VOCATIONAL TRAINING PROJECT REPORT

INDIAN OIL CORPORATION LIMITED

(An ISO 9002:14001 Certified Company)
BARAUNI REFINERY

Period of Training: - 02TH June 2018 TO 16ST July 2018

Submitted To: - Submitted By:

Mrs. Krishna Kumari
Assistant Manager L&D
IOCL Barauni Refinery
Vishal Kumar
University Roll:15EPCME758
BRANCH:- Mechanical Engg.
COLLEGE:-POORNIMA COLLEGE OF ENGG.
Sitapura,Jaipur
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It’s a great pleasure to be part of Indian Oil Corporation Limited as a Vocational
Training which is the world’s 96th largest public corporation according to the
fortune Global 500 list and top companies in the India by fortune India 500 in
2014.
This acknowledgement is way by which I am getting the opportunity to show the
deep sense of gratitude and obligation to all the people who provided me with
inspiration and guidance during the preparation of this training report.

My special thanks to, Ms Krishna Kumari, AM(L&D),Mechanical Dept. and all

staff members of training department , fire & safety & CISF personnel’s for the
supervision and support the have given which truly helped the progression and
smoothness of the vocational training .
My grateful thanks also goes to for their invaluable guidance kind cooperation

and inspiration during entire course of this training.

I would like to thanks technicians for helping me during the training and for
shedding light on the practical aspects of Mechanical Engineering in Barauni

Refinery.

Last but not the least I would like to thank my friends and employees of Barauni

Refinery for their wise ideas throughout the training period.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION TO THE COMPANY

 COMPANY HISTORY
 IOCL MAJOR PROJECTS
 DOWN THE MEMORY LANE
 OIL REFINERY
 STRUCTURE OF THE REFINERY DEPARTMENTS JOB
 OPERATION
 MAJOR UNTS
 MAJOR PRODUCTS
 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF REFINERY PROCESS

FIRE AND SAFETY

 SOME COMMON CAUSES OF FIRE

 PREPARATION

THERMAL POWER PLANT OVERVIEW

PLANT INSTRUMENTATION
 FIELD -(pressure,level,temperature,flow,vibration sensors)
 CONTROL ROOM(DCS,PLC)
 CONTROL VALVE (Control Action,Types)
 OPEN AND CLOSE LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM
Company History
The Indian Oil Corporation Ltd. operates as the largest company in India interms
of turnover and is the only Indian company to rank in the Fortune"Global 500"
listing. The oil concern is administratively controlled by India's Ministry of
Petroleum and Natural Gas, a government entity that owns just over 90 percent
of the firm. Since 1959, this refining, marketing, and international trading
company served the Indian state with the importanttask of reducing India's
dependence on foreign oil and thus conserving valuable foreign exchange. That
changed in April 2002, however, when the Indian government deregulated its
petroleum industry and ended Indian Oil's monopoly on crude oil imports. The
firm owns and operates seven of the17 refineries in India, controlling nearly 40
percent of the country's carcinogenicity.
IndianOil Major Projects
IndianOil continues to lay emphasis on infrastructure development. Towardsthis
end, a number of schemes have been initiated with increasing emphasis on
project execution in compressed schedules as per world benchmarkingstandards.
Schemes for improvement and increased profitability throughdebottlenecking /
modifications / introduction of value added products arebeing taken up
in addition to grassroots facilities.
Project systems have been streamlined in line with ISO standards.
 GRASSROOTS REFINERY PROJECT AT PARADIP (ORISSA)
 RESIDUE UPGRADATION AND MS/HSD QUALITY IMPROVEMENT PROJECT AT
GUJARAT REFINERY
 NAPHTHA CRACKER AND POLYMER COMPLEX AT PANIPAT (HARYANA)
 MS QUALITY UPGRADATION PROJECT BARAUNI REFINERY (BIHAR)
 5)MS QUALITY UPGRADATION PROJECT AT GUWAHATI REFINERY (ASSAM)
 6)MS QUALITY UPGRADATION PROJECT AT DIGBOI REFINERY (ASSAM)
 7)DADRI-PANIPAT R-LNG SPUR PIPELINE
 PANIPAT REFINERY EXPANSION FROM 12 MMTPA TO 15 MMTPA
 9)BRANCH PIPELINE FROM KSPL, VIRAMGAM TO KANDLA
 10)DIESEL HYDRO-TREATMENT (DHDT) PROJECT AT BONGAIGAON
REFINERY(ASSAM)
 11)MS QUALITY UPGRADATION PROJECT AT BONGAIGAON REFINERY
(ASSAM)
 12)PARADIP-NEW SAMBALPUR-RAIPUR-RANCHI PIPELINES
 13)DE-BOTTLENECKING OF SALAYA-MATHURA CRUDE PIPLEINE
 14)INTEGRATED CRUDE OIL HANDLING FACILITIES AT PARADIP

Down the memory lane

1958- Indian Refineries Ltd. formed in August with Mr. Feroze Gandhi asthe
Chairman.
1959-
Indian Oil Company Ltd. established on 30th June 1959 with Mr. S.Nijalingappa as
the Chairman.
1960-MV Uzhgorod carrying the first parcel of 11,390 tonnes of Dieselfor
IndianOil docked at Pir Pau Jetty in Mumbai on 17thAugust1960.Agreement for
supply of Kerosene and Diesel signed with the thenUSSR
1962-Construction of Barauni Refinery commenced

1964-Barauni Refinery commissioned

Indian Refineries Ltd. merged with Indian Oil Company with effectfrom 1st
September, 1964, and Indian Oil Company renamed asIndian Oil Corporation Ltd.
1967- Haldia Barauni product pipeline commissioned.
1965-Barauni-Kanpur product pipeline and Koyali- Ahmedabadproduct
pipeline commissioned1998-Haldia-Barauni crude oil pipeline completed.
 INTRODUCTION

Barauni refinery in the Bihar state of India was built in collaboration with the
Soviet Union at a cost of Rs. 49.4 crores and went on stream in July, 1964. The
initial capacity of 2 MMTPA was expanded to the 3 MMTPA by 1969.The present
capacity of this refinery is 6 MMTPA. A Catalyst Reformer Unit (CRU) was also
added to the refinery in 1997 for production of unleaded motor spirit. Projects
are also planned for meeting future fuel quality requirements.
Barauni Refinery was built in collaboration with Russia and Romania, situated 125
kilometers (78miles) from Patna. It was built with an initial cost of Rs 49.40 crores.
Barauni Refinery was commissioned in 1964 with a refining capacity of 2 million
metric tonnes per annum(MMTPA) and it was dedicated to the Nation by the
then Union Minister for Petroleum, professor Humayun Kabir in January
1965.After de-bottlenecking, revamping and expansion project, its capacity today
is 6 MMTPA. Matching secondary processing facilities such as Residue Fluidized
Catalytic Cracker (RFCC), Diesel Hydro Treating (DHDT), Sulphur Recovery Unit
(SRU) have been added. These state of the art eco-friendly technologies have
enabled the refinery to produce environment friendly green fuels complying with
international standards.
Barauni Refinery was initially designed to process low sulphur crude oil (sweet
crude) of Assam. After establishment of other refineries in the Northeast, mainly
Assam crude is unavailable for Barauni. Hence, sweet crude is being sourced from
African, South East Asian and Middle East countries like Nigeria, Iraq and
Malaysia. The refinery receives crude oil by pipeline from Paradip on the East
Coast via Haldia. With various revamps and expansion projects at Barauni
Refinery, capability for processing high- sulphur crude has been added. High
sulphur crude oil (sour crude) is cheaper than low-sulphur crudes, thereby
increasing not only the capacity but also the profitability of the refinery.
 OIL REFINERY

An oil refinery or petroleum refinery is an industrial process plant where crude oil
is processed and refined into more useful products such as petroleum naphtha,
gasoline, diesel fuel, asphalt base, heating oil, kerosene, and liquefied petroleum
gas. Oil refineries are typically large, sprawling industrial complexes with extensive
piping running throughout carrying streams of fluids between large chemical
processing units. In many ways, oil refineries use much of the technology and can
be thought of as types of chemical plants. The crude oil feedstock has typically
been processed by an oil production plant. There is usually an oil depot (tank
farm) at or near an oil refinery for the storage of incoming crude oil feedstock as
well as bulk liquid products.
An oil refinery is considered an essential part of the downstream side of the
petroleum industry.

STRUCTURE OF THE REFINERY DEPARTMENTS JOB

1. PRODUCTION DEPARTMENT -All the production related issues in the refinery
2. ENGINEERING SERVICE DEPARTMENT-Encompasses Mechanical, Civil, Electrical
and Instrumentation disciplines. Engineering & material procurement related
activities for modification/process schemes/projects.
3. INTERNAL AUDIT-Independent appraisal activity within the organization for the
review of operations as a service to management.
4. INSPECTION DEPARTMENT-Provide technical backup to Production &
Maintenance department in terms of unit operation, monitoring & inspection of
static equipment’s such as furnace, vessels, lines, column to prevent failures and
recommends necessary repairs.
5. MEDICAL DEPARTMENT-Provide the highest quality health care and service to
Refinery employees and their families through unique assessment and counseling
expertise, organizational skills and knowledge of systems and resources.
6. FIRE & SAFETY DEPARTMENT-Reduce losses in terms of Machine, Men,
Material and Environment because of fire, accident, near miss incident, dangerous
occurrence and disaster by assisting in development of safe/ suitable working
environment.
7. TECHNICAL SERVICE-Provide technical backup to production department for
monitoring unit operations, fuel & loss, utilities and chemical. Monitors refinery
emissions/effluent to meet environmental regulation.
8. QUALITY CONTROL DEPARTMENT-Monitors the quality of initial to final
product i.e. from crude to each extracted product (MS, Diesel etc.)

OPERATION

Basic Process
Raw or unprocessed crude oil is not generally useful in industrial applications,
although “light sweet” (low viscosity, low sulphur) crude oil has been used directly
as a burner fuel to produce steam for the propulsion of seagoing vessels. The
lighter elements, however, from explosive vapours in the fuel tank are therefore
hazardous, especially in warships. Instead, the hundreds of different hydrocarbons
molecules in crude oil are separated in a refinery into components which can be
used as fuels, lubricants, and as feedstock in petrochemical processes that
manufacture such products as plastics, detergents, solvents, elastomers and fibres
such as nylon and polyesters.
Petroleum fossil fuels are burned in internal combustion engines to provide
power for ships, automobiles, aircrafts engines, lawn mowers, chainsaws and
other machines. Different boiling points allow the hydrocarbons to be separated
by distillation. Since the lighter liquid products are in great demand for use in
internal combustion engines, a modern refinery will convert heavy hydrocarbons
and lighter gaseous elements into these higher value products.
Oil can be in a variety of ways because it contains hydrocarbons of varying
molecular masses, forms and lengths such as paraffin’s, aromatics, naphthenic (or
cycloalkanes), alkenes, dines and alkynes. While the molecules in crude oil include
different atoms such as sulphur and nitrogen, the hydrocarbons are the most
common form of molecules, which are molecules of varying lengths and
complexity made of hydrogen and carbon atoms and a small number of oxygen
atoms. The differences in the structure of these molecules account for their
varying physical and chemical properties and it is this variety that makes crude oil
useful in a broad range of applications.
Once separated and purified of any contaminants and impurities, the fuel or
lubricant can be sold without further processing. Smaller molecules such as
isobutene and propylene or butylenes can be recombined to meet specific octane
requirements by processes such as alkylation, or less commonly, demonization.
Octane grade of gasoline can also be improved by catalytic reforming which
involves removing hydrogen from hydrocarbons producing compounds with
higher octane ratings such as aromatics. Intermediate products such as gasoline
can even be reprocessed to break heavy, long-chained oil into a lighter short-
chained one, by various forms of cracking such as fluid catalytic cracking, thermal
cracking and hydro cracking. The final step in gasoline production is the blending
of fuels with different octane ratings, vapour pressures and other properties to
meet product specifications.
Oil refineries are large scale plants processing about a hundred thousand to
several hundred thousand barrels of crude oil a day. Because of high capacity,
many of the units operate continuously, as opposed to processing in batches, at
steady state or nearly steady state for months to years. The high capacity also
makes process optimization and advanced process control very desirable.
 MAJOR COMPONENTS:

ATMOSPHERIC AND VACUUM UNIT (AVU):In IOCl, Barauni Refinery, there are
three Atmospheric and Vacuum Unit (AVU) units. AVU-1 and AVU-2 are for low
sulfur crude oil and AVU-3 can process both low and high sulfur crude oil. AVU is
the mother unit of any refinery. Crude is first of all processed in this unit. It
operates at atmospheric pressure for fractionation into Gas, LPG, Naphtha, ATF,
Kerosene, Diesel, and Reduced Crude Oil (RCO)

VDU:RCO is fractionated in Vacuum Distillation Unit (VDU) to get VGO and raw
lube cuts. The raw streams from AVU are treated in Hydro treatment, Reforming,
Isomerization and Fluid Catalytic Cracking plants to obtain components of
finished saleable products.
RFCCU:VGO is treated in RFCCU to get LPG, Propylene, Petrochemical feedstocks
and components for motor spirit and diesel. Raw lube cuts are treated for
removal of aromatics and wax and are hydro treated to get lube oil base stock.

COKER:The short residue obtained from AVU fractionator bottom is partly treated
in Coker unit to get lighter value added products along with raw petroleum coke.
Vacuum residue can also be treated to extract out De-asphalted Oil (DAO) and
the residue left is asphalt. DAO is treated in aromatic extraction unit, dewaxing
unit and hydrofinishing unit to obtain bright stock which is used for Lube oils and
grease manufacture. Asphalt and vacuum residue can also be utilized for
production of bitumen or as fuel for furnaces and boilers.
From RFCCU, olefins, propylene, various aromatics and naphtha are obtained
which are used as raw materials for polypropylene and aromatic petrochemical
plant. The Raw Petroleum Coke (RPC) is used for generation of power and
calcined petroleum coke.

SULPHUR PLANT:Sulphur present in crude and various streams is converted to

H2S during processing. In Sulphur plant, it is converted to elemental sulphur
which is sold as by-product. This also helps in environmental protection.
HYDROGEN PLANT:Hydrogen plant is installed to produce hydrogen for meeting
the requirement of various hydro treatment processes.
Distillation:Distillation is a method of separating the components of a solution
which depends on distribution of the substance between gas and liquid phases.
Its basic principle is that when a solution of two or more components is boiled,
then lighter the component more easily it vaporizes. This results in the vapor
above the liquid being relatively rich in the lighter, morevolatile material. The
liquid is left with proportionally more of the less volatile or heavier liquid.
Fractional distillation: Fractional distillation is the separation of a mixture into its
component parts, or fractions, such as in separating chemical compounds by their
boiling point by heating them to a temperature at which one or more fractions of
the compound will vaporize. It is a special type of distillation. Generally the
component parts boil at less than 25 °C from each other under a pressure of one
atmosphere (atm). If the difference in boiling points is greater than 25 °C, a
simple distillation is used. In most cases, the distillation is operated at a
continuous steady state. New feed is always being added to the distillation
column and products are always being removed. Unless the process is disturbed
due to changes in feed, heat, ambient temperature, or condensing, the amount of
feed being added and the amount of product being removed are normally equal.
This is known as continuous, steady-state fractional distillation. Industrial
distillation is typically performed in large, vertical cylindrical columns known as
"distillation or fractionation towers" or "distillation columns" with diameters
ranging from about 65 centimeters to 6 meters and heights ranging from about
6 meters to 60 meters or more. The distillation towers have liquid outlets at
intervals up the column which allow for the withdrawal of different fractions or
products having different boiling points or boiling ranges. By increasing the
temperature of the product inside the columns, the different hydrocarbons are
separated. The "lightest" products (those with the lowest boiling point) exit from
the top of the columns and the "heaviest" products (those with the highest
boiling point) exit from the bottom of the column.
FLOW PROCESS DIAGRAM
 MAJOR PRODUCTS

Petroleum products are usually grouped into three categories: -

 Light Distillates (LPG, Gasoline, Naphtha)

 Middle Distillates(Kerosene, Diesel)

 Heavy Distillates and residuum (Heavy Fuel Oil, Lubricating Oils, Wax,
Asphalt).

This classification is based on the way crude oil is distilled and separated into
fractions (called distilled and residuum) as in the above
 Liquefied Petroleum Gas(LPG)

 Gasoline(also known as petrol)

 Kerosene and related Jet Aircraft Fuels

 Naphtha

 Kerosene and related Jet Aircraft Fuels

 Diesel Fuel

 Lubricating Oils

 Paraffin Wax

 Asphalt and Tar

 Petroleum Coke

 Sulphur

Oil refineries also produce various intermediate products such as Hydrogen, Light
Hydrocarbons, Reformate and Pyrolysis Gasoline. These are not usually
transported but instead are blended or processed further on- site. Chemical
plants are thus often adjacent to oil refineries. For example, Light Hydrocarbons
are steam-cracked in an Ethylene plant and the produced Ethylene is polymerized

to produce polythene.
 FIRE AND SAFETY

FIRE PREVENTION IN THE WORKPLACE

It is your responsibility to be aware of the causes of fire and to prevent fires from

occurring in the workplace.

SOME COMMON CAUSES OF FIRE

 Arson or Deliberate Ignition

Poor housekeeping leading to excessive storage of combustible materials
or the accumulation of waste.
 Electrical
Misuse of electrical equipment such as: Overloading Sockets and Adaptors
obstructing vents on electrical equipment. Using equipments for the
purposes for which it was not designed, using faulty and defective
equipments. Leaving appliances switched on when not in use.
 Smoking
Smoking in unauthorized areas and the careless disposal of smoking

materials.

The Fire Safety will ask the following when they arrive

 Is everyone accounted for

 Where is the fire
 What is the nature of the fire
 How does we get to the fire(are there any locked doors etc)

 Are there any hazards in the vicinity of the fire

PREPARATION

Installers, maintenance personnel and any other contractors or persons required

to work on roofs should ensure the workplace and access to the egress to the
workplace are safe before work starts, including
  Assessment of wind and weather
 Organization of:
 Fall prevention equipment
 Crane placement schedule
 Access/egress
 Personal protective equipment on site
 Specific instructions for the workers
 Protection of portable electrical plant by Residual Current Devices (RCD’s)
 Means of rescuing persons from safety harnesses following Arrested falls.
 Inspection of existing roofs for
 Integrity of existing safety mesh
 Structural soundness, including inspection from below
 Fragile roofs or fragile panels in solid sheet roofs (including identifying and
highlighting them

THERMAL POWER PLANT OVERVIEW

The power plant is heart of the refinery, any interruption in the plant will affect

the operation of the production units resulting in huge losses.

The basic function of the power plant is

 To ensure uninterrupted power generation and distribution as per

requirement
 To ensure uninterrupted steam generation and distribution as per
requirement
 To ensure uninterrupted generation and distribution of utilities like DM

Water, Instrument Air and Industrial Air as per requirement.

 PLANT INSTRUMENTATION

I. FIELD

II. CONTROL ROOM

Field consists of different types of sensors based on the following:

1. LEVEL

2. FLOW

3. TEMPERATURE

4. VIBRATION

5. PRESSURE

Control Room consists of two types of system:

1.PLC(Programmable Logic Control)

2.DCS(Distributed Control System)
PLC:A programmable logic controller (PLC), or programmable controller is an
industrial digital computer which has been ruggedisedand adapted for the
control of manufacturing processes, such as assembly lines, or robotic devices, or
any activity that requires high reliability control and ease of programming and
process fault diagnosis.PLC is generally employed for safety requirement.
DCS:A distributed control system (DCS) is a computerised control system for a

process or plant, in which autonomous controllers are distributed throughout the

system, but there is central operator supervisory control.

 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

RTD:Resistance thermometers, also called resistance temperature

detectors (RTDs), are sensors used to measure temperature. Many RTD elements
consist of a length of fine wire wrapped around a ceramic or glass core but other
constructions are also used. The RTD wire is a pure material, typically platinum,
nickel, or copper. The material has an accurate resistance/temperature
relationship which is used to provide an indication of temperature. As RTD
elements are fragile, they are often housed in protective probes.

RTDs, which have higher accuracy and repeatability, are slowly

replacing thermocouples in industrial applications below 600 °C.

Three-wire configuration

In order to minimize the effects of the lead resistances, a three-wire configuration

can be used. In this method the two leads to the sensor are on adjoining arms.
There is a lead resistance in each arm of the bridge, so that the resistance is
cancelled out if the two lead resistances are accurately the same. This
configuration allows up to 600 metres (2,000 feet) of cable.
As in the case with the 2-wire connection, the usual setting is with R2 = R3, and
R1 around the middle of the range of the RTD.

THERMOCOUPLE:
A thermocouple is an electrical device consisting of two
dissimilar conductors forming electrical junctions at differing temperatures. A
thermocouple produces a temperature-dependent voltage as a result of
the thermoelectric effect, and this voltage can be interpreted to measure
temperature. Thermocouples are a widely used type of temperature sensor.

PYROMETER:A pyrometer is a type of remote-sensing thermometer used to

measure the temperature of a surface. Various forms of pyrometers have
historically existed. In the modern usage, it is a device that from a distance
determines the temperature of a surface from the spectrum of thethermal
radiation it emits, a process known as pyrometry and sometimes radiometry.
 LEVEL MEASUREMENT

Accurate continuous measurement of volume of fluid in containers has always

been a challenge to industry. This is even more so in the nuclear station
environment where the fluid could be acidic/caustic or under very high
pressure/temperature.

P = Pressure (Pa)

S = Weight density of the liquid (N/m3) = ρg

H = Height of liquid column (m)

ρ = Density (kg/m3)

g = acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2)

OPEN TANK MEASUREMENT:The simplest application is the fluid level in an open

tank. Figure 2 shows a typical open tank level measurement installation using a
pressure capsule level transmitter

If the tank is open to atmosphere, the high-pressure side of the level transmitter
will be connected to the base of the tank while the low-pressure side will be
vented to atmosphere. In this manner, the level transmitter acts as a simple
pressure transmitter. We have:

Phigh = Patm + SH ⋅
Plow = Patm

Differential pressure ∆ P = Phigh - Plow = SH ⋅

CLOSED TANK MEASUREMENT:

Should the tank be closed and a gas or vapour exists on top of the liquid, the
gas pressure must be compensated for. A change in the gas pressure will cause a
change in transmitter output. Moreover, the pressure exerted by the gas phase
may be so high that the hydrostatic pressure of the liquid column becomes
insignificant.

We have:

Phigh = Pgas + SH ⋅

Plow = Pgas

∆ P = Phigh - Plow = SH ⋅

The effect of the gas pressure is cancelled and only the pressure due to the
hydrostatic head of the liquid is sensed.
FLOAT DISPLACER TYPE
 FLOW MEASUREMENT

To measure the rate of flow by the differential pressure method, some form of
restriction is placed in the pipeline to create a pressure drop. Since flow in the
pipe must pass through a reduced area, the pressure before the restriction is
higher than after or downstream. Such a reduction in pressure will cause an
increase in the fluid velocity because the same amount of flow must take place
before the restriction as after it. Velocity will vary directly with the flow and as the
flow increases a greater pressure differential will occur across the restriction. So
by measuring the differential pressure across a restriction, one can measure the
rate of flow.

Orifice Plate: The orifice plate is the most common form of restriction that is
used in flow measurement. An orifice plate is basically a thin metal plate with a
hole bored in the center. It has a tab on one side where the specification of the
plate is stamped. The upstream side of the orifice plate usually has a sharp, edge.
The figure shows a representative orifice plate.

When an orifice plate is installed in a flow line (usually clamped between a pair of
flanges), increase of fluid flow velocity through the reduced area at the orifice
develops a differential pressure across the orifice. This pressure is a function of
flow rate.
Venturi Tubes: For applications where high permanent pressure loss is not
tolerable, a venturi tube can be used. Because of its gradually curved inlet and
outlet cones, almost no permanent pressure drop occurs. This design also
minimizes wear and plugging by allowing the flow to sweep suspended solids
through without obstruction.

Flow Nozzle: A flow nozzle is also called a half venturi. Figure below shows a
typical flow nozzle installation.

The flow nozzle has properties between an orifice plate and a venturi. Because of
its streamlined contour, the flow nozzle has a lower permanent pressure loss than
an orifice plate (but higher than a venturi). The differential it generates is also
lower than an orifice plate (but again higher than the venturi tube). They are also
less expensive than the venturi tubes. Flow nozzles are widely used for flow
measurements at high velocities. They are more rugged and more resistant to
erosion than the sharp-edged orifice plate. An example use of flow nozzles are
the measurement of flow in the feed and bleed lines of the PHT system.

ROTAMETER:

A rotameter consists of a tapered tube, typically made of glass with a 'float'(a

shaped weight, made either of anodized aluminum or a ceramic ), inside that is
pushed up by the drag force of the flow and pulled down by gravity. The drag
force for a given fluid and float cross section is a function of flow speed squared
only, see drag equation.

A higher volumetric flow rate through a given area increases flow speed and drag
force, so the float will be pushed upwards. However, as the inside of the
rotameter is cone shaped (widens), the area around the float through which the
medium flows increases, the flow speed and drag force decrease until there
is mechanical equilibrium with the float's weight.
 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

Pressure Measurement:
Pressure is the force exerted by gases and liquids due to their weight, such as the
pressure of the atmosphere on the surface of the earth and the pressure
containerized liquids exert on the bottom and walls of a container. Pressure units
are a measure of the force acting over a specified area. It is most commonly
expressed in pounds per square inch (psi), sometimes pounds per square foot
(psf) in English units, or pascals (Pa or kPa) in metric units.
Pressure = force/area

Bourdon Tubes
Bourdon tubes are circular-shaped tubes with oval cross sections.The pressure of
the medium acts on the inside of the tube. The outward pressure on the oval
cross section forces it to become rounded. Because of the curvature of the tube
ring, the bourdon tube then bends as indicated in the direction of the arrow.

Due to their robust construction, bourdon are often used in harsh environments
and high pressures, but can also be used for very low pressures; the response
time however, is slower than the bellows or diaphragm.
Diaphragms
A diaphragm is a circular-shaped convoluted membrane that is attached to the
pressure fixture around the circumference (refer to Figure 4). The pressure
medium is on one side and the indication medium is on the other. The deflection
that is created by pressure in the vessel would be in the direction of the arrow
indicated.

Diaphragms provide fast acting and accurate pressure indication.However, the

movement or stroke is not as large as the bellows.

Bellows:
Bellows type elements are constructed of tubular membranes that are
convoluted around the circumference (see Figure 3). The membrane is attached
at one end to the source and at the other end to an indicating device or
instrument. The bellows element can provide a long range of motion (stroke) in
the direction of the arrow when input pressure is applied.
Differential Pressure Transmitters

Differential Pressure Transmitters Most pressure transmitters are built around the
pressure capsule concept. They are usually capable of measuring differential
pressure (that is, the difference between a high pressure input and a low pressure
input) and therefore, are usually called DP transmitters or DP cells. Figure 6
illustrates a typical DP transmitter. A differential pressure capsule is mounted
inside a housing. One end of a force bar is connected to the capsule assembly so
that the motion of the capsule can be transmitted to outside the housing. A
sealing mechanism is used where the force bar penetrates the housing and also
acts as the pivot point for the force bar. Provision is made in the housing for
high- pressure fluid to be applied on one side of the capsule and low-pressure
fluid on the other. Any difference in pressure will cause the capsule to deflect and
create motion in the force bar. The top end of the force bar is then connected to
a position detector, which via an electronic system will produce a 4 - 20 ma
signal that is proportional to the force bar movement.
 VIBRATION MEASUREMENT

Eddy-Current sensors operate with magnetic fields. The driver creates an

alternating current in the sensing coil in the end of the probe. This creates an
alternating magnetic field with induces small currents in the target material; these
currents are called eddy currents. The eddy currents create an opposing magnetic
field which resists the field being generated by the probe coil. The interaction of
the magnetic fields is dependent on the distance between the probe and the
target. As the distance changes, the electronics sense the change in the field
interaction and produce a voltage output which is proportional to the change in
distance between the probe and target. The target surface must be at least three
times larger than the probe diameter for normal, calibrated operation; otherwise,
special calibration my be required.

Measuring the dynamics of a continuously moving target, such as a vibrating

element, requires some form of noncontact measurement.Eddy-Current sensors
are useful whether the environment is clean or dirty and the motions are
relatively small. Lion Precision eddy-current sensors also have high frequency
response (up to 80 kHz) to accommodate high-speed motion.The change in
voltage is callibraated to know the level of deviation.
 CONTROL VALVE

A control valve is a valve used to control fluid flow by varying the size of the
flow passage as directed by a signal from a controller. This enables the direct
control of flow rate and the consequential control of process quantities such
as pressure, temperature, and liquid level.

In automatic control terminology a control valve is termed a "final control

element".

The opening or closing of automatic control valves is usually done

by electrical, hydraulic or pneumatic actuators. Normally with a modulating valve,
which can be set to any position between fully open and fully closed, valve
positioners are used to ensure the valve attains the desired degree of opening.

Air-actuated valves are commonly used because of their simplicity, as they only
require a compressed air supply, whereas electrically-operated valves require
additional cabling and switch gear, and hydraulically-actuated valves required
high pressure supply and return lines for the hydraulic fluid.

The pneumatic control signals are traditionally based on a pressure range of 3-

15psi (0.2-1.0 bar), or more commonly now, an electrical signal of 4-20mA for
industry, or 0-10V for HVAC systems. Electrical control now often includes a
"Smart" communication signal superimposed on the 4-20mA control current, such
that the health and verification of the valve position can be signalled back to the
controller.

An automatic control valve consists of three main parts in which each part exist
in several types and designs:

 Valve actuator - which moves the valve's modulating element, such as ball
or butterfly.
 Valve positioner - Which ensures the valve has reached the desired degree
of opening. This overcomes the problems of friction and wear.
 Valve body - in which the modulating element, a plug, globe, ball or
butterfly, is contained
CONTROL ACTION:

Taking the example of an air-operated valve, there are two control actions
possible:

 "Air or current to open" - The flow restriction decreases with increased

control signal value.
 "Air or current to close" - The flow restriction increases with increased
control signal value.

There can also be failure to safety modes:

 Air or control signal failure to close" - On failure of compressed air to the

actuator, the valve closes under spring pressure or by backup power.
 Air or control signal failure to open" - On failure of compressed air to
actuator, the valve opens under spring pressure or by backup power.

The modes of failure operation are requirements of the failure to safety process
control specification of the plant. In the case of cooling water it may be to fail
open, and the case of delivering a chemical it may be to fail closed.

VALVE POSITIONER

As the pneumatic operation of valves, compared to motorised operation, has cost

and reliability advantages, pneumatic actuation is still an industry standard. To
allow the construction of hybrid systems, where the 4-20 mA is generated by the
controller, but enables the use of pneumatic valves, a range of current to
pressure (I to P) converters are available from manufacturers. These are usually
located locally to the control valve and convert 4-20 mA to 3-15 psi (or (0.2 - 1.0
bar). This signal is then fed to the valve actuator or more commonly, a pneumatic
positioner. This is a dedicated controller with a pneumatic nozzle and
flapper arrangement and a mechanical linkage to sense the valve actuator
movement. This ensures that problems of friction are overcome and the valve
control element moves to the desired position, by comparing the actual valve
regulating element position against the desired value; hence the name
"positioner". As a mechanical linkage is used for this, the positioner has to be
mounted on the valve body. A positioner also allows the use of higher air
pressures for valve actuation, which is particularly useful with cylinder type valve
actuators.

TYPES OF VALVES:

Mostly three types of valves are used in iocl:

1.BALL TYPE

2.GLOBE TYPE

3.BUTTERFLY TYPE

BUTTERFLY TYPE:

A butterfly valve is a valve that isolates or regulates the flow of a fluid. The
closing mechanism is a disk that rotates.

Operation:Operation is similar to that of a ball valve, which allows for quick shut
off. Butterfly valves are generally favored because they cost less than other valve
design, and are lighter weight so they need less support. The disc is positioned in
the center of the pipe. A rod passes through the disc to an actuator on the
outside of the valve. Rotating the actuator turns the disc either parallel or
perpendicular to the flow. Unlike a ball valve, the disc is always present within the
flow, so it induces apressure drop, even when open.
BALL VALVE:

A ball valve is a form of quarter-turn valve which uses a hollow, perforated and
pivoting ball to control flow through it. It is open when the ball's hole is in line
with the flow and closed when it is pivoted 90-degrees by the valve
handle.[1] The handle lies flat in alignment with the flow when open, and is
perpendicular to it when closed, making for easy visual confirmation of the
valve's status.

Ball valves are durable, performing well after many cycles, and reliable, closing
securely even after long periods of disuse. These qualities make them an
excellent choice for shutoff and control applications, where they are often
preferred to gates andglobe valves, but they lack their fine control in throttling
applications.

The ball valve's ease of operation, repair, and versatility lend it to extensive
industrial use, supporting pressures up to 1000 barand temperatures up to 752 °F
(400 °C), depending on design and materials used. Sizes typically range from 0.2
to 48 inches (0.5 cm to 121 cm). Valve bodies are made of metal, plastic, or metal
with a ceramic; floating balls are often chrome plated for durability.
GLOBE VALVE:

A globe valve, different from ball valve, is a type of valve used for
regulating flow in a pipeline, consisting of a movable disk-type element and a
stationary ring seat in a generally spherical body.

Globe valves are named for their spherical body shape with the two halves of
the body being separated by an internalbaffle. This has an opening that forms
a seat onto which a movable plug can be screwed in to close (or shut) the valve.
The plug is also called a disc or disk. In globe valves, the plug is connected to
a stem which is operated by screw action using a handwheel in manual valves.
Typically, automated globe valves use smooth stems rather thanthreaded and are
opened and closed by an actuator assembly.
 CONTROL SYSTEM
The range requirement in instrumentation ranges from a simple display of a
single temperature value to multi sensor data acquisition and logging or from a
simple controller to multi zone communicating control systems. Other
requirements may include transmission and signal conditioning, analogue
recording, alarm monitoring and communications. Fundamentally, instrumentation
will be in one of the two forms, open loop or closed loop. Open loop is where
there is no system feedback and therefore no control action; the measuring
instrument(s) exerts no influence over the process behavior other than possible
alarm action, which may result in “power-down”. Closed loop is where there is
direct or indirect feedback from the instrument to the process energy
temperature regulator resulting in control of the process temperature.
Closed loop System