released is huge because it depends on the square of
the speed of light.
b) In the space given below draw the next stepof thechain reaction sllown inFig. 29.7 (b).
Sckwt, Technology and 29.5.2 Nuclear Reactor
Development
Nuclearjission can be maintaived as a controlled cjiain reaction in a nuclear reactor to
produce energy.
Fermi had found from experiment that slower moving neutrons were more effective in
The black 'lead' used in pencils
causing nuclearfission. But most neutrons produced by the splitting of the nuclei are quite
is, in feet, made of graphite fast. A way was required to slow them down. It was found that certain materials slow down
n u krd. rs it is mistakenly the neutrons. Graphite. a pure form of carbon, is one such material. Such materials are called
#led. moderators.
There was still the problem of controlling the chain reaction so created, that is, to stop the ,
reaction or allow it to proceed at will. Materials which absorb neutrons would serve to
control the reaction. The neutrons absorbed by such materials would be removed and would
no longer split atomic nuclei. And the reaction would be controlled. The material usually
chosen as an absorber of neutrons, is cadmium or boron steel.
In a nuclear reactor (see Fig. 29.8a). rod-like containers of Uranium-235 are inserted in holes
made in a huge block of graphite. The graphite block slows down neutrons to enhance the
chain reaction. Control rods of cadmium are also inserted into the graphite block. When
pushed out, they absorb fewer neutrons and the reaction is speeded up.
The problem, then, is to remove the heat and use it to generate electrical energy. This is
achieved by circulating water, or liquid sodium to absorb the heat generated in the graphite
block. This heat may generate steam, which can turn a turbine (a wheel with slanting blades)
a n q h e connected electrical generator (Fig. 29.8b).
Q. 29&. (a) A schematic diagram of a nuclear reactor. (b) heat generated in nuclear fission is used to convert
water into steam in most of the reactors. The steam drives a turbine which is connected to an electric
generator. The steam is cooled and reused.
1 Megawatt - lo6 watts Watt 1s Today we have reactors capable of yielding power upto 500 Megawatts. Smaller reactors
the unit of power, which is the which give 1 to 5 Megawatt power are mostly used for reseasch work. The large ones are
amount of energy used per
second.
used for producing electricity, and driving submarines, or ships. From the uranium rods used
in the reactor, another fissionable material like Plutonium 239 may be obtained. Thus, a
-. reactor set up to generate energy can become a source for obtaining material for making a
bomb. India is committed to the use of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes.
SAQ 5
Give short aqswers in the space provided.
a) What purpose does the huge block of graphite serve in a nuclear reactor?
29.5.3 Nuclear Fusion: The Ultimate Source of Energy Fig. 29.9: An imaginary sketch
showing a typical nuclear fusion
An energy hungry world views with envy the glowing power of the sun and the stars, which reaction.
is based on a slightly different nuclear process called nuclear fusion.
Nuclear fusion takes place when two light atomic nuclei join orfitse together to form one
nucleus. .
Fig. 29.9 shows one of the simplest fusion reactions. TWO nuclei of heavy hydrogen Heavy hydrogen or deuterium ts
(deuterium! also fuse to give a nuc!eus of helium, a neutron and energy. In this process a an isotope of hydrogen, i.e.,i&
atom has the same number of
tremendous amount of energy is released. Half a kilo of deuterium gas would yield as much electrons, but its nucleus has 1
energy as 1300 tons of coal. What is more, we can get deuterium from sea water. There's protoo and 1 neutron.
about 40 nlillion tons of deuterium in sea water. This could provide us energy for many Hydrogen is the lightest element.
thousand million years. Its atom is made up of one
electron moving around one
Well then, what stops us from tapping this source of energy? The reason is that high proton.
temperature, equivalent of millions of degrees centrigrade, is required to start fusion. And
once the gas has been heated, it must be prevented from expanding; it must be contained.
But no container walls can withstand such temperatures. Hence, entirely new techniques
have to be developed. Much activity is going around the world to generate power through
nuclear fusion. The development of fusion power has proved to be, perhaps, the most
difficult task ever tackled. Nevertheless, if fusion reactors come into being, humankind
would never again face an energy shortage.
mobile trains or trucks on land, in ships and submarines under the sea, in bombers riding the
sky, thcy are capa%lc of dcstrqjtmg Ule world many times over.
I I
Fig. 29.10: A nuclear n.~issilek i n g transfomied into doves, the symbols of peace-a reflection of people's desire
for peace and nuclear disarm;iment.
!
Modem Developmentsin
29.6.1 Genetic Engineering Science and T&hnoloay.I
The modem biotechnology revolution is based on the understanding and manipulation of the
structure of DNA. DNA is a complex organic molecule that directs the synthesis of proteins
in all living organisms. Thus, it controls the physical structure, growth, reproduction and
function of all living beings. The programme for controlling protein synthesis is coded in the
PLASMID
chemical structure of DNA. The discovery of the code, and the synthesis of DNA in test DNA EXTRACnON
tubes, were important milestones in genetic engineering. However, the foundation of genetic
engineering was laid by the discovery, that QNA suppljed from outside is accepted by
micro-organisms. DNA thus inserted into the cell en from a micro-organism, enables the
cells to make the proteins specified in the codes of the inserted DNA. These new cells can be
cultivated or cloned, until a significant number of cells are available
*. to produce specific,
desired protein molecules.
-3
However, this is not so easily done. When a foreign DNA molecule enters a cell, spcclal
enzymes, called restriction enzymes, rapidly destroy it This problem was solved by the
discovery of the fact that small rings of DNA other than the main DNA strands exist in the
cells of bacteria. These circular DNA molecules are called plasmids (see Fig 29.11). A
technique was developed to insert foreign DNA fragments into plasmids taken out of the
cells. This is known as gene splicing and plasmid becomes a vehicle or a vector. Once the
foreign DNA is joined to the plasmids, m d inserted back in the host cell, the restriction
enzymes fail to destroy it. When the cell reproduces, the foreign DNA .is also replicated.
When the cell carries on its normal functions, the synthetic DNA in the plasmid directs the
manufacture of the protein coded in i ~ .
Thus, through genetic engineering tethniques, it is possible to introduce a foreign DNA into
a host cell and synthesise any desired protein. Large quantities of scarce biologically
significant proteins which are not easily available from natural sources can be manufactured
in'this manner. For example, insulin needed by diabetic patients can now be produced on a
large scale using this technique. Just as cattle are bred for specific functions like high milk
yield, or pulling heavy loads, now-a-days scientists breed bacteria for carrying out special
functions. By selecting suitable bacteria, and using genetic engineering techniques, new variel
of bacteria which can eat man-made artificial products like plastics are being developed.
Otherwise plastic materials, discarded and thrown in garbage, are hard to get rid off. These
special bacteria are affectionately called 'Bugs'. DAUGHTER CELLS
I
Fig. 29.11: An illustration of
the genetic engineering
technique; a) plasmid DNA is
29.6.2 Enzyme Immobilisation extracted from the host cell; b) it
is cut at the cleavage site by
The use of enzymes as catalysts is well known in a number of industries, such as baking or special techniques; c) foreign
wine making. But punfied enzymes are soluble in water. It is, therefore, not easy to remove DNA is then inserted into the
them from the final product. Further, it is difficult to re-use them. Thus, enzyme activity is plasmid; d) the transformed
plasmid is inserted back into the
lost in one cycle of the chemical reaction. These difficulties led to the development in the host cell. When the transfomd
late 1960s of immobilised enzymes. The trick is to link an enzyme chemically to a large cell multiplies. the foreign DNA
molecule, such as gelatin. It can then be used as a catalyst, and it can be extracted with the is also replicated.
large molecule, for use once again. Immobilised enzymes have been successfully used in the
production of semi-synthetic penicillin and in the large scale production of fructose from
maize. Fructose is sweeter than glucose, yet it has the same calorific value and is used as a
A catalyst is a substance which
low calorie sweetener. aids chemical change in other
substances without itself
SAQ 0
undergoing change. Enzymes
Explain in about three lines each what is meant by genetic engineering and enzyme are proteins that control the
immobilisation. biochemical processes in living
organisms.
4) What are the risks associated with the use of fission energy?
5) We are listing below a few statements giving applications of the technologies described
in this unit. State against each statement, which technology corresponds to the particular
application.
a) Our natural resources can be explored, TV programmes broadcast
from anywhere in the world can be relayed to any .other desired place. ....................
b) Large amounts of energy can be provided. ....................
c) Brain tumours and blocks m artenes can bc removed. ....................
d) Vlral vaccines and bacteria for removing pollution can be engineered. .....................
e ) Telephonic communications and TV programmes can be carried to large ...................
distances.
29.9 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions:
1) a) i) light
ii) signals, long
i i ~ amount.
) area, spread
b) (i)-(ii); (ii)-(111);(iii)-(ii), (iii); (iv)-(ii).
2) a) (iii), (iv), (vi).
b) light waves, optical fibres, lighter, electric current, radiowaves, cheaper.
3) a) (iii), (vi).
b) (i) artificial satellite (ii) space probe (iii) rocket.
4) a) (i) T (ii) F (iii) F (iv) T ;(v) T
b)
2) Optical fibres are lighter and cheaper. Further, they can carry much more information.
3) Communication, resource mapping, meteorology, education.
4) Nuclear accidents, waste disposal.
5) a) Space technology; b) Fission and fusion; c) Lasers; d) Biotechnology; e) Optical fibres.
1
UNIT 30 MODERN DEVELOPMENTS IN
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY-11
30.1 Introduction
Objectives
30.2 Semiconductors
What is a Semiconductor
Semiconductor Devices and their Uses
30.3 Computer Technology
Computers at Work
Micms. Minis, Mainframes, 'Monsters' and their Uses
Artificial Intelligence
30.4 Robotics
An Insight into Robotics and Robots
'Where Robots Star
Getting Ready for Robots
30.5 Materials Science and Technology
30.6 Technology Forecasting
30.7 Summary
, 30.8 Terminal Questions
30.9 Answers
30.1 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 29 we gave a brief description of some modem technologies, such as lasers, fibre
optics, fission and fusion, space technology and biotechnology. We also discussed their
applications and how society could benefit from their proper use. We continue the discussion
in this unit and desribe other technologies, such as semiconductors, computers, artificial
intelligence, robotics and materials technology. As you have studied in Unit 27, now-a-days
the time interval between a scientificdiscovery and its use as technology has been considerably
reduced. Therefore, an emerging area of study is that of being able to forecast future trends
of research and development in science and technology. So, we will end this unit with a
brief discussion of technologv forecastirlp;.
Objectives
After studying this unit you should be able to :
state what a semiconductor is and describe briefly some semiconductor devices, such as
p-n junction diodes, transistors and integrated circuits,
describe briefly the working of the five basic units uf a computer, and distinguish
between computer hardware and software,
&plain what is meant by artificial intelligence,
explain what a robot is,
describe how the development of new materials has helped the advance of new
technologies,
describe the applications of each of the above mentioned technologies,
discuss the importance of technology forecasting.
30.2 SEMICONDUCTORS
By now you have studied more than half of this course. You may have been to the study
centre a few times. You might have taken lessons on aud~ocassette-recorders and watched
video programmes on the television set. You niay even have heard some programmes on the
radio. All these gadgets that you have come across, the radio, television, taperecorders,
video cassette-players are products of the semiconductiir techilology.
Scieke, Technology and Semiconductors are the basis of all the sophisticated electronics we have today. ~ i s t a l
Development
watches, calculators, aircraft, spacecraft, satellites, telephone exchanges, lasers and dany
more devices have components or equipment made up of semiconductors. There is hardly a
tool, appliance or item of cnmmunicat~on,long distance transportation, entertainment or
defence that does not use semiconductor technology. These products and the semiconductors
which are used in them have created great impact on many aspects of our social, cultural and
economic development. Therefore, you may like to know what a semiconductor is.
SAQ 1
Wh~chone of the follow~ngstatements is correct about germanium, a semiconductor? Its
A pnjunction diode allows current ability to conduct current is:
to flow if its p end is connected to
to the positive end ofthe battery, i) greater than copper and less than plastic.
thus acting as a switch. When the
p end is connected to the negative ii) greater than copper and plastic.
end Of the battery, it does not allow iii) greater than plastic and less than copper.
current to flow in which case the pn
junction acts as an open circuit. iv) less than both copper and plastic.
30.2.2 Semiconductor Devices and their Uses
If a junction is formed between a p-type and an n-type'semiconductor, the device called a p-
n junction diode acquires a peculiar pppeny. It conducts current only in one direction!
Hence, ~t is usedto convert alternating current (a.c.),intodirect current (44 (see Fig. 30.1)
The device acts as a w'itcl'in Fig. 30.1 (a). It acts as ag open circiit h-Fig. 30.1 (b).
And since it is a non-mechanical switch, it acts very fast.
- --
PtYPe n-type
- P-type "-type
I
- - n -
A -
flow of current no current flow.
w + 111111- J
+
ICCI b
I battery
I battery
batteries that a small variation of current on one side, can lead to a large variation on the
other side. In technical jargon, the transistor can 'amplify' small signals. Transistors can also -
be connected to other electrical components (resistors, capacitors etc.) to produce a.c. of
high frequency.
n P n
Input Output
Signal Signal
2
L, IJ% Low Voltage
Semiconductor devices are extremely small in size. Their properties can be controlled at
will. This may be done by changing the amount of doping or by introducing more sections
of p-type or n-type semiconductors on the same crystal. A large number of new
semiconductor devices have been made in this way. Further, by suitable methods, they can
be produced in a large chain or according to a desired pattern'on a non-conducting surface
called a chip. When a large number of semiconductor devices are produced on a single chip
to perform specific functions, the resulting device is called an integrated circuit (IC).
Because of their small size and their sturdiness, and because they consume almost no
energy, these devices hive become very popular as components in TV sets, computers and
many kinds of instruments used for communication and control.
With the present state of technology, we are able to produce millions of semiconducting
elements on a chip of 1 sq. cm., reducing the size and weight of the equipment. For example,
in the 1950s a three ton computer costing a few crore rupees occupied a large room. Less
0
than four decades later, a microchip based computer costing a few thousand rupees and no
larger than a big brief casecan outdo its forerunner. Radio transmitters or receivers as small
as the head of a pin can be produced. This kind of development opens up many possibilities.
For example, the flow of blood in the veins in a human body can be monitored by tiny
semiconduct~ngdevices.
SAQ 2
Match the semiconductor devices listed in column 1 with their descriptions listed in column 2.
You may not have seen a computer yet. But their pre5ence in your life I V a fact that cannot be
ignored. Your school marksheet4 may have been preparetl r3n a computer. the electricity and
water bills that you receive may be made on a computer. If you book your ra~l\cayticket in a
big city like New Delhi, it will be done on a computer. The cheque hooks i\sued by banks
are computerised. Indeed, computers have entered many a:pects of our 11bcs
A few decades ago, ,there were only a f e computers
~ in our countq. The! werc enormous and
expensive machines. They were often used for special scientific purposes. Thus, they had
little direct impact on the lives of most people. But, because of the advances in
semiconductor technology, things have changednow. ~housandsof computers, from small
relatively cheap units to large and expensive computers can be found in offices, factories,
schools, hospitals, banks,' airports, railway stations and homes. Plans are already afoot
to equip each district headquarter in lndia with a computer which will he linked through
satellite communication with a large central computer. This computer "network" will maintain alP
kinds of up-to-date information for the whole country. Indeed computers have become a way
of life with us. They have tremendously increased our capacity to exchange mformation,
undertake planning down to the grass roots level and faciliiate solution of very complex
problems.
Input -
- 3 Output
\ ru Permanent Memory
SAQ 3
What are the five units of a comauter? List them here.
You have put down input as one. If you were to use the computer, you would feed in your
information and instructions using an input device such as a typewriter-like keyboard (Fig.
30.4a). The information and the programme will be lodged in a computer memory which
could~besomething like a gramophone record (called a "floppy disc" because of its
flexibility) or on a tape.
Once the programme is fed in the computer, the control unit takes over. It selects the
instructions, puts them in a sequence and directs other units to cany out their operations. It
acts like the central nervous system of the computer body.
For example, the control unit directs the memory to supply certain numbers to the
arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) and tells the arithmetic and logic unit to add, subtract,
mul~iplyor divide numbers as the case may be.
1
The control unit and ALU together are called the central processing unit (CPU). This is the
most important part of a computer. Numerous transistors and components constituting
integrated circuits (ICs), about which you have already read in the previous section, make up
the electronic circuits of a CPU.
Finally, the control unit enables the output to obtain finished results. The results could be
displayed on a monitor like the TV screen, or could be printed on a paper by the printer.
They could also be transferred to a floppy disc (Fig. 30.4b).
The overall cont?ol is exercised by the person operating the computer. Lights, switches and
buttons enable the computer operator to monitor what the various units of the computer are
doine at anv moment.
Science, Technologyand
Development
Fig. 30.4 (a) Some input devices and (b) output devices.
SAQ 4
a) Fill in the blank spaces in the following statements about computers, using the words
given below:
Computers have the advantage of ...................... and ...................... over the human brain.
They can make ...................... of calculations per second without making a single
....................... They can also store ...................... amounts of ...................... and
1 2
i) Computer hardware a) transfers the data from the user to the memory of
ALU.
ii) Input I b) is made up of a set of programmes.
iii) Memory C) displays, records or prints information.
iv) Control Unit d) comprises of all magnetic tapes, printers and the
electronic circuitry.
v) Arithmetic and Logic Unit e) is responsible for the storage of data.
vi) Output f) like a traffic officer, it directs the tlow of
instructions between various units.
vii) Computer Software g) compares two numbers, adds, subtracts, multiplies
or divides numbers.
Computer Software
Computer hardware will do nothing until we tell it what to do. In oiher word\, we must give
it a programme to execute. A computer will do only what it i\ programmed to do and
nothing else. It cannot think the way we do. Through proper programmes, a computer can be
instructed to caby out not only simple arithmetical operations. hut al\o very complex
calculations and reasoning, apart from keeping accounts and making out bill3 etc. There are
two ty,pes of computer software, the application software and the systems software:
Application software is a set of programmes to solve problems or produce information or Modern Developmentsin
Science and Technology-11
data. These programmes are written in special code or notation or "languages". They are
given names such as BASIC. FORTRAN, COBOL. PASCAL etc. Some are more suitable
for accounting, others for mathematical calculations or logical processes.
The systems softbare provides the link between computer hardware and application
software. The code or programming language is converted into appropriate electrical signals
necessary for the operation of the hardware. The systems software is not controlled by the
user, it is built into the system.
SAQ 2
a ) I \ FORTRAN 3 language ot appl~cationsoftware or systems software or both'?
b) In the space given below. dram-a diagram showing the relationship between computer
hardware, systems software, application software and the user.
A robot can be made to do a large number of jobs. For example, a robot can drill holes of
several different sizes. Robots are also made to sort vegetables, shear sheep, pluck chickens,
form rice cakes and assemble mechanical parts. Robotic trains carry commuters to and from
work. Robots can even assemble delicate watches and computer components. In factories,
robots do spot welding and spray painting.
A robot can also be programmed to change from one job to another and can be 'taught' to
handle new tasks. For example, the same robot could drill a hole as well as place bolts into
the holes drilled by it. A robot can d o one thing for a while, then another and then yet
another. For instance, it can select English character keys and put them into a few
typewriters, then put Hindi keys into another few and then Arabic keys into a third batch.
An industrial robot called 'T' can select its own tools from a rack, drill holes accurate to
0.005 inch and measure the perimeter of 250 different parts. It helps build F-16 fighter
planes.
From these examples, it should be clear that u robot is a compulerised, multifunc~tionaland
reprogl-ummable machine lhar peflorms a large variety of l a s h .
However, there's more to a robot than what we've learnt yet. Through the use of artificial
intelligence systems, robots have been given a wide range of human abilities. We will
describe some of them in brief.
Like every modem technology, robots are also used for modem warfare. An example of
'seeing' robots is the Tomahawk cruise missile which can carry several nuclear warheads
and drop them on a target with deadly accuracy. It can be launched from a ship, a
submarine or a ground unit. several thousand kilometres away from its target. Stored in its
computer memory are a series of images of the landscape along its intended flight path. The
missile surveys the landscape, matches the images with the ones stored in its memory. If it
is drifting off course, it makes correction in its path. It makes a final adjustment before
heading for the target.
Modern DeCelopments in
, ,
Science and Technulvgy-11
Fig. 30.6 : A bin-picking rohnt. A laser is used to illuminate a bin full of parts of varied shapes and sizes. A camera records the
brightness of the objec:s at different points. The ~nbuiltcomputer programme looks for unique features in [he brightness
pattern of the object. The computer then positions and claw the gripper to pick it up.
Walking Robots
Sit back for a while and try to think of a few advantages our legs have over wheels in
moying around.
Wheels can't climb stairs. They can't also step over obstacles or gathrough narrow spaces
or move on soft or uneven ground. Humans and animals can choose the foot-holds that offer
the best support, specially in mountains. In fact, about half the earth's surface is such that it
is very difficult for wheels to move on it. Creeping, climbing, balancing, walking and
running are all possible for legged creatures. Our legs can also bend at knees which makes
adjustment easy.
Therefore, a robot must be given legs so that it is able to move around easily. Making legged
robots has proved to be a challenging job in robo!ics. Although computers have been built
into legged vehicles, the problem4 of balance, coordination and walking on rough ground
have proved difficult to solve.
Along with robot movement, building in natural flexib~lity,manual, touch and hearing
ability in robots are active areas of research in robotic$ these days.
I Naturally, robot eyes, ears, hands and legs have a long way to go befcre they can approach
1 human ability. Robotic Skills of sensing and thinking are elementary at best. Do not forget ,
Science. Technology and The fuels are other kinds of materials-either in colid or liquid state whic-h have'to be light.
Development
give off a lot of energy on burning. and must he such as to bum fast or slow according to
control. These material, have allowed loads of homething like 200 tons to he lifted off from
the earth by a powerful space rocket. 200 tons is the weight of 200 average 5ized cars!
Great developments have taken place in materials which are called polymers, and consist.of
long chains of small molecules joined end to end. Plasticsare one k ~ n dof polymers used
extensively in machines and devices. and so commonly even in rural areas-in the form of
cups, buckets, ropes, bags, rain-coats and other clothing etc. Rubbers are alsa$olyrners. and
so are ceramics from which china-ware and all kinds of insulators are made. There has been
great development in this field. Ceramic car engines are being developed which m i l l be
much lighter than the present cast steel and will be able to operate at a higher inner
temperature and pressure. Engine weight may be reduced to a quarter of what it is today, anti
power may be increased four times. Ceramic magnets are now in conimon use: the ratio of
the magnet's force to its lueight has k e n increased more than a hundred times. Tiny magne1.s
have now the strength of large old-time magnets.
b) What special kinds of materials have mad= possible advances in fibre optics,
semiconductprs. space technology and superconductors? .
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................... .............................
........................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................ ..............................................................
Modern Developmentsin '
30.6 TECHNOLOGY FORECASTING Science and Technology-I1
With such power of science in relation to technology, and consequently to satisfy social
need, the question arises, can technologies of the future be forecast? Can one say what kind
of devices, machines, weapons etc. will be available ten years from now? This has become a
relevant question from the point of general planning, let us say in a country like India. But
I
The question is more complex than it appears at first sight. The path from science to
technology and then to useful devices and goods in society is not straight forward. Scientific
discoveries sometimes took several decades before society made use of them as devices,
and, thus, produced the need to improve such devices, and add to technology and science. It
was Faraday who discovered the laws of electric induction in 1831, on which all electric '
generators and motors are based, but the generators or motors were'not needed. People were
doing without them. You may think why they did not use electricity for lighting homes and
street. The answer is simple. The bulb had not yet been invented. When the first hot filament
lamp was invented, it could not bum for many hours because good vacuum pumps were not
available. The greater hurdle was, however, the ability to sell electricity and make profit.
This was cleared only in 1881 when Edison developed the electric power station from where
electricity could be distributed, like water, to homes and factories. Its first extensive use was
in factory lighting so that workers could work for longer hours after sunset. So, the idea or
discovery made by Faraday had to wait for almost fifty years before other technologies and
devices were developed, and business could make profits from sale of electricity and longer
hours of factory work.
I
Although waiting periods between discovery and application have shortened now (see Sec.
27.2), in some technologies they are just a few years, the model described in the previous
paragraph is still valid. There is scientific research in various branches; some of it is abstract
or theoretical, some applied or practical and it makes certain technologies possible. But
other technologies from other areas of research and development may be needed to convert
the possible into likely to be successful technology. The society must also be ready to
utilise it, or the market must be there to make profit (or it must be created by advertising!),
before the likely becomes an actually available technology (see Fig. 30.8). Of course, this
is a highly simplified picture. For example, time delays have not been shown, but they are
involved at each stage, and the connections could be many more than shown here. You also
know, at this stage of the Foundation Course, that today's great multinational corporations
use advertising in a big way to create a market, to make people buy things which they could
1 do without. They may be made ready to buy a thing simply because it is made to appear as a
status symbol, or just because the neighbour has it.
-
- FSocial need 1
Scientific f / Theoretical. ~ o o l i e d l j or market j
Research Likely
: Possible
Areas 1 Theoretical, Applied 1 1 i/
L - 2
Fig. 30.8
I
The other side of the picture is that in order to foresee the technology of tomorrow, one has
to keep an eye on the various areas of scientific research, as well as on social and economic
I
I
aspects-not only in one country, but in the world at large. And one who is effecfively able
to do so stands to gain tremendously. More scientific research and technological
development can be directed so as to obtain highly useful products-unfortunately, also
weapons! A great amount of money is being spent by countries on research and
development in order to keep ahead of others. Some countries spend a few percent of their
gross national income on this enterprise. We in India spend, at present around 1%. And
c) Seema is a .............:............................... She specialises in designing programmes that Modrrn &ielopments in
Scienrt md Technology41
are built in the computer to contrpl its operation.
d) Feroze prepares software that allows a computer to perform specific fhctions. He is
5) State two reasons why technology forecasting is an important area of study today.
........................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................
30.9 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions
1) iii).
2) a) ii, b) iii, c) i.
3) Input, Control Unit, Arithmetic and.Logic Unit, Memory, Output.
4) a) speed, accuracy, thousands, mistake, large,.data, information
b) i) d, ii) a, iii) e, iv) f, V)g, vi) c, vii) b.
5) a) ~ ~ ~ l i c a tsoftware
ion
FURTHER READING
1. ~ e ' ~
w u i dto
e Sci-, Isaac Asimov, Penguin, 1987.
Unit 28 Technology and Economic Development
Unit 29 Modem Development in Science and Technology -
Unit 30 Modem Development in Science and Technology -
Block 8 : New Perspectives
Unit 3 1 Perceptions and Aspirations
Unit 32 Science -The Road to Development
AudioNideo Programmes
Audio : , 1) Science and Society (Block 1)
2) Astronomical Development in India (Block 3)
3) Measuring Astronomical Distances (Block 3)
4) Evolution of Man (Block 3)
5) The Forest Ecosystem (Block 4)
6) Population Pressure (Block 4)
7) Common Misconceptions about Health (Block 5)
8) Human Factors in Engineering (Block 6)
9) New Information Order (Block 6)
10) Technology and Self-Reliance (Block 7)
11j Nuclear Disarmament (Block 7)
Video : 1) Method of Scienge (Block 2)
2), A Window to the Universe (Block 3)
3) The Story of a River (Block 4)
4 ) Green Revolution (Block 5)
5) Infectious Diseases (Block 5)
6) Jean Piaget Development Stages of a Child (Block 6)
7) JNSAT (Block 6)