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Development of Low Friction Snake-Inspired Deterministic Textured Surfaces

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 Surf. Topogr.: Metrol. Prop. 4 (2016) 024013 doi:10.1088/2051-672X/4/2/024013

PAPER

Development of low friction snake-inspired deterministic

RECEIVED
31 December 2015
textured surfaces
REVISED
6 February 2016
ACCEPTED FOR PUBLICATION
P Cuervo1, D A López1, J P Cano1, J C Sánchez1, S Rudas1, H Estupiñán1, A Toro1 and H A Abdel-Aal2
19 February 2016 1
Tribology and Surfaces Group, National University of Colombia, Medellín, Colombia
2
PUBLISHED Drexel University, 3141 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
9 May 2016
E-mail: Hisham.abdelaal@Drexel.edu

Keywords: bio-inspired texturing, deterministic surfaces, designer surfaces

Abstract
The use of surface texturization to reduce friction in sliding interfaces has proved successful in some
tribological applications. However, it is still difficult to achieve robust surface texturing with
controlled designer-functionalities. This is because the current existing gap between enabling
texturization technologies and surface design paradigms. Surface engineering, however, is advanced
in natural surface constructs especially within legless reptiles. Many intriguing features facilitate the
tribology of such animals so that it is feasible to discover the essence of their surface construction. In
this work, we report on the tribological behavior of a novel class of surfaces of which the spatial
dimensions of the textural patterns originate from micro-scale features present within the ventral
scales of pre-selected snake species. Mask lithography was used to produce implement elliptical
texturizing patterns on the surface of titanium alloy (Ti6Al4V) pins. To study the tribological behavior
of the texturized pins, pin-on-disc tests were carried out with the pins sliding against ultra-high
molecular weight polyethylene discs with no lubrication. For comparison, two non-texturized
samples were also tested under the same conditions. The results show the feasibility of the
texturization technique based on the coefficient of friction of the textured surfaces to be consistently
lower than that of the non-texturized samples.

Nomenclature Rz average maximum peak-

to-valley distance of the
Ar real area of contact (m ) 2
profile (μm)
Aap apparent area of con-
Sm mean spacing between
tact (m2)
profile asperities (μm)
E elastic modulus (Pa)
*
ν Poisson’s ratio
E reduced elastic modu-
λ separation distance
lus (Pa)
between rows of fibrils
H hardness of the softer in snake skin, or center
material in pin-on-disc line-to-centerline
tests (Pa) spacing between features
l length of an individual in man-texturized sur-
fibril (μm) in snake skin faces (μm)
w width of an individual σ standard deviation of sur-
fibril (μm) in snake skin face heights (m)
L normal load applied in r mean radius of curvature
pin-on-disc tests (N) of asperities
Ra mean arithmetic value of ψ Greenwood-Williamson
roughness (μm) plasticity index

© 2016 IOP Publishing Ltd

Surf. Topogr.: Metrol. Prop. 4 (2016) 024013
h height of the texturization
feature (μm)
Φ projection of the feature
base in direction of slid-
ing (μm)
Acronyms
COF coefficient of friction
ML mask lithography
ARF aspect ratio of fibril in
snake skin
FH height of texture fea-
ture (μm)
MTS man-texturized surfaces
FAR feature aspect ratio
TAR total area ratio
FSR feature slenderness ratio
SAR surface aspect ratio
LT laser texturizing
1. Introduction
Friction is a major concern in the mechanical design of
moving parts. The phenomenon is responsible for the
loss of approximately 20% of total power consump-
tion in internal combustion engines, close to 50% in
the railroad industry and as high as 80% in the textile
industry [1–3]. Friction induced losses intensify in dry
contact between rubbing surfaces or when lubrication
is inadequate. In general, designers consider dry
contact to be harmful, since, in addition to severe
friction, wear accelerates under dry conditions. Many
efforts, therefore, have been attempted to mitigate
friction and wear. The demands for reduced friction,
especially in dry mode, are considerable. This is due to
the current emerging emphasis on sustainability and
green tribological practices [4]. An added benefit of
enhancing dry friction performance is the reduction in
the viscosity of any lubricant to be applied, for the
same load bearing capacity of the particular surface.
This leads to a further reduction in the total energy
wasted to friction. A major constituent of any solid
surface is its topography. Inherently surfaces are
rough. Roughness features typically affect the magni-
tude of the coefficient of friction and the evolution
path of any rubbing process. Many studies point to the
close relation between nominal load, surface rough-
ness, and the magnitude of the friction coefficient. In
hip implants [5–10], the increment of friction coeffi-
cient in dry conditions directly correlated to the
normal load and roughness parameters of the contact-
ing surfaces. Variation in the values of the mean square
of roughness, Ra, profile skewness Rsk, and mean
spacing between asperities Sm significantly influence
the friction coefficient and wear of PTFE composites
2
P Cuervo et al
sliding against a steel counterface [11]. The same
Surface metrological parameters influence the friction
of ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene
(UHMWPE) sliding against Co-Cr steel surface [12].
The increase of friction coefficient is also related to
variations of the Ra and normal load in thermoplastic
olefins (TPO) used to manufacture decorative protec-
tive parts for cars [13].
The close correlation between friction and the
topography of a rubbing surface suggest that one route
to controlling friction is to engineer the micro geo-
metry of the surface. This process, commonly known
as surface texturing, has emerged as a viable option for
friction control. The concept itself was proposed
around the middle of the twentieth century [14],
although it gained momentum toward the end of the
same century [15]. Several studies have demonstrated
the benefits of surface texturing to minimize friction
coefficients because the stress distribution is more
homogenous along the contact surface [16–18]. The
use of textured surfaces allows the prediction of the
behavior of the tribological pair as a function of the
operating conditions of the system with reasonable
accuracy, in a number of mechanical situations. The
benefits of texturing extend to include many situations
that comprise rubbing of conformal mating surfaces.
These include metal on metal artificial hip joints.
Dipankar et al [19] reported that the use of
micro dimples reduced the friction coefficient by
almost 50% and helped remove the wear debris
from the contact area, while in contact between the
cobalt alloy (Co-Cr-Mo) and UHMWPE. Sawano
et al [20] reported a reduction of the wear rate of
UHMPE through texturing of the metal surface. He
attributed wear reduction in this case to the entrap-
ment of wear particles within the texture, which
reduces the contribution of the body wear of the
UHMWPE surface.
Improved friction and wear also extend to other
systems. Borghi et al [21], report that circular dimpling
reduced the COF of nitriding steel (30NiCr-Mo12)
operating in dry conditions around 10%. Petterson
and Jacobson [22] compared the performance of
square waffle-texture on silicon in dry and lubricated
sliding conditions, and reported a reduction of the
friction coefficient and wear rate.
Textured surfaces are deterministic in essence.
Their topography drives from repeating a primitive
geometric feature (cone, ellipse, cylinder, etc) on the
surface in an array with predetermined dimensions
and intra-spacing. Predicting the optimal size, and
spacing, of the texturing array is key to the success of a
textured surface. Consequently, most of the current
research on the subject aims at devising the optimal
texturing schemes in terms of feature shapes and
dimensional attributes [23]. Although the research
spans more than two decades, questions about optimal
spacing and geometrical attributes given a sliding
situation remain open. Inspiration from nature can
Surf. Topogr.: Metrol. Prop. 4 (2016) 024013
Figure 1. A schematic illustration showing the possible interaction between surface design features, physical properties and function
in biological surfaces.
play a major role in that respect. Biomimetics, or Bio-
inspiration, can help devise novel pathways to textur-
ing schemes through observing the frictional behavior
of biological-deterministic functional surfaces.
One interesting biological species is that of snakes.
Snakes have been the focus of numerous recent inves-
tigations due to their unique tribological traits. One
particular trait, of special focus in the current work, is
the deterministic nature of their ventral scale texture.
The texturing scheme of this highly ordered skin
affords the reptiles a controllable COF and an overall
optimized frictional energy profile over a wide spec-
trum of surfaces [24]. Surface metrology and friction
control are closely correlated in snakes. Abdel-Aal
[25], found that the kurtosis and skewness in the ven-
tral scales of shed skin of P. Regius directly correlate to
a reduction in the kinematic friction coefficient of sna-
keskin. He further proposed that the correlations
between geometrical aspects of the ventral skin and
their tribological behavior offers a way to design pat-
terns for tribo-surfaces with desirable characteristics
(e.g., self-cleaning, active control of friction, self-heal-
ing etc [26]). Baum and coworkers [27] were able to
replicate the friction anisotropy in polymer textured
surfaces, tested against smooth glass, by mimicking
the ventral skin of the California King Snake (L. g.
Californiae). Mühlberger et al [28] also replicated
snake surfaces by ceramic injection molding. Pin-on-
disc tests against polyester rings revealed some 30%
reduction in friction coefficients as a function of the
sliding direction compared to control samples. Deter-
ministic patterns can be implemented on metallic sur-
faces with the aid of mask or mask-less lithographic
methods. Lithographic methods are effective to obtain
micro or nanoscale textures with a relatively low cost
of fabrication [29–31]. The method consists in sub-
mitting a sample to electrochemical reactions that
promote the growth of an anodic layer on the surface
of the sample. Following this, a mask containing the
desired pattern is generated through printing. Finally,
a second electrochemical process removes the anodic
layer thereby superimposing the pattern of the mask
3
P Cuervo et al
on the surface. Lithogarphy comprises relatively sim-
ple steps. This renders the method suitable for ele-
mental texturing of several metallic surfaces.
In this work, we used mask lithography to
impose bio-inspired deterministic elliptical textur-
ing patterns on metallic pin samples made of the
Titanium alloy Ti6Al4V. Micro-ornamentation fea-
tures found on the ventral scales of a Royal Python
(P. regius) inspired the geometrical attributes of the
texturing features. The texturing scheme observed
the geometrical attributes of the micro- features of
the ventral scales along with their proportionality
within their respective ornamentation arrays. Thus,
the focus in the work is on implementing a bio-
inspired texture design rule rather than a direct
replication of a biological surface.
This manuscript comprises two parts. The first
provides a general background on the geometrical and
morphological attributes of snakes. In the second part,
we detail the technical aspects of the texturizing meth-
odology, and the experimental investigation of the
frictional behavior of the texturized samples.
2. Morphological structure of snakeskin
The skin of reptiles is complex. It manifests a multi-
purpose structure that performs synchronized tasks.
In snakes, the skin preserves the structural integrity of
the body through resisting harmful influences (abra-
sion, wear, and mechanical injuries caused by motion).
Successful function of the skin is a consequence of
many interconnected overlapping characteristics (see
figure 1). Abrasion and wear resistance, for example,
depend on the mechanical properties of the outer layer
of the skin (the Oberhautchen) and the underlying
layers [32]. They also depends on the topographical
feature the skin, the micro-ornamentation, and its
general metrological structure [33–35]. Overall, the
interaction between surface design features, metrol-
ogy, mechanical properties, and topography is respon-
sible for optimal tribological performance by the
Surf. Topogr.: Metrol. Prop. 4 (2016) 024013
Figure 2. Examples of snake ventral scales, (a) Northern Pine Snake (Pituophismelnoleucus), and (b) Forest Cobra (Najamelanoleuca).
Figure 3. Details of the ventral scales of two snakes, (a) Forest Cobra (Najamelanoleuca), (b) Python regius. The boundaries of the
scales are curves that convex toward the head of the reptile. Figure 3(b) depicts the details of the junction between the scale and hinge
regions.
reptile. This interaction therefore stands to offer many
lessons for the engineering of the future generations of
functional surfaces.
Snakes are diverse. Diversity demands specializa-
tion in tribological features of the particular reptile.
This specialization manifests in the adaptation of geo-
metrical features, form, and metrology of surfaces.
The implications of adaptation are intriguing on
account of the fact that they provide an opportunity
for pinpointing elements of surface design.
2.1. Architecture of snake scales
A snake may have three or more types of scales on
different locations of its body. Each type of scale
appears to perform a particular function. Each scale
type has an individual form as well. Depending on the
side of the body, scales overlap in successive rows. This
is particuarly the case for dorsal scales (located on the
back of the snake).
Ventral scales are smooth in appearance, and hex-
agonal in geometry. They extend across the underside
of the snake with one scale per row (figure 2). There
are are elongated in the lateral direction (see figure 3)
to aid in reducing the energetic cost of movement [26].
It is of note is that such an arrangement is common
among footpads in insects and it contributes to
4
P Cuervo et al
reducing friction, in insects, by at least a factor of two
[36]. The general outline of the scale is a curve, not a
straight line, and is convex toward the head of the
reptile.
The overall distribution of the areas of the ventral
scales along the AP-axis of the body, and thereby the
individual dimensions, is not uniform. That is, ventral
scales do not have a fixed area. Dimensions of indivi-
dual ventral scales vary in proportion to the local var-
iation in body girth. In what follows, we present
examples of this variation.
2.2. Distribution of ventral scales along the body
Figures 4(a)–(d) depict the variation in the area of the
ventral scales of four species as a function of the
position of the individual scale along the body of the
particular reptile. In each of the plots, the data
represent the areas of ventral scales along the AP-axis
normalized by the area of the largest scale. The
horizontal axis represents the non-dimensional posi-
tion of the individual scales along the anterior–poster-
ior body axis. The plots show that the areas of the
scales vary as a function of the position on the body.
Close to the head (first ventral), the area generally is at
a minimum. The area increases until it reaches a
maximum value within the midsection of the trunk,
Surf. Topogr.: Metrol. Prop. 4 (2016) 024013
Figure 4. Distribution of the normalized rea of the ventral scales along the AP-axis for several ‘stocky’ snakes. Non-dimensional
distance denotes the location of the centroid of the particular ventral scale normalized by the snout-to-vent length. Ventral scale areas
are normalized by the maximum area of the scales for each species.
thereafter, the area decreases until it reaches a mini-
mum value at the last ventral scale. The minimum
value may be less than, or equal to, the initial value of
the first ventral scale (depending on the species). The
distribution of the ventral scale area is asymmetric, in
most species, with the scale of maximum area shifted
away from the midsection of the reptile.
Ventral scales influence locomotion in that they
control friction. As mentioned earlier, one method of
limiting friction is elongation of individual ventral
scales along the lateral axis (i.e., increasing the aspect
ratio of ventral scales to accommodate body shape).
Figure 5 shows distribution of the aspect ratio of indi-
vidual ventral scales along the AP-axis. The aspect
ratio represents the ratio of the width of the scale
(measured along the lateral axis) to the length of the
scale (extension from hinge to hinge toward the tail,
along the AP-axis). Plots show data for four repre-
sentative species with similar body form and
5
P Cuervo et al
approximately equal length. Again, a nonlinear asym-
metric relationship emerges from the plots.
2.3. Micro and submicroscopic structural features of
scales
In snakes, ventral scales comprise micron-sized struc-
tures (fibrils or denticulations). These structures are not
unique in shape. Different species manifest different
shapes. Figure 6 presents a sample of scanning eletron
microscopy (SEM) images of the fibril shapes found on
the ventral scales different species. In addition to the
variation in shape, density of the fibrils along the
anterior–posterior axis shows non-linear distribution.
Geometrical proportion and dimensions within the
same reptile also vary according to location on the body.
Hazel et al [37] reported that the slopes of the fibril tips
are steeper toward the posterior end (tail direction)
while being gradual toward the head. He further
proposed that geometric asymmetry combined to fibril
Surf. Topogr.: Metrol. Prop. 4 (2016) 024013
Figure 5. Distribution of the ventral scale aspect ratio of the ventral scales along the AP-axis of the individual reptile. The figure details
the distribution for six ‘heavy’ species.
elasticity is the origin of the regulated frictional response
often observed in snakes.
AFM imaging of the fibrils, shown in figure 7,
reveals the elevation of the tips above the overall pla-
teau of ventral cells. One may view the fibril tips as
artificial texturing embossed on the scale surface. In
this sense, skin-texturing features in snakes may be
comparable to texture features of technological
surfaces.
2.4. Metrological description
Texturized surfaces are deterministic in essence. As
such, their metrological description does not conform
to the stochastic parameter identification models
customary applied to manufactured surfaces. Describ-
ing the metrology of texturized surfaces therefore takes
place through characterizing those primitive geome-
trical features that affect tribological function [38–44].
These parameters include the height of the texturiza-
tion feature (h), projection of the feature base in
direction of sliding (Φp), and the center line-to-
6
P Cuervo et al
centerline spacing between features λ. Abdel-aal [33]
defined analogous quantities for snakeskin along the
same lines adopted for describing elements of texture
in man-texturized surfaces (MTS). Figure 8 illustrates
the geometric features necessary to calculate the ratios
for MTS and their equivalent for snakeskin. Figure 9
illustrates some geometric parameters used for fibril
characterization. Table 1 meanwhile, provides a com-
parison between the formulas used to calculate those
geometrical ratios for each texturization type, man-
made and reptilian.
3. Materials and methods
3.1. Surface patterns
In this work, we modified the surfaces of metallic pins
made of the titanium alloy Ti6Al4V. The rubbing ends
of the pins were modified through texturization with
elliptical protruding features. The geometrical primi-
tive ratios of the texturizing features (feature aspect
Surf. Topogr.: Metrol. Prop. 4 (2016) 024013 P Cuervo et al

Figure 6. SEM images depicting micro-structural details of the ventral scales of several snake species, (a) Ball Python (P. regius), (b)
Red Tailed Boa (B. Constrictor), (c) Milk snake (L. Triangulum), (d) King Cobra (Ophiophagus hannah).

Figure 7. Three dimensional AFM-images of the fibril structures within the ventral scales (a) Albino Python Regius, and (b) Red Tail
Boa. Note the protrusion of the fibrils above the general plane of the scale.

ratio (FAR) and intra- spacing between texture rows,
λ) observed analogous average ratios calculated for the
skin of P. Regius [33]. Modification entailed imple-
menting two elliptical texturization patterns using
mask lithography. Figure 10 illustrates major geome-
trical attributes of the pattern and the sliding
orientations with respect to the major axis of the
individual feature.
3.2. Texturizing method
The texturizing method followed a standard lithogra-
phy procedure. First, the samples were polished using

7
Surf. Topogr.: Metrol. Prop. 4 (2016) 024013 P Cuervo et al

Figure 8. Definition of the primitive geometrical attributes for laser textured surfaces compared to those of the python skin. The
height of the dimple (h), dimple base diameter (Φ), and the center line-to-centerline spacing between dimples λ. Subscripts p and s
denote the texturized surface and the snakeskin respectively.

Figure 9 Definition of some geometric parameters used for fibril characterization: separation distance between rows of fibrils (λ) and
fibril aspect ratio.

Table 1. Comparison between formulas used to calculate geome-
trical ratios for man-texturized and skin of a snake. Reproduced
with permission from [33], copyright 2014 IOP Publishing.
Ratio Definition
TAR
Area of Feature
Total Surface Area
Height of feature
FSR Length of Axis in direction of motion
Length of feature
FAR width of feature
Centerline - to - Centerline spacing of features
SAR feature height
a suspension containing diamond particles (size
3 μm). Polishing was followed by electrochemical
assisted growth of a titanium dioxide (TiO2) coating
on the surface. During the coating process the sample
acted as the cathode, and a stainless steel (AISI 316)
plate represented the anode. The electrolyte was a
solution of distilled water, sodium di-hydrogen-phos-
phate monohydrated (6.429 g l−1), calcium acetate
(12.888 g l−1), and EDTA (45.12 g l−1). Following the
coating process, texturing patterns were printed on the
sample of the surface with the aid of wax paper.
Thereafter, the samples were etched with dilute
fluorohydric acid solution to remove the oxide layer
from the surface except for those zones protected by
the previously printed mask.
Geometrical variation in of the patterns was
restricted to varying feature heights, which resulted in
respective variations in the aspect ratio of the feature
MTS Snake (FAR) and the surface aspect ratio (SAR) (see table 2).
Af Af The Ti6Al4V alloy-UHMWPE pair is widely used
SA SA
hp hS for artificial hip joints, where the femoral head is made
FP FS
FP l
of Ti6Al4V alloy and the acetabular cup is made of
FL w UHMWPE. In this context, texturizing of Ti6Al4V
lP + FP l S + FS
hP hS surface is a viable common option to improve the tri-
bological performance of the pair. The decision to tex-
turize Ti6Al4V is only for two reasons: first, the mask
lithography process is better controlled in smaller
areas so the quality of the texture in the pin is much
better than in a large disc. Second, using a harder/stif-
fer pin against a softer disc facilitates the study of the
wear process using a conceptual model in which a hard
indenter is sliding over a deformable counterbody,
which in turn facilitates parametric studies of the tri-
bological events encountered.
Lithography depends on chemicals to emboss tex-
ture. As a result, new chemical compounds, which
may affect tribological behavior, exist on the surface of
the features as a byproduct of etching and masking
procedures. It is necessary therefore to determine the
extent of that contamination. In this work, we exam-
ined the surface composition of the textured ends of
the pin samples. Figure 11 shows a typical elliptical

8
Surf. Topogr.: Metrol. Prop. 4 (2016) 024013 P Cuervo et al

Figure 10. Schematic of texturizing patterns used on the titanium pins and orientation of sliding with respect to the axis of the element
of texture (geometrical attributes of the patterns are summarized in table 2).

textural element embossed on one of the titanium pins Table 2. Relevant parameters in pin-on-disc tests to study the
(figure 14(a)), along with an EDXS chemical element anisotropy of tribological response of textured surfaces.

spectrum of a representative spot (figure 14(b)). The Parameter Pattern 1 Pattern 2

spectrum shows that the surface of the textural ele-
TAR 0.23 0.3
ment in general retained its basic compositional ele-
FAR 2.5 4.0
ments (those that make up the titanium alloy).
FH (μm) 4.8 14 5.6 17
Namely, a considerable amount of the elements tita- FSR
nium (Ti), vanadium (V) and aluminum (Al) that ori- Parallel 0.008 0.023 0.0056 0.017
ginate from the base alloy are present. In addition, Lateral 0.02 0.058 0.022 0.068
detection of oxygen (O) within the spectrum indicates SAR
the presence of titanium oxide as a major contaminat- Parallel 312.5 107.1 267.8 88.2
Lateral 145.8 50 125 41.2
ing compound. Along with that oxide, traces of phos-
phorus (P) and calcium (C) (which originate from
masking and etching chemicals) are present as second-
ary contaminants. performed in two directions, denoted parallel and lat-
eral. The parallel direction implies sliding along the
major axis of the elliptical feature, whereas lateral indi-
3.3. Tribological testing
cates sliding in the direction of the minor axis of the
To examine the friction utility of the proposed
texturing scheme, we performed a series of pin-on disc elliptical feature. For experimental control, non-tex-
tribological tests. All tests were performed in dry tured pins made of the same titanium alloy (Ti-6Al-
mode. In all experiments, the titanium pins were 4V) were also examined. The control samples are
stationary and the counter rotating body was an ultra denoted as ‘sand blasted’ and ‘machined’ in reference
high molecular weight poly ethylene (UHMWPE- to the last surface finishing process carried out on the
TIVAR 1000) disc. sliding end of the particular pin. Figures 12 and 13
Table 3 presents a summary of the experimental show a typical scan of the surfaces of the pins studied
conditions applied in the current work. The tests used in this investigation. The scans resulted from three
two elliptical patterns (refer to table 4 for dimensions). dimensional reconstruction of optical micrographs
The difference between patterns was the overall area processed with the software package Mountains
and spacing between textural rows. Two variations of Map®. The textured surfaces are deterministic in nat-
each pattern were tested (the difference being the fea- ure, with an ordered distribution of texturization
ture height (FH)). Recall that variation of the feature features.
height implies corresponding variation in the feature Analysis of the initial contact conditions of the
slenderness ratio (FSR) and the SAR. Tests were samples, which can be found in appendix, resulted in a

9
Surf. Topogr.: Metrol. Prop. 4 (2016) 024013 P Cuervo et al

Figure 11. Chemical analysis of a represantitive texturing protrusion, (a) location of the analyzed spot within the textural feature, (b)
typical EDXS spectrum showing the formation of titanium oxide (TiO) with traces of phosphorus (P) and calcium (Ca).

Table 3. Pin-on-disc testing conditions. Table 4. Surface parameters and contact area for contact
between UHMWPE and texturized Ti6Al4V alloy samples.
Testing variable Value
Parameter Pattern 1 Pattern 2
Load (N) 10
Lineal speed (m s−1) 1 Number of contacting features 35
Pin Material Ti-6AL-4V y = l [m] 600e-6 1000e-6
Pin dimensions Diameter=6.9±0.1 mm x = w [m] 240e-6 250e-6
height=9 mm lp [m] 1500e-6
Disc material UHMWPE (TIVAR 1000) ll [m] 700 e-6
Disc dimensions Diameter=100±0.1 mm FAR 2.5 4
thickness=6 mm Individual ellipse area [m2] 4.524e-7 7.854e-7
Sliding direction Paralell or lateral to the major axis of Total apparent area m2 1.583 e-5 2.5 e-5
elliptical protrusions Real contact area, Ar [m2] 3.527e-7 6.123 e-7
Testing time (s) 600
Sliding distance (m) 600
Relative humidity Uncontrolled-nominal room values through (d) show the trend of the COF for the textured
[60%–70%]
surfaces, and figures 14(e) and (f) show the trend for
the control samples (machined and sandblasted). The
plots show that, for all samples, the COF initially
plasticity index of 6.33, which implies plastic contact increases to a maximum. Thereafter, the COF drop to
conditions. Under plastic contact conditions, the real a quasi-steady state. The transition toward a local
area of contact for the non-texturized control samples maximum is sharp for features with lower heights
will be represented by the ratio of the nominal load to (figures 14(a) and (c)), and is almost uniform for
the hardness of the softest of the contacting pairs (the features with larger heights (figures 14(b) and (d)). For
UHMPE disc). The assumption of perfectly plastic all texturing patterns tested, the COF for lateral sliding
contact conditions is still valid for the sliding of the is higher than that for parallel sliding, and the COF for
textured surfaces used in this work. Note that the real the higher feature heights (14 and 17 μm) is higher
contact area is smaller since a discrete number of than that for the shorter features (5 and 6 μm).
contacts. Figures 15(a) and (b) plots the average values of the
The nominal loads in the tests were chosen so COF for the patterns examined. Each of the plots pre-
that a contact stress typical of actual artificial hip sents the average values for one pattern (and its varia-
joints is achieved. As such, a nominal load of 10 N tions) in parallel and lateral sliding. Columns in each
was applied in the experiments. This resulted in con-
graph are plotted against the average values for the
tact pressures of 28.4 MPa for pattern I and 16.3 MPa
control samples (depicted by the dotted lines marked
for pattern II. Such pressures are of the same order of
machined and sandblasted in the figure. The shaded
magnitude of typical normal stresses in artificial hip
area, within each of the graphs represent the critical
joints [45–48].
domain for the COF. Optimally, therefore, for viability
of a given texture-pattern the resulting COF should
4. Results and discussion fall under the lowest value for the control samples (the
value for the machined surface, i.e., μtext<μmachin).
4.1. Coefficient of friction The values and behavior of the control samples is
Figures 14(a)–(f) depicts the variation of the COF for compataible with behavior reported in different sour-
all samples studied in the current work. Figures 14(a) ces in open literature [49–52].

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Surf. Topogr.: Metrol. Prop. 4 (2016) 024013 P Cuervo et al

a b
1.0 10
µm 0.5 5 µm
0.0 0
0.
0 3.0 0.0
0. 3.0
5 2.5 0.5
1. 2.5
0 2.0 1.0
1.5 2.0
m 1.5 1.5
1.5
m 2.0 mm mm
1.0 2.0
1.0 mm
2.5 2.5
0.5 0.5
3.0
0.0 0.0

Figure 12. 3D-WLI-images of the surfaces studied in this work. (a) Texturized pattern 1, (b) texturized pattern 2.

b
a 5
5 4
µm µm 3
2
0
0. 1
0
0 3. 0
0. 5 3.0
5 2. 3.
0
1. 0 2.5 5
0 2. 2.
1. 5 2.0 0
5 1. 2.
m m 1.5 5
m 2.
0 0 m m 1.
1. m 1.0 0 m
m
2. 5 1.
5 0. 0.5 5
0.
3. 0
0 0. 0.0 0
0.

Figure 13. 3D-WLI images of the non-texturized surfaces studied in this work. (a) Sandblasted, Ra: 2.10 μm, Rz: 5.51 μm, (b)
machined, Ra: 1 μm, Rz: 6.10 μm.

Plots in figure 15 reflect a similar trend. The aver- ratio of the COF in lateral direction to that in long-
age COF of the texturized surfaces increase in direct itudinal direction (i.e. μlat/μfor). Accordingly, the
proportion to the increase in feature height. An exam- anisotropy implied in the current work belongs to the
ple is figure 15(a) where the average COF for pattern-I, second category.
with a feature height of 14 μm, is greater than that Anisotropy of the first category originates from the
measured when the feature height is 5 μm. Moreover, geometry of the fibril structures within the ventral
in both plots, regardless of the FAR, the lateral coeffi- scales in snakes [25] and the orientation of the keratin
cient of friction in lateral sliding is slightly larger than structures within the skin layers [32]. Anisotropy of
the value in parallel sliding. the second kind has not been fully investigated. How-
Values of the COF for each pattern suggest the ever, within the context of textured surfaces, and peri-
existence of an optimal range of feature heights odic surfaces, the phenomenon was linked to the
beyond which the friction of the texturized surface will orientation of texture and to the variation in the adhe-
exceed that of the machined sample (i.e., the lowest sion length as a function of the sliding orientation [53].
friction coefficient for the particular load). The origins of anisotropy in the current work seem to
An interesting feature of the plots shown in originate from difference in adhesion length.
figure 15 is anisotropy of friction. The value of the fric- Because of the geometry and orientation of the
tion force (and thereby the COF) when sliding in the texture-feature array, surfaces examined in this work
lateral direction, for the same pattern, is greater than establish contact in a periodic, intermittent, manner.
the value measured when sliding in the parallel direc- This can be visualized in reference to figures 12(a) and
tion. Frictional anisotropy, however, is not pro- (b) along with figure 16.
nounced (1.05„μlat/μparl„1.15). During sliding, the protrusions establish contact
Anisotropy of friction is characteristic of several first through the leading edge of the particular textur-
tribological systems in biology (notably snakes [32– ing feature. Continuous sliding leads to the growth of
36]). Two categories of anisotropy are reported in lit- the contact area to a maximum then to a gradual
erature. The first concerns the ratio of the friction decrease in the area of contact until disengagement of
coefficient in backward motion to that in forward the protrusion from the particular spot on the surface.
motion (i.e. μback/μfor), while the second, also repor- Following contact, and due to protrusion of the fea-
ted for man-engineered systems, is associated with the tures above the plateau of the surface, a small time

11
Surf. Topogr.: Metrol. Prop. 4 (2016) 024013
Figure 14. COF versus testing time curves for the two examined patterns presented by sliding direction and feature height (a)–(f) COF
versus testing time curves for non-texturized samples.
period, through which the contact is relieved, will take
place. Periodicity of contact (i.e., the scenario of
engagement-disengagement of contact) repeats in a
frequency that is firstly a function of the sliding speed,
and secondly is independent of the orientation of slid-
ing. Sliding orientation affects the trajectory length of
12
P Cuervo et al
friction (and thereby the adhesion length associated
with the particular sliding orientation). For parallel
sliding, the trajectory length is equal to the long-
itudinal, major, axis of the elliptical feature Φy,
whereas in case of lateral sliding that length is equal to
the lateral axis Φx.
Surf. Topogr.: Metrol. Prop. 4 (2016) 024013 P Cuervo et al

Figure 15. Average COF measured after the running-in period. PH= protrusion height, equivalent to FH=height of feature.

Figure 16. Representative excerpts of the time evolution of the COF with time for pattern I texturing elements. The figure depicts
variation of the friction in parallel and lateral sliding. Observe the periodic nature of the curves that follow the growth of the contact
area of the texturing elements and their respective relief from the surface.

13
Surf. Topogr.: Metrol. Prop. 4 (2016) 024013
Figure 17. Relationship between the COF and SAR, for all tested features.
4.2. Effect of feature geometric attributes
Results show that the COF values for pattern II
(FAR=4) are always higher than those for pattern I
(FAR=2.5). Initially, this trend may be attributed to
difference in the feature-projected area (note that the
projected area for pattern II is approximately 24%
higher than that of pattern I). The effect of the area
difference is offset, mainly, by variations in the feature
height. Reduce the feature height, and the increase in
the separation distance results in a lower COF. All in
all, the effect of the geometrical attributes on friction
are interdependent.
An effective way of considering the combined
effects of the height of the texture feature, and the dis-
tance between features, on the COF is to consider
changes in the SAR (see table 1 for definition and
table 2 for values for each pattern). The effect of the
SAR is depicted in figure 17, which plots the COF
obtained in all experimental runs against the SAR of
the tested texturing features. The data show that COF
decreases with the increase in SAR. The reduction is a
result of two interfering contributions: reduction in
the height of the features, and increase in the separa-
tion distance between individual features (λ).
In contrast to the behavior in relation to the SAR,
the COF increases with the increase in the FSR, see
figure 18. This increase, however, appears to peak at
critical values indicated by the regression curve
(dashed line shown in the figure).
4.3. Wear mechanisms
An increase in the FSR implies a corresponding increase
in the feature height. Given the counterface used in this
work, UHMWPE, an increased feature height will lead
to deeper penetration by the texturized surface (the
harder of the two materials). This should induce an
14
P Cuervo et al
abrasive effect in addition to adhesion, which increases
the COF. To examine the viability of this proposition,
we examined the surfaces of the samples (pins and
disks) after wear tests. Figures 19(a)–(d) presents
representative SEM pictures of the worn surfaces.
Figures 19(a) and (b) show the typical aspect of the wear
tracks caused by the protrusions of the texturized pins
onto the surface of the UHMWPE discs, in which the
intense plastic deformation led to a smooth worn
surface. Previous machining marks are visible within
the areas of the disc that were not in contact with the
pin. Moreover, the width of the wear tracks is consistent
with the dimensions of the protrusions (Φx and Φy) in
the corresponding directions of sliding (parallel and
lateral). A polymeric transfer layer is also absent from
the surface of the pins (figure 19(c)). These observations
prompt the conclusion that friction in the tests is a
superposition of an adhesive component and an
abrasive component. The adhesive component depends
on the real contact area, whereas the abrasive comp-
onent is mainly a function of the protrusion height and
to some extent the roughness of the elliptical features,
which results from minor damage in isolated regions of
the wear tracks as shown in figure 19(d).
5. Conclusions
Using mask lithography it was possible to modify the
surfaces of the titanium alloy Ti-6Al-4V pins through
embossing elliptic protrusions of deterministic distri-
bution. The geometric attributes of the embossed
textural features were based on the geometrical
patterns observed in the ventral surface of a Python
regius.
We investigated the COF of the texturized surfaces
by performing pin-on-disc sliding experiments in dry
Surf. Topogr.: Metrol. Prop. 4 (2016) 024013 P Cuervo et al

Figure 18. General relationship between the COF of the texturized samples and FSR.

Figure 19. Aspect of the surface of UHMWPE discs and texturized Ti6Al4V pins after pin-on-disc tests. (a) Wear track on the
UHMWPE surface. Test performed against textured pin with pattern1, PH=14 μm, lateral sliding (b) Wear track on the UHMWPE
surface. Test performed against textured pin with pattern 2, PH=17 μm, parallel sliding, (c) aspect of one protrusion of a textured
pin after pin-on-disc test against UHMWPE disc. No deformation, wear or polymer transfer layer are observed. (d) Micro-abrasion
mark caused by the asperities of an elliptic protrusion on the surface of the UHMWPE disc. Test performed against textured pin with
pattern 2, PH=17 μm, parallel sliding.

15
Surf. Topogr.: Metrol. Prop. 4 (2016) 024013 P Cuervo et al

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