POINTERS (Understanding, Society, Culture and
Politics)
Enculturation and Socialization
Socialization – the process by which an
individual is oriented and taught by his or her
society’s norms.
Two types of identity:
 Primary Identity – consists of roles and
statuses that an individual learns as a child.
(e.g. sex, age and ethnicity)
 Secondary Identity – an individual gets
enculturated and socialized with his or her
society’s norm. (e.g. occupation,
educational background, economic status
and gender)
Theories on Identity
 Role learning theory – promotes the
argument that individuals learn a repertoire
of social roles from their society.
 Symbolic interactionism – promotes the
idea that individuals construct their notion
of the self through social interactions
performed within a society.
Norms – is a standard of behavior, principle of
right action.
Values – refers to all those ideas held in society
that are considered good, acceptable, and right.
Four categories of norms:
 Folkways – socially approved behaviors that
have no moral underpinning.
 Mores – are the norms related to moral
conventions.
 Taboos – are behaviors that are absolutely
forbidden in a specific culture.
 Laws – consist of the rules and regulations
that are implemented by the state as the
source of social control.
Conformity – is the act of following the roles
and goals of one’s society.
Deviance – is the act of violating the prescribed
social norms.
Stigma – is a strong sense of disapproval on
nonconforming behavior from members of a
society.
Theories on the existence of deviance and
deviants:
 Social control theory – deviance is primarily
caused by a lack in stronger social bonds
within a society.
 Rational choice theory – the individual’s
decision to follow or to go against social
norms is dependent on their perceived cost
and benefit of such action.
 Differential association theory – conformity
or deviance is learned by an individual from
those he or she associates with.
 Labeling theory – actions are initially not
considered deviant until they are labeled as
such by member of the community.
 Conflict theory – society consists of
opposing groups of people whose access to
power is unequal.
 Structural-functionalist theory – product of
the breakdown of social norms (macro
level), and a product of the role strain that
an individual experience due to lack of
resources to cope with the demands of the
social norms (micro level).
To maintain social order and stability, social
control is needed.
Internalization – is an integral part of
communicating and incorporating social norms
to an individual’s personality.
Sanctions – are powerful in leading an individual
to conform to social norms.
Types of sanctions:
 Formal sanctions – these are the rewards or
forms of punishment that are formally
awarded by an institution such as
government, a council or an establishment.
 Informal sanctions – these are the rewards
and forms of punishment that are
spontaneously given by an individual or a
group of people as a response to a behavior
that was either accepted or disapproved.
 Positive sanctions – these are actions or
statements that reward a particular
behavior which reinforce its repetition.
 Formal Positive – a reward given by an
institution to encourage conformity.
 Formal Negative – a punishment given by an
institution to enforce conformity.
 Informal Positive – a reward given by an
individual/group that encourages
conformity.
 Informal Negative – a punishment given by
an individual/group to coerce conformity.
SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
Social Networks – consist of individuals who
have dyadic relationships that are interacting
with other relationships within a structure.
Sociogram – is a visual representation of the
social networks present in one group of more.
In-group – is the social group in which an
individual directly affiliates and expresses
loyalty to.
Out-group – the group that an individual is not
part of.
Reference group – an ideal group in which an
individual can be shaped by the set of behavior
and beliefs of group.
Primary group – direct sources of an individual’s
social skills and knowledge. (e.g. family, friends,
peers, classmates and church)
Secondary group – relationship and interactions
are limited to a particular role that an individual
play within the group.
Small groups
Family is an example of a small group, village
(barangay) is an example of a large group.
Dyad – consists of two individuals.
Triad – a small group of three individuals.
KINSHIP
Kinship – refers to the “web of relationships”
Characteristics of a family:
 A family is a socioeconomic unit.
 A family can have one or more parents.
 A family can have parents who are not
married.
 A family can have parents with same
gender.
 A family should have at least one child.
Two primary purposes of a family
1. To orient the individual of the norms of the
society.
2. To provide physical support as the individual
matures.
Kinship by Blood
One factor that allows an individual to identify
another individual as a family member is
through consanguinity, popularly called as
blood relatives.
Unilineal Descent – this allows an individual to
be affiliated to the descent of one sex group
only.
Matrilineal Descent – trace kinship relations
through the female’s line.
Patrilineal Descent – trace kinship relations
through the male’s line.
An expansion of unilineal groups creates a
kinship group called the clan.
Bilateral descent – allows an individual to trace
kinship ties on both sides of the family.
Kinship by Marriage
Marriage – is defined as the “socially or ritually
recognized union or legal contract between
spouses that establishes rights and obligations
between them, between them and their
children, between them and their in-laws”.
(Haviland et al., 2011)
Types of families based on marriage:
Patrifocal – focused on the father.
Matrifocal – focused on the mother.
Monogamous – consists of a single couple and
their child or children. Also called as nuclear
family.
Polygamous – consists of several parents and
their children.
 Polyandry – women is allowed to marry
several men.
 Polygyny – men is allowed to marry several
women.
Extended family – type of family has several
married couples and their children living in one
household.
Reconstituted Family – allowing divorce and
legal separations.
Postmarital Residency Rules
1. Patrifocal Residence – the woman is
expected to transfer to the residence of her
husband’s father.
2. Matrifocal Residence – the man is expected
to the residence of his wife’s mother’s area.
3. Neolocal Residence – an arrangement that
requires both spouses to leave their
households and create their own at times
even in a different locality.
4. Natalocal Residence – an arrangement that
allows both spouses to remain with their
own households after marriage.
5. Ambilocal Residence – type of residence
pattern allows the couple to choose to live
either with the wife’s mother’s area or the
husband’s father’s area.
6. Transnational Families – families whose
members reside separately across
territories. (e.g. OFWs)
Political Kinship
Political Organization – is any entity that is
participating in a political process.
Bands
 A band is the least complex form of political
organization, as it has neither a rigid form of
governance nor a structured form of
leadership.
 Foraging (hunting and gathering) is their
economic subsistence.
 Reciprocity is a primary form of exchange
among the individuals.
Tribes
 A tribe is a political organization that
consists of segmentary lineages. This type of
kinship relationship is marked by loyalty per
family cluster or segment.
 Most tribes are either holticultural (shifting
agriculture) or pastoral (tending animals).
 The leaders that are chosen in this type of
organization are individuals who are
believed to possess special skills or
aptitudes that relate to the economic
activitiy.
 A tribute is a form of gift that may consists
of wealth, food, or other materials given to
a central figure who in turn redistributes the
accumulated goods to the other member of
society.
Chiefdoms
 Embodied its characteristics that include a
political leader with an advisory council, a
leader who exercises power that is based on
legitimacy, and the existence of social
stratification.
 Horticulture and pastoralism are the
economic subsistence.
 Existence of social stratification that
segregates into the elite and the commoner.
States and Nations
 Nation refers to a group of people sharing
similar culture and political history.
 State refers to a political organization united
by a common set of laws.
 A state uses absolute power in directing the
path of a society.
 The primary form of economic subsistence
is market exchange.
 Standardized currencies are used to
exchange commodities.
 As a citizen of a country, an individual is
subjected to the legal norms in the territory.
(paying taxes, rendering military services)
 Natural rights – are those that are expected
to be enjoyed by all individuals, regardless
of citizenship. (right to life, right to liberty,
right to property)
 Legal rights – are those that are rewarded
to an individual by the state as part of its
culture, traditions, and norms. (right to
vote, right to privacy, right to join formal
organizations)
 Article III or the Bill of Rights which states
the rights to be enjoyed by its citizens.
Authority and Legitimacy
Legal authority – is achieved by a leader
through the process of following established
codes and procedures governing the allocation
and distribution of power and resources within
a society.
Traditional authority – is a form of leadership
legitimacy that highlights the right of a leader to
rule based on inheritance of the title.
Charismatic authority – type of leadership that
is based on the personal attachment of the
subordinates to the ruler whose characteristics,
experiences, or even skills are believed to be
extraordinary, or maybe even supernatural.
Institutional charisma – is a combination of
charismatic and legal authority.
Familial charisma – combination of traditional
and charismatic authority.
ECONOMIC ORGANIZATION
Reciprocity – exchange of commodities between
parties.
Types of Reciprocity
 Generalized reciprocity – gift giving without
any expectation of immediate return.
e.g. giving birthday presents to a friend.
 Balanced reciprocity – expecting immediate
return from any given favor. The value of
the commodities is expected to be equal.
e.g. selling goods and services in the market
 Negative reciprocity – the exchange tends
to favor one party over the other, as the
value of the goods for exchange is equal.
e.g. a merchant selling fake commodities at
prices of the original and genuine items
Transfers – when resources from one individual
or organization are given to another with no
expectation of return.
Redistribution – when the resources of one,
several individuals, or groups are collected and
distributed proportionally or equally to
participating members. (e.g. charity donations
and income tax systems)
Market Transactions
Market is referred to as the exchange of goods  Farming methods and domestication of
and services that involves buying and selling animals were developed intensively to meet
processes. However, it is not a simple process of the needs of the growing population.
exchanging materials, goods, and services. It
involves several elements and transactions.
Market is about making money, capital, income
and growth. (Women and Economy, 2011)

Uses standardized currency.

Types of Economic Subsistence

Foraging

 Hunting for animals and gathering wild

plants were their common activities.
 Hunting (men) and gathering (women).
 Nomads are individuals or group of people
who stay in a place for a short period of
time.
 Types of Foraging Patterns: Pedestrian
(land), Equestrian (with horses), Aquatic
(hunt water species).

Pastoral

 Pastoralism is a subsistence pattern that is

primarily focused on “tending herds of
large animals”.
 Dependent on drought, weather variability
and predators.
 Pastoral Nomads – transfer from one place
to another in search of food and resources
for themselves and for their animals.
 Transhumance pastoralists – following a
cyclical pattern of migrations.

Holticulture

 Holticulture is a combination of small-scale

of farming and domesticating animals for
the purpose of food and prestige.
 Participate in small surplus or selling in
exchange of the goods they cannot
reproduce.

Agriculture