SS21403

ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY
AND CHEMODYNAMIC

By:
DR. MOH PAK YAN
PhD. (Manchester), MMIC

1
 CHAPTER 1
SOME BASICS OF CHEMISTRY

2
 WHAT IS CHEMISTRY?

Science of all substances including their

composition, properties they exhibit,
and the changes they undergoes when
they react with other substances

3
 PART 1
MATTER
Elements, Compounds &
Their Compositions

4
 THE PROPERTIES OF MATTER
❖ Matter is the stuff of universe that has mass and
occupies space
❖ Properties means the characteristics that give
each substance its unique identity
❖ Physical properties can be observed or measured
without changing the composition of matter.
Physical properties are used to observe and
describe matter. Physical properties include:
appearance, texture, colour, odour, melting
point, boiling point, density, solubility,
polarity, and many others.
5
 THE PROPERTIES OF MATTER
❖ Matter is the stuff of universe that has mass and
occupies space
❖ Properties means the characteristics that give
each substance its unique identity
❖ Physical properties can be observed or measured
without changing the composition of matter.
Physical properties are used to observe and
describe matter. Physical properties include:
appearance, texture, colour, odour, melting
point, boiling point, density, solubility,
polarity, and many others.
6
❖ Physical changes are changes affecting the form
of a matter, but not its chemical composition.
Physical changes are used to separate mixtures
into their component compounds, but can not
usually be used to separate compounds into
chemical elements or simpler compounds.

7
When ice melt, several physical properties have
changed, such as hardness, density, and ability to
flow. But the sample has not changed its
composition
8
❖ Chemical properties of a substance are those that
the substance shows as it interacts with, or
transforms into other substances such as
flammability, corrosiveness etc.
❖ Chemical change or chemical reaction of a
substance involving the change of its
composition through a series of chemical
reaction with one or more kinds of substance

9
When an electric current passes through water, the
water decomposes into two other substances, H2
and O2
10
 CLASSIFICATION OF MATER

Pure
substances

Elements Compounds

Atoms Molecules Ions Molecules

11
❖ Atom is the fundamental
unit of a chemical substance.
An atom is the smallest Two oxygen
possible particle of a atoms
substance.

❖ Molecule is a combination of
two or more atoms held
together in a specific shape One oxygen
by attractive forces molecule

12
❖ Element is the substance
that contains only one
type of atom

❖ Two types of element

A. atom of an element
B. molecule of an element

13
❖ Compound is a substance
that composed of two or
more elements which are
chemically combine

❖ Mixture is a group of two

or more elements and/or
compounds that are
physically intermingled

14
 COMPOSITION OF THE ATOM

Particle (Symbol) Charge Mass (amu)

Proton (p+) +1.062 x 1019 C 1.0073

Nucleon
Neutron (n0) Neutral 1.0087

Electron (e-) -1.062 x 1019 C 5.486 x 10-4

Note: 1 amu = 1.66054 x 10-24 g

15
 NAME & SYMBOL OF ELEMENT

❖ Some common elements:

Element Symbol Element Symbol

Aluminum Al Iodine I
Bromine Br Magnesium Mg
Calcium Ca Nickel Ni
Carbon C Nitrogen N
Chlorine Cl Oxygen O
Chromium Cr Phosphorus P
Fluorine F Silicon Si
16
❖ Elements with symbols from earlier names:
Element Symbol Former Name
Antimony Sb Stibium
Copper Cu Cuprum
Gold Au Aurum
Iron Fe Ferrum
Lead Pb Plumbum
Mercury Hg Hydragrum
Potassium K Kalium
Silver Ag Argentum
Sodium Na Natrium
Tin Sn Stannum
Tungsten W Wolfram
17
 ISOTOPES
❖ All atoms of an element have the same
number of protons (or atomic number) in the
nucleus
❖ Isotopes of an elements are atoms that have
different numbers of neutrons (N) but have the
same number of protons (Z)
❖ All isotopes of an element have nearly
identical chemical behavior
❖ An atom of a specific isotope is called a
nuclide. Therefore, an atom of 14C is called
“carbon-14 nuclide”
18
PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS

Z
X
A

19
 Z
X
A
X – Symbol of an atom/element
A – Mass number of an atom ( p+ + n0)
Z – Atomic number of an atom (p+)

N=A-Z

20
21
❖ The boxes lie in order of increasing atomic
number as you move from left to right
❖ The boxes are arranged into a grid of periods
(horizontal rows) and groups (vertical column)
❖ The eight A groups contains the main-group, or
representative, elements
❖ The ten B groups contain the transition elements
❖ The Lanthanides and actinides are fit between
the Group 3B (3) and Group 4B(4)

22
Metals, Metalloids, and Nonmetals

23
❖ Elements in the same Group have similar
chemical properties and elements in a same period
have different chemical properties
❖ Group 1A(1), except for hydrogen, consist of
the alkali metals, and Group 2A(2) consist of the
alkaline earth metals. Both group of metals are
highly reactive elements
❖ The halogens in the Group 7A(17), are highly
reactive non-metals
❖ Group 8A(18) is a group of noble gases that are
relatively unreactive non-metals

24
 COMPOUNDS FORMATION

❖ Interaction of valent electron of two or more

elements may form a compound

❖ Transferring electrons from the atoms of one

element to those of another will form ionic
compound

❖ Sharing electrons between atoms of different

elements will form covalent compounds

25
Ionic Compound:
❖ Ionic compounds are composed of ions, it
typically forms when a metal react with a
nonmetal
❖ Metal atom loses a certain number of its
electrons and becomes cation
❖ Nonmetal atoms gain the electrons lost by the
metal atoms and becomes anion
❖ Metal cation and nonmetal anion are therefore
attract each other through electrostatic forces
and form the ionic compounds

26
Formation of Ionic Compound:

27
Covalent Compound:
❖ Covalent compounds form when element share
electron, which usually occurs between nonmetals
❖ The distance between the two atoms form a
covalent bond
❖ Why atoms react to form compounds?
❖ To attain the same number of electrons as the atom of
the nearest noble gas

28
Formation of Covalent Compound:

29
COMPOUNDS: FORMULA, NAMES AND MASSES

❖ Chemical formulas:
• Molecular formulas – indicates the actual
numbers and types of atoms in a molecule

• Empirical formulas – give only the smallest

possible whole number ratio of each atom in a
molecule

• Structural formulas – show the composition,

position as well as the bonding of the atoms in
a molecule
30
❖ Names and Formula of ionic compounds:
• The name of the cation (metal ion) is the same as
the metal
• The name of the anion takes the root of the
nonmetal name and adds the suffix –ide

31
 Common Monoatomic Ions
Cations Anions
Charge Formula Name Charge Formula Name
H+ hydrogen
H- hydride
Li+ lithium
F- fluoride
+1 Na+ sodium -1
Cl- chloride
K+ potassium
Br- bromide
Cs+ cesium
I- iodide
Ag+ silver

Mg2+ magnesium

Ca2+ calcium
O2- oxide
+2 Sr2+ strontium -2
S2- sulfide
Ba2+ barium
Zn2+ zinc
Cd2+ cadmium
+3 Al3+ aluminum -3 N3- nitride
32
 Metals With Several Oxidation States

Element Ion Formula Systematic Name Common Name

Copper Cu+1 copper(I) cuprous

Cu+2 copper(II) cupric
Co+2 cobalt(II)
Cobalt
Co+3 cobalt (III)
Fe+2 iron(II) ferrous
Iron Fe+3 iron(III) ferric
Mn+2 manganese(II)
Manganese
Mn+3 manganese(III)
Sn+2 tin(II) stannous
Tin
Sn+4 tin(IV) stannic

33
 Molecular Masses
Compound name
Formula (g/mol)
Titanium (IV) oxide TiO2 79.9
Sodium hydroxide NaOH 40.0
Carbon dioxide CO2 28.0
Hydrogen peroxide H2O2 34.0
Carbonate ion CO32- 60.0
Phosphate ion PO43- 95.0
Hydroxide ion OH- 13.1

34
 PART 2
STOICHIOMETRY
The Mole, Chemical Formulas &
Equations, and Chemical Reaction

35
COUNTING OBJECTS OF FIXED RELATIVE MASS

12 red marbles @ 7g each = 84 g 6.022 x 1023 atoms Fe = 55.85 g

12 yellow marbles @4g each=48 g 6.022 x 1023 atoms S = 32.07 g

36
 THE MOLE
❖ The mole (abbreviated mol) is the SI unit for amount of
substance. It is defined as the amount of a substance that
contains the same number of entities as there are atoms
in exactly 12 g of C-12.
❖ This amount is 6.022 x 1023 (to four significant figures)
The number is called Avogadro’s number and is
denoted as NA
❖ The atomic mass of those element expressed in amu is
numerically the same as the mass of 1 mole of atoms of
the element expressed in grams
❖ The molecular mass (or formula mass) of a compound
expressed in amu numerically the same as the mass of 1
mole of the compound expresses in grams 37
 Oxygen
32.00 g

Water
18.02 g
CaCO3
100.09 g
Copper
63.55 g
38
Summary of Mass Terminology:
Term Definition Unit

Isotopic mass Mass of an isotope of an amu

element
Atomic mass Average of the masses of the amu
(also called naturally occurring isotopes of an
atomic weight) element weighted according to their
abundance
Molecular (or Sum of the atomic masses of the amu
formula) mass atoms (or ions) in a molecule (or
(also called molecular formula unit)
weight)
Molar mass (M) Mass of 1 mole of chemical entities g/mol
(also called gram- (atoms, ions, molecules, formula
molecular weight) units)

39
INTER-CONVERTING MOLES, MASS, AND
NUMBER OF CHEMICAL ENTITIES

no. of grams
Mass (g) = no. of moles ×
1 mol

1 mol
No. of moles = mass (g) ×
no. of grams

6.022 × 1023 entities

No. of entities = no. of moles ×
1 mol

1 mol
No. of moles = no. of entities ×
6.022 × 1023 entities
40
MASS PERCENT OF ELEMENT IN A COMPOUND

Mass % of element Y :

no. of Y atom in formula  atomic mass of Y (amu)

 100
fomula mass of the compound (amu)

moles of Y in formula(mo l)  molar mass of Y (g/mol)

 100
mass (g) of 1 mol of compound

41
 Exercise 1.1

1. Calculate the formula weight of sucrose,

C12H22O11. What is the mass of 3−mol sucrose
in grams?
2. Calculate the formula weight of (a) Al(OH)3,
and (b) CH3OH
3. Calculate the percentage of oxygen, by mass,
in Ca(NO3)2
4. Calculate the mass percent of carbon in
glucose (C6H12O6)

42
 CHEMICAL EQUATION

❖ Chemical equation is a statement in formulas

that expresses the properties and quantities of
the substances involved in a chemical or
physical change
❖ The left side of an equation shows the amount
of each substance (reactant) present before
change/reaction
❖ The right side shows the amounts and types of
products (sometimes called yield) after change

43
❖ A chemical equation must be balance; the amount
(mol or mass) of each type of atom must be the same at
both side of the equation
❖ Follows directly from the mass laws and the
atomic theory
(a) Atoms cannot be created, destroyed, or
change in chemical reaction
(b) Compounds are formed when atoms of
more than one element combine. Identical
compounds has the same relative number
and kind of atoms

44
Law of Conservation of Mass:
The total mass of substances does not change
during a chemical reaction.

yield
reactant 1 + reactant 2 product

total mass = total mass

calcium oxide + carbon calcium carbonate
dioxide

CaO + CO2 CaCO3

56.08g + 44.00g 100.08g

45
46
❖ Two (mol) hydrogen gases react with one
(mol) oxygen gas will yield 2 (mole) water

2H2 (g) + O2 (g) 2H2O (l)

therefore,
2 mol H2 ≡ 1 mol O2 ≡ 2 mol H2O

❖ Symbol ≡ or ≅ means stoichiometrically

equivalent

47
Symbols in the chemical equation:

Symbol Use
+ Means ‘react with’ or ‘and’. Used between
reactants and products
→ Means ‘yields’ or ‘produces’; separates
reactants from products
(g) Indicates a gaseous reactant or product
(s) Indicates a solid reactant or product
(l) Indicates a liquid reactant or product
(aq) Indicates the reactant or product is in water
Means reversible reaction or equilibrium
Resonance between two molecules
Resonance:
❖ The carbonate ion has three contributing structure
Lewis diagrams. Together, they show the resonance
of the carbonate ion

49
More arrows:

50
51
52
53
54
 Exercise 1.2

1. Balance the following chemical equations:

(a) H2 + I2 → HI
(b) O2 → O3
(c) C2H6 + O2 → CO2 + H2O

55
 STOICHIOMETRY
❖ Silberberg et al., 2003:
Study of the mass-mole-number relationships
of chemical formulas and reactions

❖ Brown et al., 2003:

Study of the relationships among the
quantities of reactants and products involved
in chemical reactions

❖ Olmsted and Williams, 2002:

The amount relationships among chemical
substances undergoing reactions
56
Examples of Chemical Equation:

C3H8 (g) + 5O2 (g) 3CO2 (g) + 4H2O (l)

57
Chemical Reaction: Limiting Reactant

❖ Is a reactant that determine the amount of

product yielded when that reactant is
completely consumed

❖ Another reactant is in excess

58
Limiting Reactant

59
 Exercise 1.3

1. The SO2 produced in copper recovery reacts

in air with oxygen and forms sulfur trioxide.
This gas, in turn, reacts with water to form a
sulfuric acid solution that falls as rain or
snow. Write a balanced overall equation for
this process

60
 SOLUTION CONCENTRATION

❖ A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or

more substances with no definite composition.
❖ Solution consist of a smaller amount of one
substance (called solute) that dissolved in a larger
amount of another substance (called solvent).

❖ Solvent is the component of a solution that is present

in the greatest amount. It is the substance in which
the solute is dissolved.
❖ Solute is defined as the substance that is dissolved in
a solution. For solutions of fluids, the solvent is
present in greater amount than the solute.
61
❖ Standard solutions are solutions of known
concentration. A standard solution is one
against which a solution of unknown
concentration can be compared to determine
the concentration of the latter.
❖ Concentration of a solution is the measurement
of the amount of solute that in a solvent
❖ Molarity (M) expresses the concentration of
solution in units of moles of solute per liter of
solution

62
Preparation of solution:
❖ A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or
more substances with no definite composition.

❖ solvent: is the component of a solution that is

present in the greatest amount. It is the
substance in which the solute is dissolved.
❖ solute: is defined as the substance that is
dissolved in a solution. For solutions of fluids,
the solvent is present in greater amount than
the solute.

63
Mass concentration:

mass of solute (g)

Mass conc., C =
liter of solution (L)

Molarity:

moles of solute (mol)

Molarity, M =
liter of solution (L)

64
Percent by mass:

mass of solute (g)

w/w =  100%
mass of solution (g)

❖ Percent by mass is equivalent to parts per hundred

❖ Is it harmful if the mercury and lead contaminated

in food are 0.0002 and 0.04%wt respectively? Can it
be neglected ? No !!! It is enough to destroy our
neuron system.

65
Parts per million:

mass of solute (g)

w/w =  10 6 ppm
mass of solution (g)

mass of solute (mg)

=
mass of solution (kg)

mass of solute (mg)

=
volume of aqueous solution (L)

66
therefore (see page 56):
0.0002
0.0002 % Hg =  10 6 ppm
100

= 2 ppm

0.004
0.004 % Pb =  10 6 ppm
100
= 40 ppm

67
Normality:
❖ There is a relationship between normality, N
and molarity, M. Normality expresses the
number of equivalents of solute in the solution

❖ Normality expresses the concentration of a

solution based on the number of equivalent of a
solute per liter of solution

68
 no. of equivalent (eq)
Normality (N) =
liter of solution (L)

where,
wt. of solute (g)
no. of equivalent =
equivalent wt. (g/eq)
mole of solute (mol)
=
equivalent mole (mol/eq)

molecular wt. of solute (g)

equivalent wt. =
change in oxidation number (eq)

mole of solute (mole)

equivalent mole =
change in oxidation number (eq)
69
 Molarity (mol/L)
Normality (N) =
equivalent mole (mol/eq)

70
 (H+)2 SO42- + 2 (K+ OH-) K2SO4 + 2H2O
2 mol H+ ≡ 2 mol OH- ≡ 1 mol ≡ 2 mol

❖ Therefore, in any kind of chemical reaction, 1 N

of a reactant (e.g. OH-) will completely react
with another 1 N of reactant (e.g. H+)
❖ What is the normality of 1−M H2SO4 solution?
(Answer: 2.00 N)

71
Solution Stoichiometry:

72
Preparation of standard solution:
❖ confirm the unit of solution concentration
❖ determine the volume of the solution needed
❖ calculate the amount of solute required
❖ check the solvent
❖ Weight desired amount of solute (with high purity)
using calibrated analytical balance
❖ Put 50-60% of the solvent to the appropriate
calibrated volumetric flask
❖ Transfer the solute to the volumetric flask and rinse
the weighing pan with some solvent
❖ Add appropriate amount of solvent to the calibration
mark and mix well by tilting the flask
73
74
Diluting samples and standards:

❖ A sample is to be diluted with a solvent to

make it less concentrated.
❖ Comment equation used for dilution:

M1 V1 = M2 V2

❖ Dilution factor, D is used to obtain the sample

concentration after concentration of diluted
sample was identified.
V 2 M1
Dilution factor, D = =
V1 M 2
75
Calculate the concentration of salt in water with the unit
(i) molL-1 and (ii) ppm when 58.45 g sodium chloride
(NaCl) is dissolved in the volumetric flask as follow:

1.0 M
2.0 M
4.0 M
10 M/
5.85x105 ppm

76
A stock solution was prepared by dissolving 584.5 g of
NaCl in 100-mL volumetric flask. Calculate the
concentration of diluted NaCl solution if 10 mL of the
solution was mixed with water to obtain 250 mL of salt
solution, an so on:

10 mL 10 mL 10 mL
D3 = 100 D2 = 50 D1 = 25

8x10-4 M / 100 M
46.76 ppm

Determine the dilution factor, D for each preparation.

77
Dilution is carried out using following procedures:
❖ Accurately measure a known volume of
standard solution with a calibrated pipette,
❖ Place the known volume into an appropriate
calibrated volumetric flask,
❖ Add appropriate amount of solvent to the
calibration mark and mix well.
❖ For highly concentrated solution (e.g. with 100
or 1000 ppm of solute in water) , multiple
dilutions shall be used to minimize errors.

78
79
More about dilution factor:
❖ Dilution factor:
D = D1 × D2 × D3 × …

❖ Concentration of sample
= Concentration of diluted sample x Dilution factor

80
Dilution changes the concentration of the solution but it
will not reduce the quantity of the solute.
Quantity of the solute remains the same after dilution.

100 mL 1000 mL

81
Because

M1 V1 = M2 V2 = number of mole
where,
V1 adalah isipadu (L) yang dipipet
V2 adalah isipadu (L) akhir

The volume must be divided by 1000 in the unit of V

is in milliliter (mL)

M1 V1 M2 V2
= = number of mole
1000 1000
82
How can we get the concentration of an unknown sample
from its the diluted solution?
Use previous analogy to help you (slide #72).

10 mL

100 mL 1000 mL

83
Concentration of a solution/sample:

M1 = (M2 V2) / V1
atau
M1 = M 2 D

In general:

Ma = Mf D
where
Mf = concentration of final diluted solution
Ma = concentration of the original sample
D = dilution factor = D1 × D1 × D1…

84
Illustration of dilution errors:
Say we want to prepare 100 mL of 1-ppm metal nickel
solution from a 1000-ppm stock solution; and the pipetting
error is 0.05 mL
If we prepare directly from the 1000 ppm stock solution,
first we calculate volume of stock solution needed, V1:
V1 = (M2 V2) / M1
= (1 ppm)(100 mL)/(1000 ppm)
= 0.10 mL (to be pipetted)
With 0.05 mL of pipetting error, the V1 = 0.15 mL
The concentration of the diluted sample becomes:
M2 = (M1 V1) / V2
= (1000 ppm)(0.15 mL)/(100 mL)
= 1.5 ppm (our targeted concentration is 1 ppm) 85
If we prepare 1-ppm through multiple dilution approach
(i.e.: 1000ppm → 100ppm → 10ppm → 1ppm):
To prepare 100 mL of 100-ppm Ni solution in water, first
we calculate the volume of stock solution needed, V1:
V1 = (M2 V2) / M1
= (100 ppm)(100 mL)/(1000 ppm)
= 10 mL (to be pipetted)
With 0.05 mL of pipetting error, the V1 = 10.05 mL
The concentration of the diluted sample becomes:
M2 = (M1 V1) / V2
= (1000 ppm)(10.05 mL)/(100 mL)
= 100.5 ppm (we targeted 100 ppm)
86
Then from M2 (100.5 ppm), we prepare 100 mL of 10-ppm
Ni solution. The calculated V2 is:
This is the
V2 = (M3 V3) / M2 calculated M2

= (10 ppm)(100 mL)/(100 ppm)

= 10 mL
With 0.05 mL of pipetting error, the V2 = 10.05 mL
The concentration of the diluted sample becomes:
M3 = (M2 V2) / V3
= (100.5 ppm)(10.05 mL)/(100 mL)
= 10.10 ppm (targeted 100 ppm)

87
Then from M3 (10.10 ppm), we prepare 100 mL of 1-ppm
Ni solution
This is the
V3 = (M4 V4) / M3 calculated M3
= (1 ppm)(100 mL)/(10 ppm)
= 10 mL (calculated volume)
With 0.05 mL of pipetting error, the V3 = 10.05 mL
The concentration of the diluted sample becomes:
M4 = (M3 V3) / V4
= (10.10 ppm)(10.05 mL)/(100 mL)
= 1.0151 ppm (our target is 1 ppm)

Error = (0.0151 / 1) x 100% = 1.51%

88
 Exercise 1.4

1. What is the molarity of H2SO4 in solution if 49.0

g of H2SO4 is present in 250 mL of solution?

2. A concentrated laboratory acid contains 35.0%

HCl by mass. It has a density of 1.18 g/mL.
What is its molarity?

3. What volume of 11.3 M HCl must be mixed

with water to make 1.00 L of 0.555 M HCl?

89
4. How many grams of H2SO4 should be added
to water to produce 200 mL of 0.1 N H2SO4
solution?
5. What is the molarity of 0.10 N Na2CrO4 which
is used in a titration with the half reaction of:
CrO42- + 3e- + 4H2O → Cr3+ + 8OH- [Ans:
0.033 M]
6. Calculate the normality of a solution of 4.202
grams of HNO3 in 600. mL of solution. [Ans:
0.111 N HNO3]

90
7. What is the weight of solid NaOH required to
prepare 250 mL of a 1.0 M aqueous solution?
8. What volume of 6.00 M HCl is needed to
prepare 250 mL of 1.50 M HCl?

91