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Writing an Engineering lab report

Lab report purpose

Whatever branch of engineering you are studying, many of your labs and lab based assignments will require a
written report. The purpose is to report what you did and what you learned from an experiment.

Lecturer's advice
The marker is looking for evidence that you:
 • understand what happened, why it happened and what it signified in relation to the
experimental aims
• can structure and present your lab report logically in accordance with established conventions.

Lab report structure

Lab reports can vary in length and format. These range from a form to fill in and submit before leaving the lab, to
a formal written report. However, they all usually follow a similar basic structure.

MEASUREMENT OF THE FRACTURE TOUGHNESS OF PERSPEX

A. Student

Abstract

Perspex samples with sharp and blunt cracks were subjected to loads to determin fracture
toughness. Results clearly show a correlation between...

Aim

To determine the fracture toughness of Perspex.

Introduction

Fracture toughness is a measure of the fracture resistence of a cracked material. The two types
of crack investigated here are shown in Figure 1. For a sharp crack to propagate...

Method

Six Perspex samples with artificial blunt cracks of various sizes were supplied. The samples
were secured into the micro-tester and the strain rate and maximum load parameters set to...

Results and Discussion

The six specimens were tested to three loads and the corresponding deflection calculated. The
average compliance at each crack length was calculated; these are plotted in Graph 1. The
calculated exponent is close to the quadratic relationship...

Conclusions

The experimental results show that fracture toughness decreases with increased crack length
and velocity...

Activity
The typical structure of a lab report is shown in the left-hand column below. Can you match the
sections with their description? Drag and drop the descriptions in the right-hand column to the
section it matches.
 Title
presents and interprets the results

Abstract
contain tables of raw data and detailed calculations

Aim
provides an overview of the report content

Introduction or Background
precisely reflects the focus of the lab

Method
summarises findings and makes recommendations

Results and Discussion

explains the topic, problem or hypothesis and theory

Conclusions
describes the equipment, materials and procedure

References
concisely states the objective/s of the experiment

Appendices
lists the publication details of all sources cited

Check

Click on the links below to find out more about the different sections of a laboratory report.
 • Title
• Abstract
• Aim
• Introduction or Background
• Method
• Results and Discussion
• Conclusions
• Appendices

Title

ENG3051 Week 5 Laboratory

Chromatographic separation of protein molecules

A. Student 10203040

B. Learner 90807060

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Abstract
Also called the Summary, this section gives an overview of the full report. It tells the reader:

• What you did: the aim of the experiment

• How you did it: a brief description of the method used
• What you found: your results and how you interpreted them
• What it means: what your results mean in relation to the aim.

There is no need to include background information such as motivation or theory.

Example:

In this experiment a wind tunnel was used to measure the lift and drag forces on a 1:70 scale
model of an aeroplane in order to determine the optimal angle of attack. Angles of attack
ranging from -8° to 20° were tested at a wind speed of approximately 30m/s. The typical
pressure distribution around an aerofoil at small angles of attack was found to be low on the
upper surface and high on the lower surface, creating an upward lift force. As the angle of
attack increased, so too did the lift force exerted on the plane from the aerofoil wings.
However, there is an optimal angle of attack after which the lift will begin to decrease. This is
because increasing the angle of attack also increases the drag on the aerofoil. An 8° angle of
attack was found to be optimal.
Identify the features of an Abstract – what you did, how you did it, what you found and what it means in relation to
the aim – in the sample above. Consider how much attention is given to each. Then answer the True or False
questions below:

Activity

A detailed description of the method is a key feature of an Abstract.

 True

 False

Check

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Aim
In any experiment, you aim to do something. For example, to verify, to investigate, to measure, to compare or to
test a hypothesis.
 Writing tip
• Use the verb form starting with 'to' (e.g. 'to investigate').
• Avoid the noun form (e.g. 'investigation') which is better suited to the title.

A single Aim should be written in a complete sentence.

Example 1:

AIM
The aim of the experiment is to determine the resistivity of iron by measuring the resistance of
a specimen of wire.
 Lecturer's advice
Consider how you will know when you have achieved your aim. This should be apparent from your
aim statement. In the aim statement above, it is clear that the aim will be achieved when a value is
obtained for the resistivity of iron.

If an experiment has more than one aim, list them in the logical order.

Example 2:

AIM
1. To measure the pressue distribution around a cylinder in a wind tunnel
2. To calculate the forces on the cylinder based on the data obtained

Writing tip
Where there is a goal-and-means relationship, make sure this is clear.

Aim A:

• To conduct lift and drag measurements on a scale model aeroplane

• To assess the behaviour of a full-scale aeroplane under three hypothetical conditions.
 Aim B:

The aim of this experiment is to conduct lift and drag measurements on a scale model aeroplane and use the
results to assess the behaviour of a full-scale aeroplane under three hypothetical conditions.

In Aim A above, the relationship between the two parts of the experiment is not made clear.

Writing tip
Writing concisely will help you convey exactlywhat you want to achieve in the experiment.
 Activity
Compare the two (Aim) statements below:
AIM A To conduct lift and drag measurements on a model aeroplane in a wind tunnel.
AIM B To measure the lift and drag forces on a model aeroplane in a wind tunnel.

Which of the aims above (AIM A or AIM B) is more accurate?

 Aim A

 Aim B

Check

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Introduction or Background
The Introduction (sometimes called Background) should:

• introduce the topic and purpose of the experiment

• explain the relevant theory in detail, including relevant laws, equations or theorems
• indicate the method/s you will use for analysis, such as nodal analysis, numerical modelling or microscopy.

Lecturer's advice
Provide enough background that the reader will understand the experiment without having to refer to
the lab instructions.

Always write the Introduction in your own words; don’t just copy from the lab notes.
Example:

Introduction

The use of solar water heaters is rapidly increasing in both homes and businesses as they
provide an environmentally friendly and cost effective source of energy. However, significant
improvement to their heating efficiency is required before they can be used
without a supplementary energy source. This experiment investigates two factors affecting
the heating efficiency of solar water heaters: mass flow rate and collector design. Firstly, the
efficiency of a flat plate collector (Figure 1) is examined by measuring the temperature of the
absorber plate, insulation and water at various flow rates using a rotameter to control the
rate of water input into the collector. Secondly, two different methods of welding the water
tubes to the absorber plate are tested…

The Introduction can include any figures, tables or equations necessary to explain the relevant theory. It should
also set out any assumptions, and indicate how the data will be processed. Always cite your sources of
information, including your lecture notes.

Example:

Solar lamps will be used to model the incident radiation received by solar heaters from the sun.
However, it is not possible to reproduce the uniform radiation flux at the surface of a real
collector. Therefore the average radiation flux at the surface of the collector will be used in
calculations.

It is always best to draw figures yourself if you can. If you do use figures from another source, indicate in the
citation whether you have modified it in any way.
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Method
This is where you describe what you actually did. This includes how the data was collected, any experimental
difficulties you encountered and how you resolved or overcame them. If any aspects of the methodology are likely
to contribute systematic error to the data and results, point this out in sufficient detail in this section.

Materials and/or Experimental setup

Begin with a description of the materials used and/or the apparatus setup accompanied by:

• an image showing the relevant features of any object or material under investigation
• a diagram of the experimental setup, with each component clearly labelled

This experiment required a particular apparatus setup.

Example 1:

The performance of a flat plate solar collector was analysed using a small scale test rig. The rig
was as shown in Figure 3, with the exception of the water pipes (see Figure 4). Thermocouples
were connected to the collector as shown in Figure 3, and attached at the inlet and outlet of the
water pipes to measure ambient temperature.
 Figure 3. Flat plate solar collector setup

Figure 4. Wired joint

This experiment required material to be prepared in a particular way.

Example 2:

The samples were prepared by cutting square tiles with side lengths of ~5mm from a 1mm x
50mm x 50mm sheet of 99.9999+% (6N) pure aluminium, purchased from Company X (see
appendix for a chemical assay). The tiles cut from this sheet were then mounted onto glass
microscope slides with thermal wax in order to provide sufficient support and for ease of
mounting into a wire saw.
Procedure

When you carry out an experiment, you usually follow a set of instructions such as these which may include extra
information to guide you through the steps.

Example lab handout:

Week 5 Laboratory instructions

Aim: This week we calculate and analyse the stoichiometry of bicarbonate decomposition.

Procedure

1.
1 Initiate the bicarbonate feed pump and adjust the flow rate to 230mL/min. Wait until the flow rate has
stabilised before proceeding.
2.
2 Admit cooling water to the condenser at maximum flow rate. The liquid seal will fill and overflow, so
that steam enters the reactor.
3.
3 Increase steam pressure gradually until…

When writing up the Procedure, you must report what was actually done and what actually happened, omitting
any extra information such as helpful hints included in the instructions. This experiment might then be reported as
follows.

Example 1:

The flow rate of the feed pump was set to 230mL/min and cooling water was added to the
condenser at maximum flow rate. Once the steam had overflowed into the reactor, the pressure
was increased to…

Lecturer’s advice
You need to include enough detail for someone else to replicate what you did and get a similar
outcome. You should also explain any extra actions or decisions made during the experiment.
Example 2:

The rotameter was adjusted each time by the same member of the group in order to ensure
consistent readings.

Writing tip
In the Procedure section you should use:

• the past tense because you are reporting on a past activity

• the passive voice when reporting what you did.

The pressure was increased

until the steam overflowed
into the reactor.

Increase the pressure until the This is an instruction,

steam overflows into the probably copied from the lab
reactor handout.

We increased the pressure The traditional view is

until the steam overflowed into
the reactor.
against using ‘I’ or ‘we’.
But some lecturers don’t
mind if you do - check to be
sure.
 • The main reasons for using the passive voice are:
◦ If the subject of the sentence (i.e.: who or what performed the action) is not known or
not relevant. E.g.; Annealing is used to soften metal for shaping.
◦ To avoid starting every sentence with “I” or “We” when describing what you did.
• In all other cases, use the active voice.

After three minutes the steam

overflowed into the reactor.

Read the lab handout below:

The effects of surface roughness on drag force

Equipment

Cylinder - 2408mm high, 80mm diameter

Wind tunnel working area: 304.8mm x 304.8mm x 812.8mm

Procedure

1. Choose a way to apply temporary rough surfaces to the cylinder. Your chosen method must be able to
simulate at least two noticeable variations in surface roughness.

2. Calibrate the strain gauge and record a zero reading. You can find the calibration coefficient by applying
known masses to the model. The results can then be plotted to determine the calibration factor.
Activity
Now read the two student lab reports below and answer the three questions that follow. Scroll down
and use the blue dots or arrows to move to the next question.

Group A report

The effects of surface roughness on drag force

Procedure

After a long discussion our group chose sandpaper to simulate variations in surface
roughness as there is a big difference between the lightest and heaviest grades. To
make sure the sandpaper wouldn't come off under high wind velocities, we came up
with the idea of sticking it to the cylinder with double-sided tape. We found the
calibration coefficient by applying 4 known masses to the model and plotting the
results.

Group B report.

The effects of surface roughness on drag force

Procedure

It was decided that sandpaper would be the most effective way to simulate
variations in surface roughness due to the significant variation between the lightest
and heaviest grades. Because the sandpaper will be subjected to very high wind
velocities, in order to make sure that it will not be dislodged in the wind tunnel, it
will be wrapped around the cylinder and secured with double-sided tape. Before
beginning, the strain gauge must be calibrated to obtain a zero reading. The
calibration coefficient is found by applying four known masses to the model and
plotting the results.

Which report above (Group A or Group B) is better in terms of tense use?

 Group A

 Group B

Check
 Lecturer's advice
Never copy and paste from the lab handout; report on what actually happened.

In some cases, you may be allowed to direct the reader to the standard followed or to the relevant
page of the lab manual.

Example:

The experiment was carried out according to the instructions on page 23 of the CHE2202 Lab
Manual.

However, only do this if you are completely sure it is permitted and clearly describe any deviations from the
instructions.

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Results and Discussion

In this section, you present your processed data in graphs, figures or tables and explain their significance in
relation to the experimental aim. This usually involves comparing them with the calculations made in your
preliminary work or the published theoretical values.
 Lecturer's advice
If you have a long set of complex results, it may be more appropriate to present them in one section
called Results, and discuss them in a separate Discussion section. However, moving back and forth
can be confusing for the reader. The objective is to tell the story as simply and clearly as possible.

Presenting results

• Present your processed data in graphs or tables.

• Explain how the raw data was processed to obtain the final results.
• Include an error analysis where applicable.
• Provide sample calculations for each step of the process in an appendix.
• When the process need only be carried out once, include the working here rather than in an appendix.

Present your data in graph or table form so that it is easy to compare your results with the expected values
Numbering

• Tables are referred to as Table 1 etc, numbered sequentially.

• Everything else (graphs, images, diagrams etc.) is referred to as Figure 1 etc.

You must refer to every figure and table in your text, so that the reader understands the content and purpose of
each. Explain clearly how you obtained final values, and tell the reader where to find raw data and sample
calculations.

Example 1

The drag and lift coefficients for the model aeroplane are shown in Graph 3 below. Sample
calculations are presented in Appendix 4.
Example 2

Part 1

Six specimens of Perspex were tested to three loads (see Appendix 1) and the corresponding
deflection calculated. The average compliance at each crack length was calculated and is
plotted in Graph 1. To calculate the fracture toughness of Perspex the derivate of 2λ with
respect to a is required. Linearizing Graph 1 allows an expression between compliance and
crack length to be modelled. The linearized relation form of the relationship allows the power
law relationship to be determined.

Discussing results

This is where you:

• comment on the results you obtained

• interpret what the results mean in relation to the aim of the experiment
• explain any unexpected results.
 Lecturer's advice
Your marker wants to know how well you understand what happened in the experiment. You should:

• identify and comment on trends

• compare the expected and experimental results
• identify any sources of error in your measurements
• suggest explanations for unexpected results
• where appropriate, suggest how the experiment could have been improved.

Example 1:

Varying the angle of attack in the positive direction increased the lift until the wind reached an
angle of attack of 10°, after which it decreased. This is consistent with the standard trend [3].

Example 2:

The values found for the pressure coefficients around the cylinder (graph 5) are consistent with
the accepted trend for laminar flow (graph 6). The sudden increase in the pressure coefficient
at 190° is due to the cylinder becoming dislodged from its position perpendicular to the flow.

When discussing your results, begin by directing the reader to the relevant table or graph.

Sample report Tips

The rotameter calibration results are
shown in Table 1, and the corresponding
mass flow rates plotted as the calibration
curve in Figure 3. The results appear linear
with no significant outliers, suggesting that
the rotameter is an effective way to control
the water flow rate.
1. Begin by directing the reader to the
relevant figure, table or graph. This is
called a location statement. It tells the
reader where to look and what to focus on.
2. Then explain what the results mean in
relation to the experimental aim.

The example below, from an experiment measuring the saturation pressure of water, shows the main features of
a Discussion.
Activity
The paragraph below contains some, but not all, of the functions of a Discussion. For each sentence,
select the appropriate function or functions from the following quiz.

Example:

Figure 5 shows the standard efficiency curve for each of the two collector types
investigated. While the data points for the formed fully soldered joint are
significantly spread out from the line of best fit, the soldered joint data points lie
close to the best-fit line. The latter indicates a strong similarity to standard
efficiency curves given in Hessami (2006). Both best-fit lines indicate that
efficiency increases with reduction in water mass flow rate, which is characteristic
of standard efficiency curves.
 The efficiency of the solar collectors could be improved by the use of one-way glass
to reduce incident radiation losses due to reflection, as well as by better insulation
of the experimental apparatus.

What is the function of Sentence 1?

 Suggests improvements to the experiment

 Explains the significance of the results

 Identifies sources of error

 Suggests explanations for unexpected results

 Identifies and comments on trends

 Compares the expected and experimental results

 It is a location statement

Check

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Conclusions
This section summarises the key results and discussion points.

• Indicate to what extent the aims of the experiment were achieved.

• Summarise the main points of your findings including key values.
• Summarise important limitations and the cause of unexpected results.
• Recommend improvements to overcome experimental limitations.
 Lecturer's advice.
Your Conclusion should answer the question: So what? Students often write weak conclusions
because they do not put sufficient emphasis on the significance and relevance of their results in
relation to the Aim of the experiment.

Example:

Aim
The aim of this experiment was to compare the effect of two different collector designs and
variations in water flow rate on the performance of a flat plate solar collector.

Conclusion
Experimental results showed a clear correlation between the collector efficiency of a solar
water heater and water mass flow rate. The most efficient of the two collector designs tested
was the formed fully soldered joint, due to the greater contact area between
collector and pipe maximising heat transfer to the fluid. The optimal efficiency point obtained
for this design was at the highest water mass flow tested, 0.095kg/s, suggesting that the actual
optimum may be higher. It is therefore recommended that a higher range of flow rates be
tested. The data also suggests that an efficiency of over 80% is achievable, and significantly
greater than the currently accepted maximum.
 Activity

Which of the common functions of the Conclusions does not appear in the example
above?

 Recommendation of improvements to overcome limitations

 Summary of limitations or unexpected results

 Summary of key findings

 Indication of extent to which aims were achieved

Check

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Appendices
These contain material that is too detailed to include in the main report, such as tables of raw data or detailed
calculations.

• Each appendix must be given a number (or letter) and title.

• Each appendix must be referred to by number (or letter) at the relevant point in the text.

Example:
 The calculated values are shown in Figure 3 below. For detailed calculations, see Appendix 1.

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This tutorial has presented the basic principles of writing lab reports. However your lecturers may specify small
variations in structure or style. Always check your assignment instructions carefully.