CHEMISTRY REVIEWER

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION B.1.2 EXTRINSIC PROPERTIES

 Sometimes called “accidental
properties”
CHEMISTRY
 Central Science
B.2 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
 Scientific discipline treats the
 Properties that describe the way a
composition, properties and
substance may change or react to form
transformation of matter
other substances
 Study of structure of matter and
changes that matter undergoes in
C. CHANGES IN MATTER
natural processes and planned
1. PHYSICAL CHANGE
experiments
 Change wherein a substance
changes in physical appearance
I. INTRODUCTION TO MATTER
but not in its basic identity
MATTER
 Physical material of the universe
2. CHEMICAL CHANGE
 Anything that occupies space and has
 Sometimes called “chemical
mass
reactions”
 Change which transforms a
A. STATES OF MATTER
substance into a chemically
1. Solid 2. Liquid 3. Gas
different substance

B. PROPERTIES OF MATTER
Evidences of a Chemical Change
 Sets of characteristics possessed by
a) Evolution of heat and light
substances which distinguish them from
b) Evolution of gas
one another
c) Formation of precipitate
d) Production of mechanical
B.1 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
energy
 Properties can be measured or
e) Production of electrical energy
observed without changing basic
identity of the substances

B.1.1 INTRINSIC PROPERTIES

 Properties that are characteristics of
any sample of a substance regardless
of the size or shape of the sample
Example:
1. Density
2. Boiling Point
3. Melting Point
4. Freezing Point

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II. CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER
A. PURE SUBSTANCE
 Matter that has a fixed composition
and distinct properties
 Homogeneous material consisting of
only one particular kind of matter
1. ELEMENTS
 Substances cannot be
decomposed into simpler
substances by chemical
means
a. Metals
 Solid at room
temperature
 Exhibit high electrical
heat conductivity
 Appear lustrous
b. Non-metals
 Non-conductors of
electricity and heat
2. COMPOUNDS
a. Acid
 Substance produces or
donates H+ ion
 Increases concentration
in definite proportions
by mass
b. Base
 Substance produces or
donate OH- when
dissolve in water
c. Salt
 Ionic compound formed
by replacing one or
more H+ of an acid by
other cations
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B. MIXTURES
 Combination of two or more substances
 Each substance retains its own
identity
 Hence own properties
1. HOMOGENOUS
 Material no differing parts can
be distinguished even with a
microscope
 Only one
2. HETEROGENOUS
 Material with differing parts
 Consists of physically distinct
parts
 Each with different properties
 Many
1. COLLOIDAL DISPERSION
 Mixtures containing
particles larger than
normal solutes but
small enough to
invisible to the eye,
even with a microscope
 Appear in the field of
an ultra microscope
2. COARSE SUSPENSION
 Consists of particles
appearing as huge
molecules in dispersing
medium
 Particles may be visible
to the eye
 Settle fairly rapidly to
the bottom of the
container
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III. ENERGY V. LAWS ON MATTER AND ENERGY

 Capacity to do work or transfer heat 1. LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS
 Mass neither created nor
EXOTHERMIC destroyed
 Energy given off to the surroundings  During an ordinary
chemical change
ENDOTHERMIC
 Energy absorbed by a body 2. LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
 Energy is neither created nor
A. TYPES OF ENERGY destroyed
1. POTENTIAL ENERGY  In any transformation but
 Stored up energy is transformed from one
form to another
2. KINETIC ENERGY
 Energy due to motion 3. LAW OF DEFINITE PROPORTIONS
(COMPOSITION)
B. FORMS OF ENERGY  States every sample of a given
1. ELECTRICAL ENERGY substance always contain same
 Energy passage of electricity proportion by weight of all its
2. RADIANT ENERGY constituent elements
 Energy electromagnetic radiation
3. CHEMICAL ENERGY 4. LAW OF MULTIPLE PROPORTIONS
 Energy possessed by a substance  States when two elements are
because of chemical state combined to form two or more
4. NUCLEAR OR ATOMIC ENERGY different compounds
 Energy with the manner in which  If the amount of one element is
the atom is constructed constant, mass of the other
5. LIGHT ENERGY element in the different
6. SOUND ENERGY compounds are in a ratio of
whole numbers
IV. SCIENTIFIC METHOD OF SOLVING Example:
PROBLEMS a) S + O2 → SO2
1. Identifying the problem 3.2 g 3.2 g
2. Gathering data
3. Formulating hypothesis b) S + O2 → SO3
4. Testing a hypothesis 3.2 g 4.8 g
5. Interpreting experimental data (ratio of O 2:3)
6. Drawing generalizations
7. Testing the generalization by applying it

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VI. BRANCHES OF CHEMISTRY
1. PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
 Deals investigation of the laws and
theories if chemistry
 Among primary goal is the
investigation of:
a) Structure and transformation of
matter and the interrelationships of
energy
b) subject matter, experimental
techniques and instruments used
are common to both physics and
chemistry
2. ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
 Concerned with separation,
identification and composition of all
kinds of matter
 Two broad classifications aof
analytical chemistry are:
a) QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS
 Involves separation and
identification of individual
components of materials
 Answers the question, “
What is present?”
b) QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS
 Concerned with how much
of each component is
present
3. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
 Study of carbon containing
compounds
 Term “organic” derived from original
belief these type of compounds were
found only in living organisms
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 Deals with commonly used synthetic
substances such as plastics, drugs,
dyes, explosives and detergents
4. INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
 Covers the chemistry of all
elements and their compounds with
the exception of carbon and its
compounds
 Comprises investigation of those
substances which are not organic
such as non-living matter and
minerals found in the earth’s crust
5. BIOCHEMISTRY
 Includes the study of materials and
processes occur in living organisms
 These materials are largely organic
compounds ( carbon containing
compounds)
6. NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY
 Deals with changes in nuclei of
atoms and use of these changes
 Especially in study of how
substances react
 Radioactive nuclei, both natural and
man-made, decompose
spontaneously
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VII. CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS 2. DENSITY

A. Temperature vs. Heat  Amount of mass in a unit
HEAT volume of a substance
 Form of energy flows spontaneously  Symbol: 𝜌
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
from a substance of higher temperature  𝜌=
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
to one of lower temperature
TEMPERATURE 3. RELATIVE DENSITY
 Measure of intensity  Ratio of mass of a substance to
 Intensive quantity defines the direction the mass of water that occupies
and rate of heat flow same volume
 Hotness or coldness of a body 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒
 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝜌 =
Methods of Temperature: 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

1. RELATIVE TEMPERATURE
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒
 Scale is based on freezing and  𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝜌 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
boiling point of water 4. HEAT
2. ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE  Energy transferred as a result of
 Based on quantity of kinetic energy difference
that molecules have  Symbol: Q
B. Mass vs. Weight
MASS SPECIFIC HEAT
 Amount of matter found in a substance  Quantity of heat required to raise
 Measure of a substance resistance to the temperature of one gram of a
the change in the velocity substance by 1.0⁰C
WEIGHT
 Refers to the force an object is CALORIE
attracted to the earth  Quantity of heat required to raise
**Weight = (mass)(gravity)** the temperature of one gram of
water by 1.0⁰C
VIII. DERIVED UNITS
1. VOLUME LAW OF HEAT
 Amount of heat body gains or
Mathematical Formulas: losses depend on the mass and
Cube V = s3 nature of the body and change in
Rectangle V=LxWxH temperature of that body
4πr3
Sphere V= 3
LAW OF HEAT EXCHANGE
 Amount of heat lost by one body is
Cylinder 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ
𝜋𝑑 2 ℎ equal to the amount of heat gained
𝑉= 4 by another body

𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ
Cone 𝑉= 3

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CHAPTER 1 EXERCISES:
1. Indicate your answer by checking the appropriate blank:
CHEMICAL SYSTEM PHYSICAL CHANGE CHEMICAL CHANGE
A. Corrosion of aluminum metal _______________ ________________
B. Melting of sodium chloride _______________ ________________
C. Burning gasoline _______________ ________________
D. Pulverizing of rock salt _______________ ________________
E. Evaporation of alcohol _______________ ________________
F. Plants grow _______________ ________________
G. Fruits ripen _______________ ________________
H. Leaves decay _______________ ________________
I. Rusting of iron _______________ ________________
J. Water freezes _______________ ________________

2. Indicate your answer by checking the appropriate blank:

CHEMICAL SYSTEM PURE SUBSTANCE HOMOGENEOUS HETEROGENEOUS
A. Vinegar _____________ _____________ ______________
B. Polluted Air _____________ _____________ ______________
C. Gelatin _____________ _____________ ______________
D. Pebbles and Sand _____________ _____________ ______________
E. Wine _____________ _____________ ______________
F. Salt solution _____________ _____________ ______________
G. Unpolluted air _____________ _____________ ______________
H. Black coffee _____________ _____________ ______________
J. Mayonnaise _____________ _____________ ______________

3. Indicate the number of significant figures in each of the following:

a) 73.00 - __________ f) 6.83471 - __________
b) 0.103444 - __________ g) 9.0 - __________
c) 28.326 - __________ h) 4.0003 x 1017 - __________
d) 12 x 103 - __________ i) 0.05930 - __________
e) 1,006,155 - __________ j) 5.138493 - __________

4. Round off the following quantities to the number of significant figures indicated in the
parenthesis:
a) 35,670.06 (3) - _______________ d) 667,999 (4) - _______________
b) 8.997 (2) - _______________ e) 0.045050 (2) - _______________
3
c) 0.0000032456 (3) - _______________ f) 10.9546x10 (3) - _______________

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5. The annual production of sodium hydroxide, NaOH, in the United States in 1991 was 24.39 billion
pounds. How many grams of NaOH were produced in that year?
Hint: 453.6 grams = 1 lb

6. In a certain part of a country, there is an average of 710 people per square mile and 0.72
telephones per person. What is the average number of telephones in an area of 5.0 km2?

7. The total amount of fresh water on earth is estimated to be 3.73x10 8 km3. What is this in cubic
meters and in liters?

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8. The predicted high temperature for New Delhi, India on a given day is 41.0⁰C. Is this temperature
higher or lower than predicted daytime high of 103⁰F in Phoenix, Arizona for the same day?

9. Imagine that the temperature scale exists in degrees Washington (⁰W) and that on this scale;
water boils at 145⁰W and freezes at 15.0⁰W.
a) Convert a temperature of 35.0⁰W to ⁰C b) Convert a temperature of 24.0⁰F to ⁰W

10. Find the capacity, in L, of a box 0.60 m long, 10 cm wide and 50 mm deep.

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11. A certain sample of the mineral galena (lead sulfide) weighs 12.4 g and has a volume of 1.64 cm 3.
What is the density of the galena?

12. A) Calculate the density of mercury, Hg, if 1.00x102 grams occupies a volume of 7.36 cc.
B) Calculate the mass of 65.0 cc of Hg.

13. The density of a sample of olive oil was determined in the following way. A flask was filled with
ethanol, the mass of which was 8.02 g. Then, the flask was emptied and filled with olive oil. The
mass of olive oil was 9.32 g. The density of ethanol is 0.789 g/cc. Calculate the density of olive oil.

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14. A steel sphere has a radius of 1.58 in. IF the steel has a density of 7.88 g/cc, what is the mass of
the steel in grams?

15. You are given a bottle that contains 2.36 mL of a yellow liquid. The total mass of the bottle and the
liquid is 5.26 g. The empty bottle weighs 3.02 g. What is the density of the liquid? What is its
relative density?

16. When 17.6 g of a metal is placed in a graduated vessel containing 10.0 mL of water, the water
level rises to the 12.2 mL mark. What is the density of the metal?

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17. A 200.0 g lead sinker at 110⁰C is dipped into 500.0 g of cold water at 10.0⁰C. If the resulting
temperature of the mixture is 11.19⁰C, find the specific heat of lead in cal/g⁰C.

18. A cylindrical tube 15.0 cm in length is filled with ethanol. The mass of the ethanol needed to fill
the tube is found to be 9.64 g. Calculate the inner diameter of the tube in cm. The density of
ethanol is 0.780 g/mL.

19. A cylindrical settling tank is 6.0 ft deep and has a radius of 15.0 ft. What is the volume of the tank
in liters?

20. A mass of 350 g of copper pellets at 100⁰C was mixed with 200 g of water at 22.4⁰C. The resultant
temperature of the mixture was 33.2⁰C. Calculate the specific heat of copper.

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CHAPTER 2: ATOMS, IONS, MOLECULES

I. UNITS OF MATTER

ATOM
 Basic building block of matter
 Smallest unit of element
 Cannot be further subdivided
 Capable of taking part in a chemical reaction

MOLECULE
 Smallest unit of element or chemical compound capable of free existence
 Combination of two or more atom

II. THE ATOMIC THEORY OF MATTER

Credit for the first atomic theory usually given to ancient Greeks but concept may have origin
even earlier civilizations.

Two theories prevailed among the Greeks:

1. ARISTOTLE (4TH Century B.C.)
 Believed matter is continuous
 Hypothetically can be divided into smaller particles

2. LEUCIPPUS AND DEMOCRITUS (5th Century B.C.)

 Held subdivisions would ultimately yield atoms which could not be further divided
 Word atom derived from Greek word atomos
 Atomos – means uncut or indivisible

Theories of Ancient Greeks

 Based on abstract though not planned experiment
 Approximately two thousand years, atomic theory remained speculation

JOHN DALTON
 English School Teacher
 Published meaningful atomic theory
 published period 1803-1807
 Designed this theory to explain several experimental observations
 Dalton’s theory considered landmark in Chemistry

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The essence of Dalton’s atomic theory of matter is summarized in the following postulates.
1. Elements composed of extremely small particles called atoms.
2. All atoms of given element are identical
 Atoms of different elements are different and have different properties
(including different masses)
3. Atoms of an element not changed into different types of atoms by chemical reaction
 Atoms neither created nor destroyed in chemical reactions
4. Compounds formed when atoms of more than one element combine
 A given compound always has same relative number and kind of atoms

III. EVIDENCES OF SUBATOMIC PARTICLES

In Greek and Dalton’s theory, atoms were regarded as the smallest possible components of
matter. End of 19th century, it began to appear the atom itself might be composed of even smaller
particles. This change in viewpoint was brought about largely by evidences from experiments in
electricity.

1. CATHODE RAYS AND ELECTRONS

 Mid-1800’s, scientist began to study electrical discharge through partially evacuated tubes

JULIUS PLUCKER
 Attempted to pass electric current through a vacuum
 Led discovery of the cathode rays

Method/Process:
i. Two electrodes are sealed in a glass tube from which air is completely removed
ii. When high voltage is impressed across these electrodes, rays stream from the negative
electrode called the cathode.
iii. Although rays themselves could not be seen, their movements could be detected
because rays cause certain materials like glass to fluoresce or give off light. This
phenomenon is called fluorescence.

Properties of Cathode Rays

a. They travel in straight lines away from the negative electrode unless acted upon by an
outside force.
b. They are negatively charged.
c. They consist of particles of definite mass, 1/1837 times as much as the lightest atom
known.
d. The nature of the cathode ray is the same irrespective of:
i. the material of which the cathode is made
ii. the type of residual gas present in the evacuated tube
iii. the kind of metal wires used to conduct current to the cathode
iv. the materials used to produce current

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GEORGE JOHNSTONE STONEY

 Suggested to call electrons the particles from the cathode rays that were extensively studied
in latter part of the 19th century

Deflections of Cathode Rays

 Since unlike charges attract, the streams of
electrons that constitute cathode rays are
attracted toward the positive plate when two
oppositely charged plates are placed on either
side of them.
 The rays are deflected from their usual straight
path in an electric field.
 The degree of deflection varies directly with
the size of the charge (e) and inversely with the
mass of the particle (m).
 The ratio of the charge to the mass (e/m)
determines the extent to which electrons are
deflected from a straight line path in an electric
field.

JOSEPH THOMSON (1897)

 Determined value of e/m for electron
 by studying the deflections of the cathode rays in electric and magnetic fields
 Hailed as the discoverer of the first subatomic particle

e/m = - 1.7588 x 108 coulombs/g

ROBERT MILIKAN (1909)

 Succeeded in measuring the charge of an electron
 By performing an experiment known as Milikan’s Oil Drop Experiment

e/m = - 1.6022 x 10-19 coulombs

−𝟏. 𝟔𝟎𝟐𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒐𝒎𝒃𝒔

𝒎= = 𝟗. 𝟏𝟎𝟗𝟑𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟖 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒎𝒔
−𝟏. 𝟕𝟓𝟖𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒐𝒎𝒃𝒔/𝒈

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2. PROTON
 Positive ions which results when one or more electrons are removed from a neutral atom

Positive Ions
 Formed in an electric charge when cathode rays rip electrons from atoms or molecules of
the gas present in the tube
 Positive ions move toward the negative electrode
 If holes have been bored in this electrode, the positive ions pass through them

EUGENE GOLDSTEIN (1886)

 First to observe the positive ions called positive rays

WILHELM WEIN (1898) AND J.J THOMSON (1906)

 Studied deflections of positive rays in electric and magnetic field

e/m = 9.5791 x 104 coulombs/g

e = 1.6022 x 10-19 coulombs

𝟏. 𝟔𝟎𝟐𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒐𝒎𝒃𝒔

𝒎= = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟕𝟐𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟒 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒐𝒎𝒃𝒔
𝟗. 𝟓𝟕𝟗𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟒 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒐𝒎𝒃𝒔/𝒈

3. NEUTRON
 Serves as the key which unlocks the energy of the nucleus
 Produces radioisotopes which are used in medicine, industry, agriculture and research

ERNEST RUTHERFORD (1920)

 Postulated the existence of an uncharged particle

JAMES CHADWICK
 Hailed discoverer of the neutron
 Able to calculate the mass of the neutron from the data on certain nuclear reactions in
which neutron produced

Mass = 1.6749 x 10-24 grams

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IV. RADIOACTIVITY

WILHELM ROENTGEN (1895)

 Found X- Ray
 When cathode rays struck certain materials, new type of invisible ray was emitted.

HENRI BECQUEREL
 Studied phenomenon phosphorescence
 Discovered radioactivity

PHOSPHORESCENCE
 Phenomenon wherein substances become luminous after exposure to sunlight

RADIOACTIVITY
 Spontaneous emission of radiation

SLOWDOSKA AND PIERRE CURIE

 Performed experiment to isolate the radioactive components of the mineral pitchblende

ERNEST RUTHERFORD
 Made further studies on the nature of radioactivity
 His studies revealed three types of radiation

Three Types of Radiation

1. ALPHA RADIATION, ∝
 Much more massive than the β − particles
 Have a positive rather than a negative charge
 Has charge of +2

2. BETA RADIATION, 𝜷
 high speed electrons
 considered the radioactive equivalent of the cathode rays
 has a charge of -1

3. GAMMA RADIATION, 𝜸
 High energy radiation similar to the x-rays
 Does not consist of particles

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V. THE NUCLEAR ATOM

J.J THOMSON
 Proposed a model for the structure of the atoms
 Named his model “Plum-pudding” model
 Proposed atom consisted of a uniform positive sphere in which electrons are embedded

ERNEST RUTHERFORD, HANS GEIGER, ERNEST MARSDEN (1910)

 Performed the Gold Foil Experiment to study the
behavior of alpha particles as they pass through a thin
gold fail

ERNEST RUTHERFORD (1911)

 Explained observations made from his Gold Foil
Experiment on the behavior of alpha particles
 Discover nucleus

Observations:
a. The large majority of the alpha particles passed through the foil
b. Some were deflected from their straight-line path
c. Few were recoiled back toward their source
 Postulated most of the mass of the atom and all its positive charges, reside in
a very small, extremely dense region which he called nucleus

VI. THE MODERN VIEW OF THE ATOMIC STRUCTURE

 The electron is given a charge of -1
 The proton is given a charge of +1
 Neutrons are uncharged
 Atoms have equal number of electrons and protons
 they have no net electric charge
 Protons and neutrons reside together in the nucleus of the atom
 Vast majority of the atom’s volume
 Space in which electrons move
 Electrons are attracted to the protons in the nucleus
 By force that exist between particles of opposite electrical charge
 Atoms are extremely small
 Most of them have diameters between 1.0x10-10 and 5.0x10-10 m
 More convenient unit is used to express atomic dimensions
 A⁰ - known as Angstrom (1.0 A⁰ = 1.0x10-10 m)

VII. ISOTOPES, ATOMIC NUMBERS AND MASS NUMBERS

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An Atom is Identified by Two Numbers:

1. ATOMIC NUMBER, Z
 number of protons in the nucleus

2. MASS NUMBER, A
 Total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus
 Neutrons – collectively called nucleons

 The number of neutrons can be determined by getting the difference between the atomic
number and the mass number
 An atom of an element is designated by the chemical symbol for the element with the atomic
number placed at the lower left and the mass number at the upper left where X is the chemical
symbol of the element.

Number of neutrons = A – Z
Number of electrons = number of protons = Z

ISOTOPES
 Atoms of the same element containing different number of neutrons and different mass
 Same atomic number but different mass number

MASS SPECTROGRAPH
 Used to determine the types of isotopes present in an element, exact atomic masses of
these isotopes and relative amount of each isotope present

ATOMIC WEIGHTS
 ATOMIC MASS UNIT (amu)
12
 Defined as 1/12 the mass of an atom of carbon, 6 C
 The assignment of 12 u to the mass of the isotope of carbon is arbitrary
 Most elements occur in nature as a mixture of isotopes. With very few exceptions,
these mixtures have a constant composition

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EXAMPLE:
The data obtained by the use of a mass spectrometer show that the element chlorine consists of
35
75.53% , 17 Cl atoms (mass =34.97 u), and 24.47% 3717
Cl atoms (mass = 36.95 u). The atomic weight of
chlorine is the weighted average of the atomic masses of the natural isotopes.

Solution:

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = ∑ (𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 × 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠)

𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑒 = (0.7553 × 34.97 𝑢) + (0.2447 × 36.95 𝑢)

𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 35.45 𝑢

 The weighted average is found by multiplying the atomic masses of each isotope by its fractional
abundance and adding the values obtained.
 The fractional abundance is the decimal equivalent of the percent abundance

CHAPTER 2 EXERCISES:
1. Complete the table:
Atomic Atomic Mass Number of Number of Number of
Charge
Symbol Number, Z Number, A Protons Neutrons Electrons
Bi 83 209
Au 197 79
K+1 19 20
P-3 31 16

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2. Chromium, Cr has the following isotopic masses and percentage abundances:

MASS NUMBER ISOTOPIC MASS, amu PERCENTAGE ABUNDANCE, %
50 49.9461 4.35
51 51.9405 83.79
52 52.9407 9.50
54 53.9389 2.36
What is the atomic weight of chromium?

3. Determine the percentage abundance for the two naturally occurring isotopes of copper. The
masses of the isotopes of copper are 63Cu, 62.9298 amu; 65Cu, 64.9278, respectively. The atomic
weight of copper is 63.546 amu.

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4. The element C consist of 92% of atoms with a mass of 28.0 a=u each, 5.00% of atoms with a
mass of 29.0 u each, and 3.00% of atoms with a mass of 30.0 u each. What is the atomic weight
of element X?

5. Silver has two naturally occurring isotopes, one of mass 106.91 amu and the other mass is
108.90 amu. Find the percentage abundances for these two isotopes. The atomic weight of
silver is 107.87 amu.

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CHAPTER 3: IMAGES OF THE INVISIBLE

Historical Background

SIR JOSEPH THOMSON (1899)

 British physicist
 Proposed an early model of the atom, called the plum pudding model
 Described the atom as a sphere of positive charge containing a few negatively charged
particles, called electrons, distributed in the sphere like raisins in a plum pudding.

MAX PLANCK (1900)

 Proposed Quantum Theory of Radiant Energy
 He suggested that radiant energy could be absorbed or given off only in definite quantities
called Quanta

ALBERT EINSTEIN (1905)

 Proposed that Planck’s quanta are discontinuous bits of energy which were later called
Photons

ERNEST RUTHERFORD (1911)

 British physicist
 Learned from experiments that the positive charge in an atom and most of the atom's mass
must be concentrated in a small, central region, called the nucleus
 He proposed that electrons carrying negative charge orbited the nucleus like planets
orbiting in a solar system

NEILS BOHR (1913)

 Danish physicist
 Proposed a theory for the electronic structure of the hydrogen atom that explained the
spectrum for this element
 Discovered that the electrons in atoms had certain values of energy
 Proposed that the energy of an electron was related to the distance at which the electron
orbited the nucleus
 Electrons, therefore, orbited only at certain distances from the nucleus,
distances that corresponded to these allowed energies. He called these
orbits quantized orbits, because they corresponded to these allowed
energies.

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LOUIS DE BROGLIE (1924)

 Proposed that electrons and other particles have wave properties
 Showed that it was possible to assign a wavelength for an electron

WERNER HEISENBERG (1926)

 Proposed uncertainty principle

ERWIN SCHRODINGER (1926)

 Austrian physicist
 Used de Broglie’s regulation to develop an equation that describes the electron terms of its
wave character
 The Schrodinger Equation – basis of Wave Mechanics
 Proposed that electrons do not orbit the nucleus but behave more like waves traveling at
certain distances and with certain energies around the nucleus
 This model proved to be the most accurate
 Physicists no longer try to find an electron's path and position in an atom.
Instead, they use equations describing the electron wave to find the region
of space in which the electron is most likely to be found

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ATOMIC ORBITAL
 Most probable place where a pair of electrons could be found
 Different types of orbital have been described and studied

QUANTUM NUMBERS
 In wave mechanics, the electron distribution of an atom containing a number of electron is
divided into shells.
 The shells, in turn, are thought to consist of one or more subshells, which the electrons occupy.
 Each electron of an atom is identified by a combination of four quantum numbers, which loosely
indicate the following: mainshell, subshell, orbital and electron (spin)

A. PRINCIPAL QUANTUM NUMBER (n)

 Identifies the shell or main energy level to which the electron belongs
 These shells are regions where probability of finding an electron is high
 Values of n are positive integers
n = 1, 2, 3, 4….
 The larger the value of n, the farther the shell is from the nucleus
 N-value signifies the average distance of the electron from the nucleus

B. AZIMUTHAL QUANTUM NUMBER (ℓ)

 Each shell consists of one or more subshells or sub energy levels
 The number of subshells in the principal energy shell is equal to the value
of n
 Each subshell is assigned a subsidiary quantum number, ℓ
 The values of ℓ for the sublevels of a shell are determined by the shell’s value of n
 A letter is used to represent each value of ℓ

FORMULA: ℓ = (n – 1)
Summary/Guide:
n 1 2 3 4 5 6
ℓ 0 1 2 3 4 5….
Spectroscopic
s p d f g h
notation

 The first notations are initial letters of adjectives formerly used to identify spectral lines: sharp,
principal, diffuse and fundamental

EXAMPLE:
1. The subshell with n= 1 and ℓ = 0 is called the 1s subshell
2. The subshell with n= 3 and ℓ = 2 is called the 3d subshell

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C. MAGNETIC ORBITAL QUANTUM NUMBER (mℓ)

 Each subshell consists of one or more orbital
FORMULA: No. of orbital per subshell = 2ℓ + 1
Summary/Guide:
n 1 2 3 4 5 6
ℓ 0 1 2 3 4 5….
Spectroscopic
s p d f g h
Notation
Number of
1 3 5 7 9 11…
Orbital

 Each orbital within a given subshell is identified by a “magnetic quantum number”, mℓ

 Notice that the values of ℓ and mℓ are derived from n

EXAMPLE:
1. For ℓ=0, only permitted value of mℓ is 0 (1s - orbital)
2. For ℓ=2, mℓ values are +2 , +1 , 0, -1 , -2 (5d – orbital)

D. MAGNETIC SPIN QUANTUM NUMBER, ms

 Fourth quantum number
 An electron in an orbital has properties that can be explained by assuming that it spins on its
axis
 Only two directions are possible, hence only two possible spin values
1 1
 ms + 2 and − 2

ORBITAL FILLING AND HUND’S RULE OF MAXIMUM MULTIPLICITY

In considering the way in which the electron in an atom distribute themselves various
orbital, some principles are used as guides:

1. An electron tends to go into orbital of lowest energy levels

 Electrons tend to occupy orbital as close to the nucleus as possible because of
the attraction between the nuclear charge and the electrons
 There is a greater tendency of an electron to occupy 1s-orbital than 2s-
orbital and the 2s-orbital more than the 2p-orbital
 Thus single electron og hydrogen will locate itself in the 1s-orbital

2. At any one energy level, electrons tend to occupy separate orbital

 This is in accordance with Hund’s Rule of Maximum Multiplicity
 Hund’s Rule follows Pauli’s Exclusion Principle
 Thus if there are a number of electrons in an atom with parallel spins, these
electrons must be in different orbital and that only two electrons with opposite
spins can be stable in an orbital

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HUND’S RULE OF MULTIPLICITY

 States that electrons tend to avoid being in the same orbital and a pair of electrons
occupying a pair of equivalent orbital have their spins in parallel in a state of lower energy

PAULI’S ESCLUSION PRINCIPLE

 States that “no two electrons in the same atom can have identical sets of 4 quantum
numbers”

ELECTRON CONFIGURATION
 Electrons are arranged in an atom

DERIVATION OF ELECTRON CONFIGURATION

AUFBAU PRINCIPLE
 A method that is first suggested by Wolfgang Paula
 Aufbau means “building up” in German

METHOD:
 The electron that is added in going from one element to the next is called
differentiating electron
 It makes the configuration of an atom different from that of the atom that
precedes it
 The differentiating electron is added in each step to the orbital of lowest energy
available to it
 It is often useful to employ a mnemonic device in the derivation of the electron
configuration of any given atom

EXAMPLE:
i. Start with hydrogen atom which has one electron in the 1s orbital
ii. By adding one electron, we get the configuration of the atom of the next
element, helium, which is 1s2
iii. In this manner, we go from one element until we derive the configuration of
the atom we desire.

DIAMAGNETIC AND PARAMAGNETIC SUBSTANCES

The number of unpaired electrons in an atom, ion or molecules can be determined by magnetic
measurements.

PARAMAGNETIC SUBSTANCES
 Drawn (or attached) into a magnetic field
 Substances that contain unpaired electrons

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DIAMAGNETIC SUBSTANCES
 Weakly repelled by a magnetic field
 A material is diamagnetic if all the electrons are paired
 Diamagnetism is a property of all matter but it is obscured by the stronger paramagnetic
effect if unpaired electrons are also present

PNEMONICS IN WRITING ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION

NOTE:
1s 2s 3s 4s 5s 6s 7s Maximum number of
2p 3p 4p 5p 6p 7p content every letter
3d 4d 5d 6d 7d
2s
4f 5f 6f 7f
For:
PNEMONICS IN WRITING ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION s=2
p=6
d = 10
1s 2s 3s 4s 5s 6s 7s f = 14
2p 3p 4p 5p 6p 7p  gap by four
3d 4d 5d 6d 7d
4f 5f 6f 7f

PNEMONICS IN WRITING ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION TREND

1s 2s 3s 4s 5s 6s 7s

2p 3p 4p 5p 6p 7p

3d 4d 5d 6d 7d

4f 5f 6f 7f

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CHAPTER 3 FIGURES

Figure 1: Quantum Description of Electrons

Take Note the Parts

Figure 2: Example Electronic Configuration

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CHAPTER 3 EXERCISES:
1. Write the total number of electrons that can have the given quantum number/s pr
designation in an atom.
a) n = 3
b) 3d
c) 4f
d) n = 6 , ℓ = 1
e) 2d
f) n = 3, ℓ = 2, mℓ = -2
g) n = 4, ℓ = 3, mℓ = -3, ms = +1/2
h) 1p

2. List the quantum number of each electron in a Ne atom.

3. Determine the maximum number of electrons that can be housed in the L-shell and in the
N-shell.

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4. How many unpaired electrons are there in a gaseous form of:

a) Mg b) Br c) Li d) Ar

5. Given the following electron configuration:

40Zr : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10
a) How many electrons are there in the outermost energy level?
b) How many empty orbital does Zr have?
c) How many half-filled orbital does Zr have?
d) How many electrons have an ℓ=1?
e) How many electrons have an mℓ= -1?
f) Is Zr paramagnetic or diamagnetic?

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CHAPTER 4: CHEMICAL BONDS: THE TIES THAT BIND

I. INTRODUCTION
While the atomic theory was being developed, various ideas were also entertained about the
combination of atoms that lead to chemical compounds.

CHEMICAL BONDS
 Forces that hold two bonding atoms together

LEWIS STRUCTURE
 Electron-dot formula wherein the valence electrons are shown together with the atomic
symbol

ELECTRONS
 Play key role in chemical bonding

A. LEWIS THEORY
1. Electrons, especially those of the outermost (valence) electronic shell, play a fundamental
role in chemical bonding.
2. In some cases, chemical bonding results from the transfer of one or more electrons from
one atom to another.
 This leads to the formation of positive and negative ions and a bond type known as
ionic.
3. In other cases, chemical bonding results from the mutual sharing of electrons between
atoms.
 This leads to the formation of molecules having a bond type called covalent.
4. The transfer or sharing of electrons occurs to the extent that each atom involved acquires
an especially stable electron configuration. Often, this configuration is that of a noble
(inert) gas, that is, involving eight outer-shell electrons, an octet.

OCTET RULE
 states that elements gain or lose electrons to attain an electron configuration of the
nearest noble gas
 Noble gases have complete outer electron shells, which make them very stable
 Other elements also seek stability, which governs their reactivity and bonding behavior
 Halogens are one electron away from filled energy levels, so they are very reactive

Why Do Elements Follow the Octet Rule?

 Atoms follow the octet rule because they always seek the most stable electron
configuration
 Following the octet rule results in completely filled s- and p- orbitals in an
atom's outermost energy level

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 Low atomic weight elements (the first twenty elements) are most likely to
adhere to the octet rule

B. LEWIS SYMBOL
 The Lewis Symbol of an element consists of the common chemical symbols, surrounded by a
number of dots.
 Leads to a more accurate prediction of chemical formulas when the number of unpaired dots is
maximized before dots are shown as pairs

C. LEWIS ELECTRON DOT DIAGRAM

 Lewis electron dot diagrams may be drawn to help account for the electrons participating in a
chemical bond between elements
 A Lewis diagram counts the valence electrons
 Electrons shared in a covalent bond are counted twice
 For the octet rule, there should be eight electrons accounted for around each atom

D. IONIC BONDING
 Transfer of electrons from one atom to another
 Metal and Non-metal
 Gain or lose electrons and subsequently become electrically charged
 Atom that gains an electron is known as a negative ion
 Atom that loses an electron is known as a positive ion

Example:
Na + Cl → NaCl

For Sodium (Na):

Step 1: Electron Configuration

Atomic Number Electronic Configuration

Symbol

Atomic/Molecular Weight

Na: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1

Step 2: Note last configuration

Na: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1

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Step 3: Note number of electrons in the last shell and its similar shell
(if applicable) is the number of dot/s in an element
Na: 3s 1

For Chlorine (Cl):

Step 1:
Cl: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5

Step 2:
Cl: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5

Step 3:
Cl: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5

 Account also 3s2 because same sila nung shell ng last na

configuration
 Review:
3p5
Shell
 3s2 and 3p5
Same na “3” ang shell
Step 4: Add the number of electrons sa magkaparehas ang shell
2 + 5 =7
Step 5: Conclusion
Means 7 ang electron/dot ng Chlorine (Cl)

PLOTTING:
Na + Cl → NaCl
Let dot of Na = x
Let dot of Cl =

Na + Cl → [ Na ] [ Cl ]

1. An ionic bond results from the transfer of electrons between a metal and a non-metal. In
this transfer, the metal atom becomes a positively charged ion (cation) and the non-metal, a
negatively charged ion (anion).
2. The non-metal gains a sufficient number of electrons to produce an anion with a noble gas
configuration.
3. A formula unit of an ionic compound is the smallest collection of ion electrically neutral.
 The formula unit is obtained automatically when structure is written.

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D. COVALENT BONDING
 Sharing of electrons between two bonded atoms
 Non-metal and Non-metal
 Covalent bonds form between atoms that have a tendency to share valence electrons to
complete their outer shell

TYPES OF COVALENT BONDS

1. Non-polar Covalent Bonds
 Equal sharing of electron clouds between two bond atoms
2. Polar Covalent Bonds
 Unequal sharing of electron clouds between two bonded atoms

3. Coordinate Covalent Bonds

 Also known as Dative or Abnormal covalent bond

CHAPTER 4 EXERCISES:
1. Write the Lewis structure for the following ionic compounds:
A) BaO C) K2S

B) MgCl2

2. Write the Lewis structure corresponding to the different chemical formulas:

A) H2 E) N2

B) Cl2 F) H2O

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C) HCl G) NH3

D) O2 H) HCN

CHAPTER 5: CHEMICAL BONDS: THE LANGUAGE OF CHEMISTRY

I. DEFINITION OF TERMS
1. CHEMICAL SYMBOL
 A chemical abbreviation used to denote the elements
 Consist of one or two letters
 First letter capitalized
 Often derived from the English name or form the foreign name of the element

2. CHEMICAL FORMULA
 Uses a combination of symbols to represent a compound
 Indicates the elements present and relative numbers of atoms of each element in the
compound

3. FORMULA UNIT
 Smallest collection of atoms in which the formula of a compound can be based

4. CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE
 From latin words “nomen” meaning name and “calare” meaning to call
 System of writing formulas and naming compounds
 Standards of nomenclature are established by the IUPAC

IUPAC – International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry

5. CHEMICAL EQUATION
 Shorthand way of expressing a chemical reaction
 Formulas of reactants are written on the left side and formulas of products are written
on the right side

6. SUBSCRIPT
 Indicates the relative number of atoms of an element in a compound

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7. OXIDATION STATE
 Relates the number of electrons an atom losses, gains or shares in combining with other
atoms to form molecules or polyatomic ions
 Combining capacity of an atom but it specifies its change
 Assignment of oxidation states requires applying a set of rules
 once assigned oxidation states are useful in naming compounds and balancing
equations

8. POLYATOMIC ION OR RADICAL

 Consists of two or more atoms taken as one unit with a corresponding charge

9. COEFFICIENTS OF EQUATION
 Used to balance chemical equation

10. VALENCE ELECTRON

 Denotes number of electrons in the outermost energy level
 Indicates the combining power of an atom in a a compound

II. CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE

A. POSITIVE IONS/CATIONS
1. MONOVALENT CATIONS
 Cations formed from metal atoms have the same name as the metal
 Metal name + ion
 Only one charge

NOTE:
 Without charge, atom form
 With charge, ion form

Example:
Na+ Sodium ion
Zn+ Zinc ion
Al3+ Aluminum ion

2. POLYVALENT CATIONS

i. ROMAN NUMERICAL METHOD

 If a metal can form cations of differing charges, the positive charge is given by a roman
numeral in parentheses following the name of the metal
 Metal name (numerical) + ion

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Example:
Fe2+ Iron (II) ion
Fe3+ Iron (III) ion
Cu+ Copper (I) ion
Cu2+ Copper (II) ion

ii. CLASSICAL/OLDER METHOD

 Used in distinguishing between two differently charged ions of metal is to apply the
ending –ous or –ic representing lower and higher charged ions
 Trivial name + ion

NOTE:
 Lower charge - ous
 Higher charge – ic

Example:
Fe2+ Ferrous ion Pb2+ Plumbous ion
Fe3+ Ferric Ion Pb4+ Plumbic ion
Cu+ Cuprous ion
Cu2+ Cupric ion

iii. SPECIAL IONS (CATIONS THAT ARE FROM NONMETALS)

 Cations formed from nonmetal atoms
 Have names that end in –ium

Example:
NHO4+ ammonium ion
NHO3+ hydronium ion

B. NEGATIVE IONS/ANIONS
1. MONOATOMIC/MONOVALENT ANIONS
 Have names formed by dropping the ending of the name of the element and adding the
ending –ide
 Ending of the name changed to ide + ion

Example:
Cl- chloride ion
F- fluoride ion
S2- sulfide ion
O2- oxide ion

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2. OXYANIONS(RADICALS)
 Polyatomic anions containing oxygen have names ending in –ate or –ite
 Group 7 in the periodic table have usually has hypo- and per-

NOTE:
 Normal/Standard/Stable Form -ate ion
 Less oxygen than stable form -ite ion
 Less oxygen than –ite ion - hypo____ite ion
 Greater than stable form - per_____ate ion

Example:
SO42- sulfate ion
SO32- sulfite ion
ClO3- chlorate ion
ClO22- chlorite ion
ClO- hypochlorite ion
ClO4- perchlorate ion

3. HYDROGEN ANIONS
 Anions derived by adding H+ to an oxyanion are named by adding ad a prefix the word
hydrogen or dihydrogen

NOTE:
 bi_____ate ion
 bi_____ite ion
 Hydrogen + anion name

Example:
HCO3- Bicarbonate ion
Hydrogen carbon ion

HSO4- Bisulfate ion

Hydrogen sulfate ion

H2PO4 dihydrogen phosphite

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C. IONIC COMPOUNDS
 Metal + Non-metal
 Cation + Anion
Example:
NaCl Sodium chloride
BaF2 Barium fluoride
K2CO3 Potassium carbonate
Al2O3 Aluminum oxide
Mg3N2 Magnesium nitride

D. BINARY/COVALENT COMPOUNDS
 Non-metal + Non-metal
 Number of atoms indicated by prefix mono, di, tri, tetra…

NOTE:
 Second element has the prefix
Example:
Cl2O5 Chlorine pentaoxide
P2O5 Phosphorus pentaoxide
N2O4 Nitrogen tetraoxide
SO2 Sulfur dioxide
CO2 Carbon dioxide
CO Carbon monoxide
E. ACIDS
 With Hydrogen

1. -IDE ending to HYDRO____IC ACID

Example:
ANION ACID
__________ide hydro ______ic acid

Cl- chloride HCl Hydrochloric acid

I- iodide HI Hydroiodic acid

2. –ATE ending to _____IC ACID

Example:
ANION ACID
__________ate ________ic acid

ClO4- Perchlorate HClO4 Perchloric acid

SO42- Sulfate H2SO4 Sulfuric acid

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3. –ITE ending to _____OUS ACID

Example:
ANION ACID
__________ite ________ous acid

ClO2- chlorite HClO2 chlorous acid

SO32- Sulfite H2SO3 Sulfurous acid

F. BASES
 With OH
Metal/cation name + hydroxide
Example:
CATION HYDROXIDE COMPOUND
3+
Al OH- Aluminum hydroxide
K+ OH- Potassium hydroxide
Ba2+ OH- Barium hydroxide

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III. CHEMICAL EQUATION

𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠 → 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠
Interacting substances New Substances formed

 An arrow is drawn toward the product to indicate that the reactants are yielding the products
 A chemical equation must be balanced

IV. TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Any reaction or chemical change may be classified as one of the following basic reaction types:

1. DIRECT COMBINATION OR SYNTHESIS

 Occurs when two or more substances combine to form a more complex substance

𝐴 + 𝐵 → 𝐴𝐵

a) Metal and nonmetal to form binary compounds or metallic oxide

2𝑀𝑔 + 𝑂2 → 2𝑀𝑔𝑂

2𝑁𝑎 + 𝐶𝑙2 → 2𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙

b) Nonmetal and oxygen form nonmetallic oxide

𝑆 + 𝑂2 → 𝑆𝑂2

𝐶 + 𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑂2

c) Metallic oxide and water form metallic hydroxide (basic anhydride)

𝑀𝑔𝑂 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝑀𝑔(𝑂𝐻)2

𝐶𝑎𝑂 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2

d) Nonmetallic oxide and water form acid oxide (acid anhydride)

𝑆𝑂3 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4

𝑆𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂3

e) Metallic oxide and nonmetallic oxide form salts

𝑀𝑔𝑂 + 𝑆𝑂3 → 𝑀𝑔𝑆𝑂4

𝑁𝑎2 𝑂 + 𝐶𝑂2 → 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3

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2. DECOMPOSITION OR ANALYSIS
 Breaking down of a substance

𝐴𝐵 → 𝐴 + 𝐵

a) Heating of metallic carbonates form carbon dioxide and metal oxides

𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 → 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐶𝑎𝑂

𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 → 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝑁𝑎2 𝑂

b) Electrolysis
2𝐻2 𝑂 → 2𝐻2 + 𝑂2

𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 → 2𝑁𝑎 + 𝐶𝑙2

c) Heating of metallic oxides/hydroxides form metal oxides and water

𝑀𝑔(𝑂𝐻)2 → 𝑀𝑔𝑂 + 𝐻2 𝑂

2𝐿𝑖𝑂𝐻 → 𝐿𝑖2 𝑂 + 𝐻2 𝑂

d) Heating acids form nonmetallic oxides and water

𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 → 𝑆𝑂3 + 𝐻2 𝑂

e) Heating oxides form metals and oxygen

2𝐻𝑔𝑂 → 2𝐻𝑔 + 𝑂2

f) Heating metallic chlorates form metallic chloride and oxygen

2𝐾𝐶𝑙𝑂3 → 𝐾𝐶𝑙 + 3𝑂2

3. SINGLE DISPLACEMENT
 Reaction wherein an element or ion displaces another element or ion in a compound
 Weaker metals will be replaced by active metals

𝐴𝐵 + 𝐶𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 → 𝐶𝐵 + 𝐴
𝐴𝐵 + 𝐶𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 → 𝐴𝐶 + 𝐵
Example:
𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 + 𝐿𝑖 → 𝐿𝑖𝑂𝐻 𝑁𝑎

𝐴𝑔𝑁𝑂3 + 𝐾 → 𝐾𝑁𝑂3 + 𝐴𝑔

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4. DOUBLE DECOMPOSITION OR METATHESIS

 Reaction wherein compounds interchange ions or radicals
 Replacement of the cations or substitution of elements or ions
 Compounds exchange positive and negative parts
 Result in the formation of different compounds

𝐴𝐵 + 𝐶𝐷 → 𝐴𝐷 + 𝐶𝐵
Example:
𝑁𝑎𝑁𝑂3 + 𝐾𝑂𝐻 → 𝐾𝑁𝑂3 + 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻

𝐵𝑎𝑂 + 𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑙2 → 𝐵𝑎𝐶𝑙2 + 𝑀𝑔𝑂

5. NEUTRALIZATION
 Reaction between an acid and a base or an oxide to form salt and water
a) An acid and a base
𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 + 2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 → 𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝑁𝑎2 𝑆𝑂4

b) Metal oxide and an acid

𝑀𝑔𝑂 + 2𝐻𝐶𝑙 → 𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑙2 + 𝐻2 𝑂

c) Nonmetal oxide and a base

𝑆𝑂3 + 𝐿𝑖𝑂𝐻 → 𝐿𝑖𝑆𝑂4 + 𝐻2 𝑂

d) Basic oxide and an acid oxide

𝑀𝑔𝑂 + 𝐶𝑂2 → 𝑀𝑔 + 𝐶𝑂3

e) Ammonia and an acid

𝑁𝐻3 + 𝐻𝐶𝑙 → 𝑁𝐻4 𝐶𝑙

CHAPTER 5 EXERCISES:
1. Write the correct formula for the following:
A) Potassium hydride - _____________________________________

B) Strontium hydroxide - _____________________________________

C) Ferric bromide - _____________________________________

D) Ammonium dichromate - _____________________________________

E) Iron (III) oxide - _____________________________________

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F) Chromium (II) chloride - _____________________________________

G) Hydrosulfuric acid - _____________________________________

H) Zinc acetate - _____________________________________

I) Mercuric nitrate - _____________________________________

J) Bromine pentafluoride - _____________________________________

K) Calcium phosphate - _____________________________________

L) Lead (IV) nitride - _____________________________________

M) Potassium hydrogen sulfate - _____________________________________

2. Name the following compounds:

A) SrO - __________________________________________________________

B) MgCl2 - __________________________________________________________

C) K2CrO4 - __________________________________________________________

D) Cs2SO4 - __________________________________________________________

E) Mg(NO3)2 - __________________________________________________________

F) Cr2O3 - __________________________________________________________

G) TiCl4 - __________________________________________________________

H) ZnS - __________________________________________________________

I) Ca(HCO3)2 - __________________________________________________________ _

J) Co(ClO4)2 - __________________________________________________________

K) K2HPO4 - __________________________________________________________

L) NH4I - __________________________________________________________

M) Mn(OH)2 - __________________________________________________________

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3. Balance the following equations and classify each type:

A) 𝐾𝐶𝑙𝑂3 → 𝐾𝐶𝑙 + 𝑂3
B) 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 + 𝐻3 𝑃𝑂4 → 𝑁𝑎3 𝑃𝑂4 + 𝐻2 𝑂
C) 𝑍𝑛 + 𝐴𝑔𝑁𝑂3 → 𝑍𝑛(𝑁𝑂3 )2 + 𝐴𝑔
D) 𝐶𝑟 + 𝐶𝑙2 → 𝐶𝑟𝐶𝑙3 + 𝐶𝑟(𝐶𝑙2 )3
E) 𝐴𝑙 + 𝐻𝐶𝑙 → 𝐴𝑙𝐶𝑙3 + 𝐻2
4. Write balanced equations for the following reactions:
A) Barium reacts with hydrogen to yield barium hydride.
B) Ammonium chloride reacts with lead (II) nitrate to yield ammonium nitrate and lead (II)
chloride.
C) Mercury (II) oxide when burned forms mercury and oxygen.
D) Hydrofluoric acid reacts with silicon dioxide to yield silicon tetrafluoride and water.

5. Balance each of the following equations after predicting the products and classify each.
A) Copper + Silver nitrate →

B) Magnesium + water →

C) Zinc + Hydrochloric acid →

D) Calcium hydroxide + Sulfuric acid →

E) Potassium + Water →

F) Copper(II) carbonate + heat →

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