Polymer Matrix Composites-Review

Application of Polymer Based Composite Materials in Transportation
Application of Polymer Based

Composite Materials in
Transportation
Anna G. Koniuszewska* and Jacek W. Kaczmar
Wrocław University of Technology, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Chair of
Foundry, Polymers and Automation, Laboratory of Plastics, 50-370 Wrocław, Poland
Summary
The purpose of this paper is to present the latest applications of fibre-reinforced
polymer matrix composites described on exemplary applications. It contains the
description of various examples, which were classified into the following categories:
aerospace, automotive, marine, military and sport and leisure industry.
Keywords: Composite, Transportation, Polymer matrices
INTRODUCTION
The main content of this paper consists of the review of the most recent PMC
(Polymer Matrix Composites) applications in the automotive, aerospace,
marine, military and sport and leisure product development. This section is
preceded by the short characteristic of Polymer Matrix Composites as a group
of materials. The leading purpose of this work was to stress the significance
of composite materials in the most innovative industries.
Nowadays, the industry focuses on replacing of traditionally used metal
alloys with polymer composites, thermosets or temperature resistant and
high-strength thermoplastics. It has to be underlined that in the automotive
market it is not only a trend, but also a necessity. Due to the legal regulations
introduced by CAFE (The Corporate Average Fuel Economy – regulations in
the United States, enacted by the U.S. Congress in 1975) and mandated in
July 2011 by the U.S. government, automotive producers have no choice,
but to adapt themselves to the new regulations in this area. The fuel economy
requirements for a domestically (USA) manufactured passenger cars will
*Corresponding author: E-mail: anna.koniuszewska@pwr.edu.pl

©Smithers Information Ltd., 2016
Progress in Rubber, Plastics and Recycling Technology, Vol. 32, No. 1, 2016 1
Anna G. Koniuszewska and Jacek W. Kaczmar
increase from observed today 32.8 mpg to 36.7 mpg in 2017, and finally to
51.3 mpg in 2025 [3]. What can be easily predicted, the tendency in vehicles’
production will follow the idea of production of cars characterised by the low
weight and high strength properties.
PROPERTIES OF POLYMER MATRIX COMPOSITES

In the previous years the position of PMC (Polymer Matrix Composites), which
was already strong, has been highly improved. They are an independent group
of materials often applied in the automotive, aerospace, marine and military
industry. Polymer elements reinforced with fibres are characterised by low
masses according to the relatively small densities of commonly used resins
and thermoplastic polymers, good mechanical properties, as the result of the
strengthening by high strength fibres, what provides an extremely high specific
strength, understood as the relation of strength [MN/m2] and specific weight
[N/m3]. In addition, PMC are characterised by good corrosion resistance,
extremely good formability and damping of mechanical vibrations [1, 2]. In the
automotive industry, the relative high specific strength of PMC makes possible
the reduction of weight of final elements of car structures. The same tendency
is observed as well in the aerospace industry. In the military industry there is
an increasing demand for materials characterised by enhanced mechanical
properties, for example in the design of military aircrafts, military land vehicles,
war ships and even for military soldiers equipment like bulletproof vests.
The development of new materials in the history of mankind was mainly
focused on the materials characterised by large strength. Recently, especially
in the technology of means of transportation materials characterised by large
strength and low weight are of the basic importance. The most useful property
for evaluating materials in this respect are the specific strength properties. In
this case, it is the maximum length of a fibre of material to be hung vertically,
after which it will break under its own weight. Breaking lengths of chosen
materials are presented in Figure 1.
AEROSPACE INDUSTRY
Fuel economy improvement, increasing of carrying capacity of airplanes and
their manoeuvrability stimulates the research towards the application of new
materials characterised by the low weight and good mechanical strength.
Company American Airlines operates a fleet of about 600 planes and could
save up to 11.000 gallons of fuel per year by decreasing the weight of each
aircraft only by 1 pound [4].
2 Progress in Rubber, Plastics and Recycling Technology, Vol. 32, No. 1, 2016
Figure 1. Breaking length of materials [miles]
Boeing B-787 Dreamliner is designed and manufactured from highly advanced

materials and can be determined as a ‘breakthrough’ in the aerospace
industry. Dreamliner is characterised by modern design, high-tech engines,
application of lightweight composite materials, reduced noise level what
has the final effect on the comfort on board [5]. The whole aircraft has been
designed from composite materials which mass reaches about 50% of the
mass of aircraft (what means about 80% volume fraction of the PMC in the
design of this aircraft). Other applied materials are: aluminum alloys (20%),
titanium alloys (15%), steel (10%) and other materials (5%). Wings, tail and
fuselage are made from composite materials [6].
Moreover, laminates of ‘sandwich’ type strengthened with carbon fibres
were applied in the design of Boeing B-787 Dreamliner. This structure is
composed of two thin external layers joined with a honeycomb core. This
structure provides the high stiffness, good corrosion resistance, high impact
strength, relatively low operating costs, relatively simple production of complex
structure shapes, minimization of the number of aircraft components and,
consequently, reduction of the assembly time.
Using the carbon-epoxy HexMC composite manufactured by Hexcel (USA),
weight saving aircraft components with the good mechanical strength and
stiffness, possibility of non-complex forming of different shapes sandwiches
for Boeing 787 were produced. The examples of HexMC parts in Dreamliner
are: ‘window frames, brackets, fittings, clips/cleats, intercostals and pans.’
(Figure 2) [7].
Figure 2. HexMC parts: window frames, brackets, fittings, gussets, clips, pans, Hexcel
(USA) [8]
AeroComposit (Russia) [9] is a R&D focused company with the headquarter

in Moscow, which can be considered as the company applying the modern
technologies in Russian aircraft technology, being the first developer of
components strengthened with the carbon fibres for civil aircrafts in the
whole country. Company AeroComposit not only manufactures aircraft parts
from carbon fibre-reinforced composites but rapidly replaces the traditional
processes with an out-of-autoclave production. The main goal of the recent
project run by OAK AeroComposit together with FACC (Austria) was to find
out a solution how to build MS-21’s composite wing characterised by the low
weight. The last concept included an application of the composite obtained as
the combination of carbon fibres with newly developed, cost-optimised resin.
The leading supplier of elements for Airbus is Patria Aerostructures Oy (Patria)
from Finland. Its recently running programmes are: A380 wing spoilers, A400M
VTP tip and NH90 helicopter fuselage. Airbus A380 wing spoiler shipset
consists of 16 elements divided for two groups of 8, located in one wing and
being a mirror image of the other. The material structure can be qualified as
a composite sandwich box made of T700 carbon fibre reinforcement joined
together with M21 prepreg resin systems in a honeycomb structure [10].
Victrex Europa GmbH [11] offers a variety of composite materials for
aerospace applications considered to be a superior metal replacement and
an excellent alternative for traditionally used metal alloys. VICTREX® PEEK
(polyetheretherketone) is one of the polyaryletherketone (PAEK); it is linear,
aromatic and semi-crystalline group of polymers. Discussed composite
materials are characterised by the lower density than the applicable metal
alloys, with a higher specific strength than many metal alloys. Simultaneously
VICTREX® PEEK polymer compounds are characterised by mechanical
strength and dimensional stability similar to metal alloys. At the same time,
the polymer can withstand relatively high temperatures and the influence of
chemical environments. It has a melting point of 343°C (649°F). This polymer is
also highly corrosion resistant and can withstand many aggressive chemicals,
while at the same time demonstrating excellent wear and abrasion resistance.
Finally, the important is the cost factor and as D. Padey and C. Butz say [11]:
‘replacing metal alloys with high-performance polymers can lower component
manufacturing costs’. As strengthening materials in composites based on
VICTREX®PEEK, chopped glass fibres, chopped carbon fibres and special
high modulus carbon fibres were applied.
The Laboratory CSIR-NAL (India) has designed small, civil passenger aircraft
named SARAS (Figure 3) [12]. The wings and the tail unit of the aircraft are
made of carbon-epoxy composite. Bottom integrated skin of the airplane is
consisting of the spars, ribs and stringers that were manufactured from the
composite materials and finally treated in an autoclave at a temperature of
175°C (347°F) and a pressure of 7 bar (102 psi). The main goal of the project
was the reduction of the weight of the aircraft. Comparing the composite
elements with the same elements made entirely from metal alloys, the mass
of the polymer based composite elements is approximately 25% lower, what
was shown in Table 2.
Table 2. Comparison of mass of metal alloys and PMC parts in the

14-seater civil aircraft SARAS (India) [12]
Metal Alloys Composites
Mass 33.5 kg 25.2 kg (24.8% reduction)
No. of parts 31 1
No. of fasteners 3400 0 (zero)
Figure 3. SARAS a 14-seater civil aircraft [13]
Considering the mass reduction of aircrafts, even the mass of aircraft food
tray arms is important. SABIC (Saudi Basic Industries Corporation), Saudi
Arabia, has developed the high-performance thermoplastic compounds

which were applied as the aircraft’s food tray arms (Figure 4). Two materials
were based on SABIC Innovative Plastics Ultem® PEI (polyetherimide) resin
and carbon fibres [4]. The weight content of carbon fibres in those materials
varies from 30-40 wt%. In order to investigate materials internal stresses they
were analysed with The Abaqus software (FEA – Finite Element Analysis, MFA
– Mould Flow Analysis) what helped to assure the excellent performance of
tray arms. Significant mass savings were also reached – as M. Moniruzzaman
writes [4] ‘for an airline with approximately 600 planes having 200 seats per
plane on average, this weight reduction translates to 0.5 million gallons of
fuel saved and 9.9 million lbs of CO2 eliminated per year’.
Figure 4. Aircraft’s food tray arms from SABIC [14]
AUTOMOTIVE INDUSTRY
The principal and the most popular user of composite materials is still an
automotive industry, focused on applying of the advanced car elements in
the vehicles. Examples of a variety of applications presented throughout the
previous years are given below.
Companies Smart and BASF (Germany) have jointly developed a concept
vehicle that combines ‘exceptional design with innovative technologies in
the areas of energy efficiency, lightweight construction and temperature
management’ – says BASF [15]. Why do the composites play so important
role in new Smart and BASF project? Undeniable commitment of BASF
to the idea of lightweighting in the automotive industry has grown notably
since the mid-2011. The development of electric cars needs to go along with
lightweighting and energy saving. The first novel invention in Smart Forvision
is its lightweight metal substitute construction, significantly increasing the
maximum range of the vehicle. BASF came up with the special technology
applying the Baxxodur® epoxy systems reinforced with carbon fibres for
manufacturing such elements as chassis and external framework. The
carbon fibres, when added, strengthen the high-performance polymers and
the properties are comparable to the light metal alloys. The carbon fibres are
impregnated and joined together with the epoxy resin and further processed.
Therefore, the final composite material gives the opportunity of mass saving
up to 150 kg (331 lb) per chassis. Another project for the Smart Forvision
is the application of polymer wheel rim (Figure 5) for the mass production
as the first company in the world. The polymer wheel rim is made of the
innovative high-performance material named Ultramid® Structure. It consists
of polyamide matrix reinforced with long glass fibres and is known for its
excellent thermal and chemical stability, dynamic strength, good toughness
and satisfying endurance. The polymer wheel rim is 3 kg (7 lb) lighter than a
metal alloy one, what gives 12 kg (26 lb) of mass saving per car. Mass saving,
in this case, also means that the car is relatively more environmentally friendly
due to the lower fuel consumption. In comparison to conventionally powered
cars, Smart Forvision will use 0.05 liters (0.01 gallon) per 100 km (62 miles)
less fuel and emit 1g/km (0.003 lb/mile) less CO2 [15].
Figure 5. Smart Forvision polymer wheel rim from PA6 reinforced with glass fibres
(BASF-Germany) [16]
Three South Korean companies have merged forces and decided to have
an impact on the worldwide mass production of composites. Altogether LG
Hansys, Hyundai Motor and Shinhan Mold companies designed the light
innovative battery pack module carrier (Figure 6). They developed a carbon
fibre strengthened composite part for an electric vehicle made completely
from polymer composite without any metal reinforcement. In this material
carbon fibres (Toray Industries-Japan) strengthen the PA6 polyamide (Kolon
Plastics) and form the compact element. In comparison to element made of

steel, this solution offers [17]:
• Weight reduction by 26% (from 35 to 24 kg, 77 to 53 lb),
• Function integration, number of elements reduced by 91% (from 35 to
3 per vehicle),
• No need for anti-corrosion painting,
• Higher driving distance per single charge of the electric vehicle,
• Cost reduction by direct compounding (no intermediate operations),
• Enhanced driving performance due to the weight reduction,
• Superior recyclability.
Figure 6. Carbon composite battery pack module carrier developed by LG Hansys,

Hyundai Motor and Shinhan Mold companies (South Korea) [18]
Lanxess [19] is a company manufacturing chemicals and is active in Belgium

(cities: Lillo and Kallo), Germany (cities: Krefeld-Uerdingen and Hamm-Uentrop)
and China (City: Wuxi). It is the leading world producer of glass-reinforced
thermoplastic polymers with a long-standing experience in the area of plastic-
metal composite technology (hybrid technology). Currently, there is observed
the growing interest for application of composite matrices reinforced with
continuous fibres and simultaneously taking into account the high price of
carbon fibres, Lanxess is focused on the high-tech plastics investments which
have reached an amount of 120 million $US. The manufacturing processes
mainly applied at Lanxess are: ‘one-shot’ (whole process is realized in one
operation) and ‘in-mould forming’ (desired features of the finished product
are formed inside the mould), both emphasizing the benefits gained from the
quick manufacturing of plastics characterised by the reproducible quality. The
exemplary product can be the ‘Nylon Composite Sheet’ which is strengthened
with glass fibres, which are embedded in the thermoplastic matrix (e.g. PA).
Polyamide forms good bonding at the interface matrix-glass fibres what makes
possible the transfer of the large shear stresses from the matrix to the glass
fibres and this phenomenon assures the high mechanical properties of the
composite materials. In comparison to the production of metal alloy based
parts, discussed technologies result in lower costs, because despite the
operation of preparing of the mold, process requires only one tool to perform
whole injection moulding. Until now, polyamide (nylon) based composite
sheets are used for the hybrid front end of the Audi A8 which is produced by
Bond-Laminates GmbH from the polymer under the name Durethan® BKV
30 H2.0 EF. This material is characterised by the good Melt Flow Index (MFI)
and consists of 30 vol.% of glass fibres embedded in PA 6 matrix.
The modern materials applied in the design of the means of transportation
should contribute to the so-called the ‘three cuts’ principle: relative small
manufacturing costs, decreasing of fuel consumption, and simultaneously
decreasing of CO2 emission. Bayer Material Science, an independent subgroup
within Bayer AG Company (Germany) [20] has introduced the energy-efficient
polyurethane materials Bayflex® RIM for the automotive sector. Since the
general direction of development in the automotive industry is focused on
lightness of vehicles assuring the required electric mobility, the application of
Bayer Material Science products ensures above mentioned goals. Bayflex®
RIM is a high-grade polyurethane with special fillers characterised with a
remarkable heat stability, low moisture absorption, low thermal expansion,
great impact resistance, excellent surface and paint adhesion qualities. The
application of this material lowers the element weight by 30%. Bayflex®RIM
is manufactured using Reinforced Reaction Injection Moulding (RRIM). RRIM
is a process used to produce polyurethane and polyurea thermoset polymers
with the use of fillers and reinforcements, that increases the modulus range
of polyurethane polymers. Car parts are not an only possible application of
the product developed by Bayer Material Science, and the other possibilities
are: elements of trucks and buses, trains, aircrafts, ships and also leisure,
furniture, IT segment and the construction industry.
Australian charitable foundation ‘Autohorizon’ arranged mainly by the young
researchers [21], has invented and elaborated an unique car chassis with the
help of over 90 sponsors (among other: Victorian Centre for Advanced Materials
Manufacturing – VCAMM, GM Holden Ltd. Company, Boeing Aerostructures
Australia Company, the Automotive Centre of Excellence – ACE and GMS
Composites). The subject of this project was to develop the new carbon fibre
reinforced composite monocoque chassis for the sport car. Whole part was
molded applying the method ‘out of autoclave’ from GMS EP270 – epoxy
prepreg containing carbon fibres manufactured and supplied by the GMS
Composites. Chassis dimensions are about 200 cm by 150 cm (about 7 feet x
5 feet) and mass of 80 kg (176 lb). Chassis was also tested applying the finite
element analysis (FEA) by the Australia Future Fibres Research & Innovation
Centre at the Daekin University of Melbourne and the results shows satisfactory
stiffness and strength properties obligatory for the material to be used in the
monocoque chassis for a sports car powered by a Holden 6.0 litre V8 with a
Ferrari 355 transmission.
Roding Roadster (Figure 7) [22] is a two-seat sports car made mainly from
composite materials – for example its carbon based fibre chassis ensures
good mechanical properties and stiffness and low mass what is extremely
important for the driving dynamics. An innovation in this project is a braided
windscreen frame made from a three dimensional hollow profile on which
the fibres are braided with an use of the shape core. This process is realized
by an RTM resin injection. Shape core can be made from the polymer foam
and may remain in the element causing the 1.8 kg (4 lb) of additional mass
or can be completely removed.
Figure 7. Roding Roadster sports car [23]
The University of Applied Sciences of Western Switzerland (Geneva) in

collaboration with several companies manufactured a prototype vehicle called
BioMobile [24]. Its prototype was invented to participate in Shell Eco-Marathon.
In order to become a winner of this international competition, a participant has
to ride larger distance than the competitors, consuming only one liter of fuel
(0.264 gallon). In 2012 a new frame for BioMobile was presented and its upper
part is reinforced with banana fibres while the lower part is strengthened with
Greenlite®. Greenlite® consists of cellulose fibres – renewable and in nature
abundant material. BioMobile’s frame was fully made of bio-composites.
The novelty are also modular thermoplastic bumpers for trucks (Figure 8).
Usually, bumpers for MAN’s trucks were produced with the SMC (Sheet Moulding
Compound technology). Instead of it, all parts are made simultaneously from
several components on a modular basis, for example of polyamide or polyester
supplied by Lanxess. Bumpers for MAN TGX and TGS trucks are produced
by a group of Magna Exteriors & Interiors Inc., and bumpers for the TGL and
TGM models are manufactured by Werkzeugbau Karl Krumpholz GmbH &
Co. KG-Kunststofftechnik. Headlamp housing is made of polyamide 6 (PA6)
reinforced with 60% of glass fibres ensuring high strength and stiffness. The
headlamps are also very stable while driving the truck [25].
Figure 8. Modular thermoplastic bumper for MAN trucks (Germany) [26]
The company Asahi Kasei Plastics, North America Inc. has produced a
material called Thermylene® which is an equivalent to LGFPP (Long-Glass-
Fibre-Reinforced-Polypropylene). This materials is characterised by very good
mechanical properties and by about 20% lower production costs than was
observed for previously used materials. This material shows high hardness
and high longitudinal and transverse stiffness in a wide temperature range.
Potential applications for the material Thermylene® in the automotive industry
are: bumpers, luggage racks, modules of gas/brake/clutch [27].
Front end carriers can be produced without application of steel or aluminum
sheets. One of examples is the front end carrier from Skoda Octavia
(Volkswagen Group), produced by Faurecia Kunstoffe Automobilsysteme
GmbH and manufactured from high-strength polyamide from Lanxess. The
front end carrier can be characterised as a thin-walled, low-mass element,
with high stiffness, mechanical strength and good surface quality. Good
polymer flow properties at the processing temperature, which facilitates the
process of injection into the mould is of basic importance. Another example
is the front end carrier used in VW Golf 7, which was made from Ultramid®
in the collaboration between Volkswagen and BASF [28, 29].
The Chevrolet Division is the largest global brand of General Motors (USA)
and the latest model of the sport car produced by this company is Chevrolet
Corvette Z06 2013. Mass of this car is only 1451 kg (3199 lb) and the engine
has the a power of 368 kW (500 HP). Power to mass ratio of this car is better
than such cars as Aston Martin DBS, Porsche 911 Turbo or Nissan GT-R.
This has been achieved through the application of polymer based composite
materials for the production of some components. In the latest model there
may be found such parts as the bonnet, fenders and floor panels, fully made
from the lightweight polymer composite reinforced with carbon fibres [30].
The leading automotive companies are competing in the development and
applications of new materials, mainly composites with polymer matrices. New
models of Porsche are equipped with engines where the intake system, airframe
and engine accessories are made of polyamide (PA). Cars manufactured by
BMW are equipped with an innovative oil pans made of polymer composites
[31]. In 2004 BMW has applied in the production of vehicles about 10 000 tonnes
of natural fibres (flax, sisal, cotton, wood fibres) [32].
French car Citroën DS3 with the power of 440 kW (590 HP) is a unique racing
car which elements were made from special polymer based composite material
reinforced with carbon fibres and Kevlar®. This unique vehicle driven by Petter
Solberg took part in a series of European Rallycross Championships. The
composite material was developed by a team of Galway Carbon Motorsport
Composites and components for the Citroën DS3 were made with the use of
the acrylic resin Crestapol® 1250LV as a matrix. Panels made from this material
for example are: the nearside doors, the bonnet and the boot. Additionally,
the bonnet was filled with the foam in order to reach good stiffness and at the
same time to keep the low weight. The use of composites caused substantial
mass reduction of about 82-89%. For example, steel boot of mass 16 kg
(35 lb) has been replaced by a composite cover of mass 1.8 kg (4 lb). The
application of Kevlar as a strengthening material provides increased lightness,
stiffness and mechanical strength [33].
The last but not least example of recycled composite materials is the
prototype of Lola-Drayson racing car (Figure 9) [34], designed to take part
in FIA Formula E World Championship Series in 2013. It consists mainly of
flax fibres which are impregnated with epoxy resin recycled from MTM®49
or MTM®28 (manufactured by Umeco Incorporated). Recycled materials
were tested and results show longitudinal, transverse and torsional stiffness
comparable to the non-recycled materials from the original epoxy resin as
well as high resistance to damage and smaller strength properties comparing
to materials made from base granulate.
Figure 9. Lola-Drayson prototype of race car (United Kingdom) [35]
MARINE INDUSTRY
The innovations in the area of composite materials have a great impact on
the development of the modern ships built for the marine industry. The small
weight of marine constructions is important for the lower fuel consumption
and good manoeuvrability and polymer based composite materials show
such important properties as water and corrosion resistance.
The speedboat Revolver 42 (Figure 10) [36] is an effect of collaboration of
Michael Peters Yacht Design and the Milan-based studio H30. It is a speedboat
as S. Bell and M. Arcuri say ‘a vacuum-infused and bonded foam sandwich
design’. The main hull and deck are made from Crystic® vinyl ester (VE)
resins and a Corecell™ M-foam core reinforced with carbon fibres. Revolver
42’s dimensions are: length of 12.6 metres (41 ft), width of 3.4 metres (11 ft).
Despite its large mass 7 500 kg (16534.67 lb), the boat is still able to reach
the speed of 68 knots.
Figure 10. Revolver 42 speedboat [37]
Sailboats also benefit from composite materials application. Vestas Sailrocket

2 sailboat (Figure 11) was designed and built by the Sailrocket team (Vestas
R&D, Isle of Wight, UK). Piloted by Australian Sailboat Paul Larson VSR 2
broke the speed record (with average speed 65.37 knots) at Walvis Bay in
Namibia on 28 November 2012. This sailboat has its wing based on carbon
spar. Wing’s construction is mainly made of preimpregnated carbon fibre
filled with Nomex honeycomb core and polyester heat shrink film on the wing
skins. VSR 2 sailboat’s mass is 275 kg with its length of 12.2 m (40 ft) and
width of 12.2 m (40 ft) [38].
Figure 11. Vestas Sailrocket 2 sailboat [39]
Ifremer Company (France) is involved in exploring of the new opportunities

by using composite materials for underwater applications. The main goal is
to replace traditionally used carbon/epoxy or glass/epoxy composites with
thermoplastic-matrix composites even for large submarine elements [40].
In India there was finished an interesting project of composite houseboat with
length of 27 m (89 ft), width of 4.5 m (15 ft) for tourism in Kerala (India) – basing
on the concept of the boats transporting rice. Their design has not changed
since the last 40 years, but their structure was modernized completely, in
order to obtain a perfect aesthetic, ergonomic, cost-effective final product
(Figure 12). Heavy wood and steel structures were eliminated and replaced
mainly with glass-reinforced polymers (GRP), what has helped to lower the
production costs by 20% and shorten the production time by 70-75%. Parts
that are made from composite materials are: two curved supporting panels with
window opening, an inner ceiling module, pagoda-style roof and the hull [41].
As the consequence of waste disposal regulations, which the industry
manufacturing boats, yachts and small ships from polymers has to comply,
producers have to propose the alternative solutions for commonly used
polymers and composites. Recently used matrices for the polymer composites
applied in construction of ships were polyester or epoxy resins, which were
Figure 12. Composite houseboat from Kerala (region of India) [42]
strengthened with the hybrid reinforcement i.e. flax fibres with glass- or carbon-
fibres. NavEcoMat (research and innovation project between companies
producing boats and material research laboratories) [43] has developed an
environmentally friendly polymer based composite material, which is fully
combined from bio-sourced materials: polylactic acid (PLA) reinforced with
flax fibres. As an example of the described technology, the Naskapi Indians
canoe can be pointed. The Naskapi canoe, consisting of flax-fibre mats and
PLA thermoplastic films, perform the comparable mechanical properties to
those of glass- or carbon- reinforced composite materials.
Kairos Inc. and Ifremer Company (France) have finished the joint project and
prepared the list and characterization of all know bio-sourced polymers,
composite materials and sandwich cores with possible applications in
commercial boats. Many various reinforcements were considered: flax, hemp,
jute and cellulose fibres in different forms: unidirectional fibres, woven fibres
and mats. An example that is worth to be mentioned is a comparison of two
boats, both with the equal mass, content of reinforcing fibres and the same
matrix (resin). The first one was made from glass/epoxy composite and the
second from cellulose-reinforced epoxy composite. During the test, boats
were fully-immersed in natural sea water at a temperature of 40°C. Results
of the described test have proved the similar and comparable performances
and technical specification of both boats [44].
Alternative Energie Company (La Rochelle, France) is currently working on
a design and construction of an environmentally friendly, electric powered
catamaran with 30-passenger capacity. The boat’s cabin, roof and bulwark
are designed to be made of biosourced composite (30% biosourced polyester
resin / flax fibre reinforcement / cork / balsa) [45].
MILITARY INDUSTRY
The military industry requires very trustworthy, dependable, safe and strong
materials in order to achieve a satisfactory level of reliability.
A Spanish shipyard Astilleros Santa Pola S.L. collaborating with Aimplas -
the Centre for Innovation and Technology (CIT) located in Valencia (Spain)
has introduced a composite laminate produced on the base of the Vacuum
Assisted Resin Transfer Molding (VARTM) applying the phenolic resins with
layers of S-glass fibres mixed with aramid fibres [46]. Such combination ensures
excellent anti-ballistic properties, resistance against UV and corrosion and
the small weight. Potential improvements may be seen in further decreasing
of the materials weight for the marine applications, especially boats with high
safety requirements such as patrol crafts.
The Zumwalt (DDG-1000) (Figure 13), named after Admiral Elmon Zumwalt
(1900-2000), is the most advanced destroyer in the US navy. It costs 4 billion
US$ per unit. Its christening took place on 12 April 2014 in Bath, Maine. In
order to reduce its total weight there were used composite materials instead
of commonly used steel and metal alloys. Composites were also used to make
the ship radar transparent. The masts, antennas and radars were integrated
in the composite superstructure. The deckhouse, built by Ingall’s Shipbuilding
(USA), is fully made of carbon-reinforced vinyl ester resin. The roof is made
of phenolic fibreglass laminate panels supplied by Mektech Composites Inc.
(USA). Phenolic resins used for production of this composite are characterised
by high temperature resistance and fire-retardant properties which are good
enough to fulfil the Navy’s fire codes [47].
Figure 13. The Zumwalt destroyer [48]
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II (Figure 14) is the latest and the most
advanced fighter aircraft in which carbon composite materials were applied.
Parts made of CFRP in this aircraft are: vertical stabilizer, horizontal stabilizer,
fuselage and wings [49].
Figure 14. Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II [50]
Interesting project connected with application of the weight saving technologies

was performed in two military aircrafts – AV8B Harrier (British single-engine
ground-attack aircraft) and Bell-Boeing V-22 Osprey (American multi-mission,
tiltrotor aircraft) and structural parts were manufactured from polymer based
composites. Nowadays, 100% of the UAVs (Unmanned Aerial Vehicle)
structures are made of polymer based composites [51]. These aircrafts should
be characterised by low mass and operate in the air after one refueling for
the relatively long time. Basing on the earlier projects (Global Hawk UAV),
Triton Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (Figure 15) was designed and its first 1.5-
hour flight on May 22, 2013 was controlled by the U.S. Navy and Northrop
Grumman company. Triton UAV assumption was to fly non-stop for 24 hours
at an altitude of over 16 km (10 miles) and have the range of 18 500 km
(11 495 miles) without any refueling. The aircraft is equipped with sensors for
Figure 15. Triton Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) US Air Force [53]
the constant contact with flight controllers, upload images and other data.
Triton’s wings has been made of epoxy resin reinforced with carbon fibres
and unidirectional high-modulus tapes [52].
SPORT AND LEISURE

Examples shown in this paragraph have been collected in order to identify
new trends for the application of composite materials in the field of sport
and leisure.
AX-Lightness GmbH (Germany) which is the main supplier of polymer based
composite materials in the Formula One sector is currently developing and
manufacturing structures of bicycles. Their actual offer presents high-tech
mountain bikes with wheels made using Umeco’s woven carbon fibre as a
reinforcement of the epoxy prepregs [54]. Another achievement, which they
are proud to claim, is a combination of unidirectional and fabric reinforced
prepregs for components of bicycles for Australian triathalonists. Used prepregs
undergoes curing above temperature of 160°C what assures good impact
strength and good performances at elevated temperatures.
It appears that nearly all of the bicycles made of composites strengthened
with carbon fibres are produced in China, which is caused by the complexity
of the production process and therefore the necessity of large amount of
manual labour. Manufactured parts from prepregs are cut out and cured in
an autoclave, then bonded from two halves into a tube, filled up, smoothed
and coated. The BRAID (Germany) proposed new bicycle frame with new
design (Figure 16) [55]. Instead of making a tube from two half shells, the
braiding technique is applied and as a result the frame exhibits higher stiffness
and strength while using less material for the complete product. This design
Figure 16. Lightweight BRAID bicycle (Germany) [56]
satisfy the customer needs, lowers the production costs and allows German
company, where the labour force is much more expensive, to compete with
Chinese companies in this area. Filled with PU foam cores, the BRAID frames
ensure lightness, good mechanical properties and stiffness.
The Werner Paddles Inc. (Sultan, USA) is leading company in kayak paddles
manufacturing [57]. Working together with RTP Company (Winona, USA), they
found a way to improve the aesthetics, costs and performance – by using a
carbon fibre-reinforced recycled material from Boeing’s 787 Dreamliner scrap.
An Australian manufacturer of sustainable surfboards, Samsara Surfboards
(Melbourne, Australia) is currently producing ultra-high performance eco
surfboards [58]. These surfboats are entirely made of materials having minimum
harmful effect on the environment. A standard Samsara’s surfboard consists
of flax fibres, commingled flax/PLA and commingled flax/PP.
CONCLUSIONS
As was described in the above paper the examples of application of polymer
based composite materials show that the composite materials industry plays
a significant, if not the most important, role in the development of the latest
material technologies. Numerous applications of Polymer Matrix Composites
elements show, that they are the key factor for the development of all the above-
mentioned industries manufacturing means of transportation (land, air and
marine), sport and leisure, military industry. The polymer-based composites are
ideally suited to the needs of today’s world, offering savings and convenience
for the end-users. Composite materials can be easily adapted to the current
requirements and the most demanding criteria. The polymer composites
characterised by low weight and durability and the elements performance from
polymer based composite materials show that they are able to successfully
compete with metal alloys in terms of mechanical properties and price.
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Application of Polymer Based Composite Materials in Transportation

Application of Polymer Based

Keywords: Composite, Transportation, Polymer matrices

*Corresponding author: E-mail: anna.koniuszewska@pwr.edu.pl

PROPERTIES OF POLYMER MATRIX COMPOSITES

Figure 1. Breaking length of materials [miles]

Boeing B-787 Dreamliner is designed and manufactured from highly advanced

AeroComposit (Russia) [9] is a R&D focused company with the headquarter

Table 2. Comparison of mass of metal alloys and PMC parts in the

Figure 3. SARAS a 14-seater civil aircraft [13]

Arabia, has developed the high-performance thermoplastic compounds

Figure 4. Aircraft’s food tray arms from SABIC [14]

Plastics) and form the compact element. In comparison to element made of

Figure 6. Carbon composite battery pack module carrier developed by LG Hansys,

Lanxess [19] is a company manufacturing chemicals and is active in Belgium

Figure 7. Roding Roadster sports car [23]

The University of Applied Sciences of Western Switzerland (Geneva) in

Figure 8. Modular thermoplastic bumper for MAN trucks (Germany) [26]

Figure 9. Lola-Drayson prototype of race car (United Kingdom) [35]

Figure 10. Revolver 42 speedboat [37]

Sailboats also benefit from composite materials application. Vestas Sailrocket

Figure 11. Vestas Sailrocket 2 sailboat [39]

Ifremer Company (France) is involved in exploring of the new opportunities

Figure 12. Composite houseboat from Kerala (region of India) [42]

Figure 13. The Zumwalt destroyer [48]

Figure 14. Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II [50]

Interesting project connected with application of the weight saving technologies

SPORT AND LEISURE

Figure 16. Lightweight BRAID bicycle (Germany) [56]

4. Moniruzzaman M., ‘PEI/carbon as metal substitute in aircraft food tray arms’,

5. ‘Dreamliner made from light composite materials’, Materiały Kompozytowe,

6. J. Merkisz, M. Bajerlein, ‘Composite materials used in the aerospace industry’,

10. Mustakangas M., ‘Milestone celebration of Finnish aerospace composites

13. http://media.gotraffic.net/images/iG1gg_T0_jaU/v3/1200x-1.jpg, Date of

15. http://www.smartforvision.basf.com/, Date of use: 07.06.2015

18. http://csmres.co.uk/cs.public.upd/article-images/LG-Hausys.JPG, Date of

21. Weller S. ‘Out-of-autoclave CF monocoque sports car cockpit chassis’, JEC

22. Kollmannsberger A., Brand M., Drechsler K., ‘Braiding a convertible

24. Perraudin M., Hummer E., ‘BioMobile.ch: incorporating ‘green reinforcements

25. ‘New thermoplastic modular truck bumpers’, JEC Composites Magazine,

27. Iyer R., ‘New long-glass-fibre-reinforces polypropylene for automakers’, JEC

30. ‘History of the light design of the Corvette’, Materiały Kompozytowe,

35. http://regmedia.co.uk/2013/06/27/drayson.jpg, Date of use: 07.06.2015

39. http://www.surfertoday.com/images/stories/vestassailrocket2.jpg, Date of

48. http://www.jeffhead.com/usn21/zumwalt-ddg1000-17.jpg, Date of use:

49. Bielawski R., ‘Konstrukcje lotnictwa wojskowego’, Materiały Kompozytowe,

53. http://www.suasnews.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/tritonpair.jpg Date

54. ‘High-performance mountain bike’, JEC Composites Magazine, 76, (October

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