Short Notes gh̄al qabel l-eżami

(i.e. affarijiet li tinsa)

MAT 1511: Analytical Geometry

Luke Collins
January 25, 2016

1 Vector Spaces
ˆ A vector, at its simplest, is an object in a multidimensional space which may be added or scaled. This
multidimensional space is usually Rn for some n dimensions.
ˆ One can specify positions in R2 by means of the conventional
  Cartesian
 coordinates (x, y) or the polar
x cos θ
coordinates (r, θ). The relation between them is =r .
y sin θ
ˆ The vector translating positions a to b is given by b − a.
a1 + a2 + · · · + an
ˆ The centroid of any n vectors is their average position; .
n
n
X
ˆ The dot product of two vectors a = (a1 , a2 , · · · , an ) and b = (b1 , b2 , · · · , bn ) is defined a · b := an bn .
r=1

ˆ If two vectors a and b are orthogonal, then a · b = 0.

n
X
ˆ The magnitude of a vector a = (a1 , a2 , · · · , an ), written |a|, is defined |a|2 := a · a = a2n .
r=1

ˆ A unit vector is a vector a where |a| = 1. We denote the fact that a is unit by writing
 â. Note that any
2 cos θ
vector a = |a|â. Also, any unit vector in R is uniquely determined by θ where â = .
sin θ
ˆ The following properties are definitive of Vector Spaces:

(i) Associativity: x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z (vi) Zero Product Property: a · a = 0 ⇔ a = 0

(ii) Commutativity: x + y = y + x and x · y = y · x
(vii) Scalar Properties: λ(x + y) = λx + λy
(iii) Distributivity: a · (b + c) = (a · b) + (a · c)
(λ + µ)x = λx + µx
(iv) Identities: 0 + x = x and 1x = x (λµ)x = λ(µx)
(v) Null Elements: x + (−x) = 0 and 0x = 0 a · (λb) = λ(a · b) = (λa) · b

ˆ From the above properties, one can prove the following useful propositions:
Prop I. |a + b|2 = |a|2 + 2a · b + |b|2 and (a + b)(a − b) = |a|2 − |b|2
Prop II. Pythagoras’ Theorem: |a + b|2 = |a|2 + |b|2 for any orthogonal vectors a and b
Prop III. Cauchy’s Inequality: a · b ≤ |a||b|
Pf. To prove a·b ≤ |a||b| for any two two n-vectors, we can synonymously prove â· b̂ ≤ 1. Note that
for any two real numbers x and y, (x − y)2 ≥ 0; which can be rearranged to show that x2 + y 2 ≥ 2xy.
This means that
a2 + b21 a2 + b22 a2 + b2n
â · b̂ = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + · · · + an bn ≤ 1 + 2 + ··· + n
2 2 2
a21 + a22 + · · · + a2n b21 + b22 + · · · + b2n |â|2 |b̂|2
= + = + =1
2 2 2 2

1
Analytical Geometry MAT 1511

Prop IV. The triangle Inequality: |a + b| ≤ |a| + |b|

Pf.

|a + b|2 = |a|2 + 2a · b + |b|2 (by Prop I.)

2 2
≤ |a| + 2|a||b| + |b| (Cauchy’s Inequality)
2
= (|a| + |b|)

Prop V. a · b = |a||b| cos θ, where θ is the angle between a and b.

   
2 cos α cos β
Pf. Let a and b be any two vectors in R ; i.e. a = |a| and b = |b| . This means
sin α sin β
that
a · b = |a||b|(cos α cos β + sin α sin β) = |a||b| cos(β − α)

Note: This proves that for any a, b ∈ R2 ; a · b = 0 ⇐⇒ a and b are orthogonal.

Also, note that given any three positions O, A and B, the angle AOB b is bisected by the vector
−→ −−→
OA + OB.
ˆ In general, to obtain the x-, y- or z-coordinates of a particular vector, one should dot the vector with i, j
or k respectively.
     
a1 b1 a 2 b3 − a 3 b2
ˆ The cross product of two vectors a and b in R3 is defined a × b = a2  × b2  := a3 b1 − a1 b3 .
a3 b3 a1 b2 − a2 b1
The cross product has the following properties:

(i) Anticommutativity: a × b = −b × a (iii) Null Element: a × a = 0

(ii) Distributivity: a × (b + c) = a × b + a × c (iv) Scalars: a × (λb) = λ(a × b) = (λa) × b

Note that the cross product is not associative.

ˆ The scalar triple product of three vectors a, b and c is defined [a, b, c] := a × b · c. It has the following
properties:

(i) Dot ↔ cross: a · b × c = a × b · c (iv) Null Element: [a, a, b] = 0

(ii) Cyclicity: [a, b, c] = [b, c, a] = [c, a, b] (v) Distributivity: [a+b, x, y] = [a, x, y]+[b, x, y]
(iii) Negative Swapping: [a, b, c] = −[b, a, c] (vi) Scalars: [λa, b, c] = λ[a, b, c]
 
a1 b1 c1 
3

it is also worth noting that for vectors in R , [a, b, c] evaluates to a2 b2 c2 .
a3 b3 c3 
ˆ From the above properties, one can prove the following useful propositions:

Prop VI. a × (b × c) = b(a · c) − c(a · b) and (a × b) × c = b(a · c) − a(b · c)

Pf. Consider the x-coordinate of the LHS:

(a × (b × c)) · i = (−(b × c) × a) · i = −(b × c) · (a × i)

   
b3 c2 − b2 c3 0
= b1 c3 − b3 c1  ·  a3 
b2 c1 − b1 c2 −a2
= a3 b1 c3 − a3 b3 c1 − a2 b2 c1 + a2 b1 c2

2
 Analytical Geometry MAT 1511

The x-coordinate of the RHS can be found similarly:

(b(a · c) − c(a · b)) · i = (b · i)(a · c) − (c · i)(a · b)

= b1 (a1 c1 + a2 c2 + a3 c3 ) − c1 (a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 )
= a2 b1 c2 + a3 b1 c3 − a2 b2 c1 − a3 b3 c1

Which is equal to the x-coordinate of the LHS. The y- and z-coordinates can be determined in a
similar manner to show that they are also equal. Once this formula has been proven, we can use it
to prove the second:
(a × b) × c = −c × (a × b) = b(a · c) − a(b · c)

Prop VII. a × b = |a||b| sin θ n, where θ is the angle between a and b, and n is a vector mutually orthogonal
to a and b.

Pf. Let n be the unit vector of a × b. Note that a × b · a = [a, b, a] = 0, which means that n is
perpendicular to a. Similarly it is perpendicular to b. The magnitude of a × b is given

|a × b|2 = (a × b) · (a × b)
= ((a × b) × a) · b
= (b(a · a) − a(b · a)) · b
= (b · b)(a · a) − (a · b)2
= |a|2 |b|2 − |a|2 |b|2 cos2 θ
= |a|2 |b|2 (1 − cos2 θ)
= |a|2 |b|2 sin2 θ

 
x
Prop VIII. Any vector x = y  can be written as the linear combination x = xi + yj + zk, where i, j and k are
z
the three mutually orthogonal unit vectors situated at the origin. We can also write a vector x as a
linear combination in terms of any other vectors u, v and w in the form x = αu + βv + γw, where
[x, v, w] [u, x, w] [u, v, x]
α= ,β= and γ = .
[u, v, w] [u, v, w] [u, v, w]
Pf. Let x = αu + βv + γw. Crossing the equation with the vector v gives

x × v = αu × v + γw × v

Dotting with w gives

[x, v, w] = αu × v · w = α[u, v, w]
since γw × v · w = γ[w, v, w] = 0. Therefore,

[x, v, w]
α=
[u, v, w]

The other coefficients can be obtained similarly.

ˆ a × b = 0 ⇐⇒ a and b have the same/opposite directions.
   
a b
ˆ A quick way of obtaining a vector perpendicular to a =  b  is to take −a.
c c

ˆ Two vectors are collinear if |a × b| = 0 and three vectors are coplanar if [a, b, c] = 0.

ˆ The following are some useful mensuration formulæ:

– The area of a parallelogram with sides a and b is |a × b|.

3
Analytical Geometry MAT 1511

– The area of a triangle is 12 |a × b|.

 
X 
– The area of an n-gon in R2 with vertex positions ar (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) is given by  ar × ar+1 .
 
 r 
– The volume of a parallelepiped in R3 generated by the three vectors a, b and c is |[a, b, c]|.
– The volume of a tetrahedron in R3 generated by the three vectors a, b and c is 61 |[a, b, c]|. In general,
the volume of any polyhedron
 can be found by splitting
 into tetrahedra. The volume of an n-hedron
n−2
1
 X 
with vertex position ar is  [ar , ar+1 , ar+2 ].

6 r=1


2 Lines
ˆ A straight line in Rn can be defined by the vector equation r(t) := a + tb where t ∈ R and a and b are
fixed vectors.

ˆ Given two lines l1 : r1 (t) = a1 + tb1 and l2 : r2 (s) = a2 + sb2 :

– The angle between l1 and l2 is that between their directions; i.e. b1 and b2 .
– They are parallel if b1 = b2 .
– They are perpendicular if b1 · b2 = 0.

ˆ The following approaches can be taken to solve some common elementary problems involving lines.

a) To find the equation of a line through the positions a and b.

The line is going in the direction b − a, so one can define the line as r(t) = a + t(b − a) = (1 − t)a + tb
b) To determine whether a point is on a given line.
If the point with position x lies on the line r(t) = a + tb, then for some value of t, x = r.

x1 = a1 + tb1 (1)
x2 = a2 + tb2 (2)
x3 = a3 + tb3 (3)

From (1), t = (x1 − a1 )/b1 . If this value of t also satisfies (2) and (3), then x lies on r.
c) To find the point on a line that is closest to another given point.
Let the line be given by r(t) = a + tb̂, and let x be the given point. The distance between any point
on the line is given by the function d(t):

d(t)2 = |a + tb̂ − x|2

= |a − x + tb̂|2
= |a − x|2 + 2t(a − x) · b̂ + t2

∂ 2
This function is at its minimum when d (t) = 0, i.e.
∂t

2(a − x) · b̂ + 2t = 0
⇒ t = (x − a) · b̂

Therefore the closest point is r(t) for t = (x − a) · b̂. Note that the vector x − r for this value of t is
perpendicular to the line.
d) To find the reflection of a point x in a line l.
The reflection of x in l has the same distance from l as x does. This means that its position is
x + 2(r − x), where r is the position of the closest point to x on l (this can be found by the procedure
explained in (c) above).

4
Analytical Geometry MAT 1511

e) To find the point of intersection of two lines in R3 (if it exists).

Let the two lines be given r(t) = a + tb and r̃(s) = ã + sb̃. The point of intersection (if it exists)
must satisfy r = r(t) = r̃(s) for some particular t, s ∈ R. As equations,

a1 + tb1 = ã1 + sb̃1 (1)

a2 + tb2 = ã2 + sb̃2 (2)
a3 + tb3 = ã3 + sb̃3 (3)

This is a system of three linear equations for r and s. If ∃ s, t which satisfy all (1), (2) and (3), then
the lines intersect; and t (or s) could be used to find r. If there is no solution, then the lines do not
intersect and are said to be skew.
f) To find the distance between two lines.
This can be achieved in two ways.
Method 1. The distance between two general points on two lines is given by

d2 (t, s) = |r1 (t) − r2 (s)|2

We can minimise the distance between the two lines by first finding the value tmin for which r1 is
closest to r2 , and then the value smin for which r2 is closest to r1 (tmin ).
∂
To minimise t, we must solve d(t, s) = 0 for tmin obtaining an expression solely in terms of s. We
∂t
∂ 2
then substitute this expression in d2 (s, t), making it d2 (s). Then by solving d (s) = 0, we will
∂s
2
achieve smin . Substituting these two values in d (t, s), we will find the minimum distance between
r1 and r2 ; i.e. d(tmin , smin ).
Method 2. Let the smallest distance be achieved by the points y1 = a1 + tb1 and y2 = a2 + sb2 on
r1 and r2 respectively. The vector y1 − y2 must be perpendicular to both lines, so

(y1 − y2 ) · b1 = 0
and (y1 − y2 ) · b2 = 0

Solving these two equations, t and s can be found and substituted into d(t, s).
g) To find the line equidistant from two intersecting lines r1 and r2 .
This might seem complicated, but is in fact quite a simple problem. Let the two intersecting lines
be r1 (t) = a1 + tb1 and r2 (s) = a2 + sb2 and the required line be r(λ) = a + λb. First, we find
the point of intersection by solving the system r1 (t) = r2 (s). This point is a. Then, b is given by
b1 + b2 .

3 Linear Transformations
ˆ A square n × n matrix maps vectors from Rn −
7 → Rn .
 
| | |
ˆ The notation a1 a2 · · · an  denotes a matrix whose columns are the vectors a1 , a2 , . . . , an . A
| | |
similar notation is used for covectors.
ˆ A transformation A is applied to a vector x to give x̃ by the following equation: Ax = x̃.
 −1  
 −1   | | | | | |
a b 1 d −b 1
ˆ Note that = and that a b c = b × c c × a a × b.
c d ad − bc −c a [a, b, c]
| | | | | |
ˆ There are four main types of transformation matrices:
 
λ 0 0
(1) A diagonal matrix is a matrix (aij )n×n where aij = 0 when i 6= j; for example,  0 µ 0 is a
0 0 η
diagonal matrix. These scale the x-, y- and z-axes separately by λ, µ and η respectively, but keep

5
Analytical Geometry MAT 1511

their directions. If one of the entries on the diagonal is negative, then it reflects the axis also. This
mapping (x 7−→ −x) is called an inversion.
(2) A rotation matrix
 is a matrix which
 rotates vectors about some axis by an angle θ. For example,
cos θ − sin θ 0
the matrix Rθ =  sin θ cos θ 0 is a rotation about the z-axis.
0 0 1
2
(3) 
A reflection matrix  is a matrix which reflects in a plane (or line in R ). The matrix Pθ =
cos θ sin θ 0
 sin θ − cos θ 0 is a reflection in the plane which makes an angle θ/2 with the x-axis.
0 0 1
 
| | |
Note that Pθ = Rθ i −j k.
| | |
 
a b
(4) A skew matrix is a matrix of the basic type where b 6= 0. Examples of skew transformations
0 c
     
1 1 1 −1 1 1
include shears , skew reflections and projections .
0 1 0 −1 0 0
Between them, these basic types can multiplicatively generate any other matrix.
ˆ An isometry is a mapping of the type x 7−→ Ax + b such that the lengths and angles of relative vectors
are preserved; i.e. |Ax| = |x| for all vectors x.
ˆ A matrix M preserves lengths and angles of vectors ⇐⇒ its column vectors are mutually orthogonal and
unit ⇐⇒ MM> = I.
ˆ An orthogonal matrix M is a matrix where det M = ±1 and where MM> = M> M = I. If M is an
orthogonal n × n matrix, we write M ∈ O(n). All isometries are orthogonal.
ˆ Isometries with det M = 1 are rotations and those with det M = −1 are reflections. If M is an n × n
rotation, we write M ∈ SO(n).
ˆ To find the axis of rotation/reflection of a matrix, we must find the vector which remains unaffected by
the transformation. This is, by definition, the eigenvector of the matrix. Therefore we must solve the
equation Ax = λx for λ = det A.
ˆ Some general notes on eigenvectors:

– If A is an n × n matrix, then a non-zero n-vector x such that Ax = λx for some λ ∈ R is said to

be an eigenvector of A, corresponding to the eigenvalue λ. The eigenvalues of a matrix A can be
determined by solving pA (λ) = 0, where pA (λ) is the characteristic polynomial of A; given by

pA (λ) = det(A − λIn )

Corresponding eigenspaces of each λ are given by

Eλ = {x : (A − λIn )x = 0}

– If λ ∈ R, it is associated with a direction which is scaled.

– If the eigenvalues are complex (C) conjugate pairs, they are associated with the rotation of a plane.
– A repeated eigenvalue without the full complement of eigenvectors is associated with a shear.
– The eigenvalues of an isometry must be ±1 or eiθ .
– Any 2 × 2 symmetric matrix A always has  two real
 eigenvalues, λ and µ, whose corresponding
| |  
> λ 0
eigenvectors are u and v. The matrix P := u v is orthogonal and D := P AP =
 .
0 µ
| |
Obtaining D is called diagonalisation.

6
Analytical Geometry MAT 1511

4 Conic Sections
ˆ Curves whose Cartesian equation is in the form ax2 + bxy + cy 2 + dx + ey + f = 0 are called conics,
because their resulting graph traces a section of a cone:

Circle Ellipse Parabola Hyperbola

 
x
ˆ We can write the general equation for a conic in vector form: x> Ax + b> x + f = 0, where x = ,
    y
a b/2 d
A= and b = . Note that A is symmetric.
b/2 c e
ˆ Identifying Conics. To identify a conic by its Cartesian equation, we must first transform it into a
standardised form by the following 2 procedures.
1. Rotation of axes. One can eliminate the mixed term bxy by diagonalising A, i.e. performing the
process explained in the previous section. Recall that D = P> AP. Let the vector X = P> x so that
x = PX (This is because P is orthogonal so P> = P−1 ). Therefore

x> Ax = (PX)> A(PX)

= X> P> APX
= X> DX
= λX 2 + µY 2

The substitution x = PX eliminates the xy term since D is diagonal. This substitution must also
be used to convert the linear x and y terms to X and Y .
2. Translation of axes. After rotating the axes, one can then eliminate the linear terms in x and y by
completing the square:

λX 2 + µX = λ(X + b)2 − c
= λX̃ 2 + c

where the change of variable X̃ = X + b represents a translation in the X direction. This procedure
can be repeated for the terms Ỹ and Y .
ˆ Classifying conics. When we perform the above procedure, we first rotate the axes to eliminate the xy
term:
axis rotation
ax2 + bxy + cy 2 + dx + ey + f = 0 7−−−−−−−−→ λX 2 + µY 2 + αX + βY + f = 0

We can then perform axis translation which eliminates the X and Y terms, but this is only possible if λ
and µ are nonzero.
Case I. λ 6= 0 ∧ µ 6= 0
We can get rid of the X and Y terms by translation, giving

λX̃ 2 + µỸ 2 + γ = 0

7
Analytical Geometry MAT 1511

Now if γ 6= 0, we get separate types of conics, depending on the signs of λ and µ:

i. Circle: X̃ 2 /A2 + Ỹ 2 /A2 = 1 iii. Hyperbola: X̃ 2 /A2 − Ỹ 2 /B 2 = 1

ii. Ellipse: X̃ 2 /A2 + Ỹ 2 /B 2 = 1 iv. Nothing: X̃ 2 /A2 + Ỹ 2 /B 2 = −1

If γ = 0, we get

v. Two Intersecting lines: X̃ = ±AỸ vi. A single point: X̃ = 0 = Ỹ

Case II. λ 6= 0 ∧ µ = 0
In this case we can only eliminate the X term by completing the square, but we can use the Y term
to eliminate the constant (by letting Ỹ = Y + c). This gives

vii. Parabola: X̃ 2 = ±AỸ

But it could be the case that there is no Y term either. This gives

viii. Nothing: X̃ 2 = −A2 x. One line: X̃ = 0

ix. Two Parallel lines: X̃ = ± A

Case III. λ = µ = 0
In this case, the equation is a simple straight line.
ˆ Note that for all the cases detailed above, an equation obtained by interchanging X̃ with Ỹ will still result
in the same conic, merely reflected in the line Ỹ = X̃.