Curriculum and Research Module PDF

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CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION

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Acknowledgements
Mufulira College of Education wishes to acknowledge the contribut
contribution
ion of the following
members of staff for making the production of this module possible.
Mr .D. Nkumbwa
Mr.R. Mbewe
Mr. K. Moono ( Editor)

CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH
Contents
About this [DOCUMENT TYPE] 1

How this [DOCUMENT TYPE] is structured .................................................................. 1
Course overview 3
Welcome to [Add course title here] [Course sub-title] ..................................................... 3
[Add course title here] [Course sub-title]—is this course for you? .................................. 3
Course outcomes ............................................................................................................... 3
Timeframe ......................................................................................................................... 3
Study skills ........................................................................................................................ 4
Need help? ........................................................................................................................ 5
Assignments ...................................................................................................................... 5
Assessments ...................................................................................................................... 6
Getting around this [DOCUMENT TYPE] 7

Margin icons ..................................................................................................................... 7
Unit 1 9
EXPLANATION OF CURRICULUM ...................................................................................... 9
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 9
Theoretical and functional definitions of education and curriculum ....................................... 10
Further definations of curriculum ............................................................................................ 13
Curriculum determinants………………………………………………………………………………14
Importance of curriculum……………………………………………………………….......................15
Types of curriculum……………………………………………………………………………………17
Aims / objectives of curriculum………………………………………………………………………..18
Principles for curriculum development………………………………………………………………..19
Theories of curricula…………………………………………………………………………………..19
Explanation of curriculum studies……………………………………………………………………..20
Approaches to curriculum studies……………………………………………………………………..21
Unit summary ........................................................................................................................... 22
Assignment ............................................................................................................................... 23
Assessment ............................................................................................................................... 23
ii Contents
Unit 2 27
CURRICULUM DESIGN........................................................................................................ 27
Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………...27
Pattern of curriculum…………………………………………………………………………28
Currciulum elements / components .......................................................................................... 28
Instructional designs…………………………………………………………………………………...29
Forms of models……………………………………………………………………………………….30
Unit summary ........................................................................................................................... 30
Assignment ............................................................................................................................... 31
Assessment ............................................................................................................................... 31
Unit 3 34
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT ........................................................................................ 34
Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 34
Factors affecting curriculum development ............................................................................... 35
The process of curriculum development .................................................................................. 37
Unit summary ........................................................................................................................... 38
Assignment ............................................................................................................................... 38
Assessment ............................................................................................................................... 38
Unit 4 39
ADAPTING CURRICULUM .................................................................................................. 39
Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 39
The junior secondary school curriculum .................................................................................. 43
Adapting to special education .................................................................................................. 44
Unit summary ........................................................................................................................... 44
Assignment ............................................................................................................................... 44
Assessment ............................................................................................................................... 44
Unit 5 45
___________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH...........................................................45
Research for the truth…………………………………………………………………………46
Definitions of research………………………………………………………………………..49
Characteristics of research……………………………………………………………………51
Types of research……………………………………………………………………………..52
Research theories……………………………………………………………………………..55
Importance of theoretical frameworks………………………………………………………..59
Stages of the research process………………………………………………………………...62
Research area / topic………………………………………………………………………….64
Title selection…………………………………………………………………………………68
Unit 6 72
VARIABLE…………………………………………………………………………………………..72
Unit 7 73
LITERATURE REVIEW……………………………………………………………………………..73
Importance of Literature review in research…………………………………………………………..74
Qualities of an effective literature review……………………………………………………………..75
Guidelines in formulating an effective literature review……………………………………………...76
Challenges faced in the formulation…………………………………………………………………..77
Unit 8 79
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY…………………………………………………….79
Research design………………………………………………………………………………………..79
Steps to follow in selecting a research / design………………………………………………………..82
Qualities of an effective research design………………………………………………………………82
Guidelines in selecting a research design……………………………………………………………...83
Sampling techniques…………………………………………………………………………………...85
Probability sampling…………………………………………………………………………………...85
Non – Probability sampling……………………………………………………………………………88
Bias and error in sampling……………………………………………………………………………..90
Respondents……………………………………………………………………………………………91
Research instruments…………………………………………………………………………………..92
Unit 9 103
DATA COLLECTION, ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION……………………………………..103
Data collection………………………………………………………………………………………..103
Steps in data collection……………………………………………………………………………….105
Importance of data analysis…………………………………………………………………………..109
Ethical issues in data collection………………………………………………………………………109
Challenges faced in data collection…………………………………………………………………..111
Unit 10 113
DATA ORGANISATION, ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION………………………………….113
Data organisation……………………………………………………………………………………..113
Data analysis………………………………………………………………………………………….119
Data analysis in qualitative research………………………………………………………………….120
Data analysis in quantitative research………………………………………………………………...123
Data presentation……………………………………………………………………………………..126
Graphical representation……………………………………………………………………………...132
iv Contents
Unit 11 135
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS……………………………………135
Unit 12 138
REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………………………….138
References in the body of the text …………………………………………………………………...139
The number system…………………………………………………………………………………...140
The name – year system………………………………………………………………………………141
Listing of references………………………………………………………………………………….142
Numbering……………………………………………………………………………………………147
Figures and diagrams…………………………………………………………………………………149
Tables and lists………………………………………………………………………………………..149
References…………………………………………………………………………………………….151
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1
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Course overview
Welcome toCURRICULUM STUDIES AND

EDUCATION RESEARCH[Course sub-title]
[Add a general description of the course here]

RESEARCH[Course sub-title]—is this course for
you?
This course is intended for people who [Add a set of course aims
here].
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Course outcomes
Upon completion ofCURRICULUM STUDIES AND

EDUCATION RESEARCH[Course sub-title]you will be able to:
 Demonstrate knowledge of the terms, concepts, processes

and principles relating to Curriculum studies and
Educational Research.
Outcomes  Acquire and develop Knowledge, skills and positive attitudes
in undertaking applied Educational Research.
including
Timeframe
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3
Course overview
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doing so and you will most likely be fitting your study activities
around other professional or domestic responsib
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ilities.
Essentially you will be taking control of your learning
environment. As a consequence, you ou will need to consider
performance issues related to time management, goals
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management, etc. Perhaps you will also need to reacquaint yourself
inn areas such as essay planning, coping with exams and using the
web as a learning resource.
Your most significant considerations will be time and space i.e. the
time you dedicate to your learning and the environment in which
you engage in that learning
learning.
We recommend that you take time now—beforebefore starting your self-
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study
study—to
to familiarize yourself with these issues. There are a
number of excellent resources on the web. A few suggested links
are:
 http://www.how
http://www.how-to-study.com/
The “How to study” web site is dedicated to study skills
resource
resources. You will find links to study preparation (a list of nine
essentials for a good study place), taking notes, strategies for
reading text books, using reference sources, test anxiety.
 http://www.ucc.vt.edu/stdysk/stdyhlp.html
This is the web site of the Virginia Tech, Division of Student
Affairs. You will find links to time scheduling (including a
“where does time go?” link), a stud
studyy skill checklist, basic
concentration techniques, control of the study environment, note
taking, how to read essays for analysis, memory skills
(“
(“remembering”).
 http://www.howtostudy.org/resources.php
Another “How to study” web site with useful links to time
management, efficient reading, questioning/listening/observing
skills, getting the most out of doing (“hands
(“hands-on”
on” learning)
learning),
memory building, tips for staying motivated, developing a
learning plan.
The
he above links are our suggestions to start you on your way. At
the time of writing these web links were active. If you want to look
for more go to www.google.com and type “self-studystudy basics”,“self-
basics”
4
study tips”, “self-study skills” or similar.
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Course overview
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7
Unit 1
EXPLANATION OF CURRICULUM
Introduction
Welcome to unit 1 of this relatively new course in colleges of education in Zambia. This
course will expose students to the acquisition of knowledge, skills, processes, values and
principles relating to curriculum studies and educational research. Unit 1 however will
endeavour to explain the concepts of curriculum, with emphasis on the relationship between
education and curriculum, and how the curriculum assists in achieving educational goals.
Prospecting teachers you will definitely find this unit interesting because it will also look at
acceptable and unacceptable definitions of curriculum, thereby correcting the misconceptions
we have had all along on the definitions of curriculum.Colleagues you will agree with me that
this is a loaded unit, because it will go further by looking at the importance of curriculum,
types of curricula, theories of curricula, detailed explanation of curriculum studies and
approaches to curriculum studies.
Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:
 Define education and curriculum

 Discuss the relationship between education and curriculum
 State the curriculum determinants
Outcomes
 Explain the importance of curriculum
 Describe the types of curricula
 Discuss the theories of curricula
 Explain curriculum studies
 Describe approaches to curriculum studies.
[Term]: [Term description]

Terminology [Term]: [Term description]
Adding extra rows to the
Table graphicRemoving [Term]: [Term description]
rows from the table graphic
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Unit 1 EXPLANATION OF CURRICULUM
1.1THEORETICAL
THEORETICAL AND FUNCTIONAL DEFINITIONS OF EDUCATION AND
CURRICULUM
Ladies and gentlemen it is essential for you to know from the onset that curriculum is an area
of vital importance to the professional teacher and anyone who is involved in an
educational programme especially in a school. Over the past decades the study of
curriculum has become an established part of teacher education and all other
programmes that are followed by all educationists. Similarly, most educationists
have been exposed to the concepts associated with curriculum. However, the
understanding of curriculum
curriculum would be incomplete without having a clear
understanding of education. After all curriculum is the means for
goals. It is for this reason that in this study you will have to
achievingeducational goals
start by understanding what education is.
1.2 WHAT IS EDUCATION
EDUCATION?
What is education?
May
ay be this is not the first time that you have engaged in answering this question.
However revisiting your answers to this very important question will be of help to
you. If you have no definite answer, the following parag
paragraphs
phs will help you
understand this concept called education.
Am sure we are all agreeable that this is hardly a new argument. In ancient Greece,
Socrates argued that education was about drawing out what was already with the
student (as you may know, the word education comes from the Latin word educere
meaning ‘to lead out’). There is a dangerous tendency to assume that when people talk
about education they mean the same thing.It is for this reason that a definition for
education is important
mportant to explore. No single definition or meaning however can be
assigned to the term education. Similarly to be educated is a complex process, which
cannot be explained sufficiently as an event.
Prospecting teachers it is therefore important to be cle
clear
ar form the onset that without
understanding the meaning of the term ‘education’ you can be in no position to
explain , assess or evaluate what our institutions of education are doing. Similarly
without the conception of what education is, empirical resear
research
ch into educational
effectiveness of programmes and strategies cannot begin. Thus, the understanding
of education is key to the study of curriculum since curriculum is the means of
achieving educational goals.
10
Farrant(1980) education is the total process of human learning by which knowledge

is acquired, faculties trained and skills developed.
Mbiti (1981) defines education as a deliberate attempt to acquire and to transmit the
accumulated, worthwhile skills, attitudes, knowledge and understanding from one
generation to the next.
Education is therefore a process of acquiring, developing and transmitting
desirable accumulated and new knowledge, wisdom, values, attitudes and skills
as a result of growth, maturation and learning which can be best utilised for life
in a changing society.
1.3 WHAT IS CURRICULUM?

Some think it is just a list of things the learner is expected to learn. Many curricula
are long lists of topics for individuals to know about; but the curriculum is more than
this. Prospecting teachers’ am sure some of us are thinking as stated above.
Ladies and gentlemen let us now critically look at the following argument;
‘curriculum has different interfaces because dominant groups of society exert their
influences at different levels and these influences are reflected in the curriculum. Are
we agreeable that our Zambian curriculum is determined by these influential groups?
For instance the new 2015 curriculum in Zambian primary, secondary and tertiary
institutions was influenced by both local and foreign factors. Another good example
is the secondary school Geography which has changed over the years, with topics on
American glaciation and the prairies removed. In this instance it’s the localfactors
that exerted pressure on curriculum change. The knowledge that gets into the
curriculum is selected and organised around sets of principles and values that come
from somewhere, that represent particular views of normality and deviance
(Apple, 1990; 63) .
Educators define curriculum in different ways in part because they bring to task
different perceptions of what curriculum should be. Curriculum was considered by
writers on education such as Plato, Aristotle, J.A Comenius and Friedrich Froebel,
although the usage of the term has not been popularised until this century.
Consider the following selected definitions of curriculum:
Curriculum is what is taught in school.
To define curriculum as ‘what is taught in schools’ is of course, very vague.
Persons often talk about school curriculum in this general way and they tend to mean
by this the range of subjects taught and the amount of instruction time given each in
terms of hours or minutes.
Curriculum is a set of subjects.
Curriculum is content.
Curriculum defined as ‘content’ is an interesting emphasis and brings into question
another term, namely the ‘syllabus’. A ‘syllabus’ is usually a summary statement
about the content to be taught in a course or unit, often linked to an external
11
examination. It is typically a list of content areas. A syllabus is clearly a subsection

of the curriculum.
Curriculum is a set of materials.
Curriculum is that which is taught both inside and outside of school and
directed by the school.
To define curriculum as ‘‘that
that which is taught both inside and outside school’
school’,
directed by the school indicates that all kkinds
inds of activities that occur in the classroom,
playground and community, comprise the curriculum. This emphasis has merit in
that it demonstrates that school learning is not just confined to the classroom.
However, you will realise that it seems to indicate that the only important learning
experiences are those which are directed by school personnel.
Curriculum
urriculum is everything that is planned by school personnel.
The definition which refers to curriculum as ‘‘everything
everything that is planned by school
personnel’ is yet another orientation which emphasizes the planning aspect of
curriculum. Few would deny that cclassroom
lassroom learning experiences for students need
to be planned although some unplanned activities will always occur (and these can
have positive or negative effects).
Educators and Scholars define curriculum in different ways, in part because they
bring to that task different perceptions of what curriculum should be. As seen in the
previous paragraphs some educators see the curriculum as a list of subjects to be
studied, while others see it as an entire course content. Still others perceive
curriculum as a set of planned learning experiences offered by teachers. Another
group state that curriculum is a written plan of action.
My fellow academicians’ am sure we now have assimilated the several
misconceptions on curriculum definitions that we have been harbouring in our
cognitive structures for years. Let us now try to clean our cognitive structures by
inserting the following renowned definitions:
The term curriculum is derived from the Latin word currere, which means to run or
to run the course.
‘Curriculum may be regarded as a course of study to be followed in the process of
acquiring education,’ (Brennan
(Brennan, 1986)
‘Curriculum is the planned composite effort of any school to guide pupil learning
toward predetermined learning outcomes ((In low, 1966: 7)
‘Curriculum is defined as both content and process, as what is taught in schools and
as the process of deciding what to teach.’(Sharpes, 1988:10)
12
‘Curriculum is defined as all learning which is planned and guided by the school,
whether it is carried on in groups or individually or outside the outside the school,’
(Kerr, 1988)
Tyler.R (1949), ‘All activities planned and directed by the school to attain
educational goals.’
Wheeler D.K. (1967), planned experiences offered to the learner under the guidance
of the school.’
According to Sten house (1975) a curriculum is ‘an attempt to communicate the
essential principles and features of an educational proposal in such a form that it is
open to critical scrutiny and capable of effective translation into practice.’ It is a
system of planned activities intended to bring about specific learning outcomes. A
curriculum is not just a list of topics. It must itself be an integral part of the
educational system and should be the product of a deliberate process of design and
development which has included:
a) Entry criteria and duration of learning
b) Identification of learning needs
c) Input from consultation and review
d) Planning of the component parts of the training programme and the respective
learning outcomes
e) Planning for appropriate delivery, resources, assessment and recording
f) Planning for evaluation of the learning programme.
What can we say so far on the definitions of curriculum? By now each one of us
should have a working definition formulated in our own words. Let us all practice
and come up with a working definition beforelooking at further definitions of
curriculum.
1.4 FURTHER DEFINITIONS OF CURRICULUM
The word ‘curriculum’ was first used by the universities of Leiden and Glasgow to
describe the whole programme of studies offered in the universities. Definitions of
‘curriculum’ other than those stated above include:
a) The formal curriculum (ideal or recommended curriculum): is what the
institution sets out to teach. This is what is proposed by scholars, researchers
and evaluators as a solution to meet a need or needs and consequently
perceived as the most appropriate curriculum for learners. It is what a nation
aspires to achieve.
b) The informal curriculum: what the students learn from a variety of sources
and interactions while taking part in the activities at the institution:
c) The hidden curriculum: is what the students learn but the institution
definitely does not intend to teach. According to ( Urevbu, 1990) Hidden
curriculum refers to the non-academic but educationally significant
consequences of school, e.g. school life teaches obedience to authority,
punctuality, neatness, techniques for passing examinations.
13
d) The entitlement Curriculum: it refers to what society believes,

elieves, learners
should expect to be exposed to as part of their learning to become effective
member of that society.
e) The Intended Curriculum: this is what organisations develop for the
learners in their educational systems and what should be taught by the
th
teachers in that system. The term is also used to refer to the knowledge,
skills, attitudes and behaviours that curriculum developers would like
students to learn in school.
f) The available or supported curriculum: that curriculum which can be
taught in schools through the provision of appropriate resources, both human
and material.
g) The Implemented or Instructional Curriculum: This is what is actually
taught by teachers in their classrooms as they and their learners interact with
the intended and availabl
availablee curricula. The implemented curriculum is often
described in teacher’s scheme of work, lesson plans and student’s notebooks.
h) The achieved or experiential curriculum: this is what learners actually
learn as a result of their interaction with the implemente
implementedd curriculum. It is
what the learner experiences through interaction with the teacher and
learning resources. The achieved curriculum includes both the intended and
unintended experiences of the learner.
Group Activity
i. Discuss five misconceived definitio
definitions of curriculum.
ii. Show the relationship between education and curriculum.
iii. Choose one definition of curriculum by renowned scholars which you can
adopt as your working definition.
1.5 CURRICULUM DETERMINANTS
Curriculum development is influenced by a multitude of factors. Social
conditions, the efforts of community groups and parents, foundations,
professional associations and agencies, colleges and universalities, government
through the Ministry of Education all have a stake in what should be included in
the curriculum. The list is endless but below is a list of some of the curriculum
determinants:
a) Political:: Politics is a science of governing people. Politics of a nation
does determine the curriculum to be followed and this is usually
dependent on th thee political situation in the country at any given time. Such
a political influence would affect the education system.
b) Ideology: An ideology is a way of thinking which forms a basis for an
economic
omic or political system
system.. The ideology of the nation will determine
the curriculum a country will offer and this will change the way people
perceive things. For example, in the second republic an introduction of
14
humanism in all schools and colleges inculcated certain values and

beliefs and ultimately to cement these ideologies national service for all
school leavers was introduced. This was further institutionalised with the
introduction of the citizenship college in kabwe, which later become
known as the National Management and Development Studies College.
c) Society: A society is an organisation of people with particular interest or
purpose. The particular interest people have determines a curriculum to
follow; for example, the people of southern province emphasize
agriculture whilst those in Luapula province emphasize fishing.
d) Religion: Religion is the expression of one’s belief to a super – human
controlling power. It is also a particular system of faith and worship. A
country like Zambia whose religion is mostly Christianity will have a
curriculum that will promote Christianity
e) Institutions or colleges: Institutions or colleges are learning places
where those committed to books will work towards the discovery of new
knowledge. A particular institution will follow a curriculum of what it
feels should be offered. With liberation even in education and training,
institutions choose what they can offer especially at degree level.
Diploma courses have now been standardised with a uniform curriculum.
f) Values and norms: Values and norms determine the standard of
behaviour in a given school. By upholding good morals this inevitably
promotes good values and norms not only in the school but the
community as well.
g) Available resources:The resources can either be human or non- human
resources. For curriculum to be implemented in a given institution, the
resources both physical and human should be available. Availability of
qualified lecturers, suitable classrooms, furniture and fittings are things
one has to consider in determining the curriculum.
Curriculum is also loaded with a lot of influences. Let us now examine
some of the influences on curriculum so that you understand the genesis
of curriculum.
DISCUSSION
I. What is the meaning of the word curriculum?
II. Can you think of other determinants other than the ones listed above?
III. What do you consider are the benefits of a national curriculum?
1.6IMPORTANCE OF CURRICULUM
Ladies and gentlemen after critically looking at the definitions of curriculum iam
sure we are now ready to state the importance of the curriculum. Before we
15
lookat
at what other scholars have written, le
lett us in our respective groups discuss
the following:
GROUP ACTIVITY:
In your respective groups discuss the importance of the curriculum. In your
discussions come up with about ten points.
Well how were the discussions? Let us now compare your points with the
following points analysed by different scholars;
I. An effective curriculum provides teachers, students, administrators and
community stakeholders with a measurab
measurable
le plan and structure for
delivering a quality education.
II. The curriculum identifies the learning outcomes, standards and core
competencies that students must demonstrate before advancing to the
next level
level.
III. Teachers play a key role in developing, implementi
implementing,
ng, assessing and
modifying the curriculum; an evidenced
evidenced- based curriculum acts a road
map for teachers and students to follow on the path to academic success.
IV. administrators: administrators follow a detailed curriculum
Impact on administrators
to help students achieve sstate
tate and national standards of academic
performance. The curriculum ensures that each school is teaching
students relevant materials and monitoring progress of students from all
types of backgrounds.
V. teachers: a school’s curriculum informs teachers
Impact on teachers teache what skills
must be taught at each grade level to ultimately prepare students for
post-secondary
secondary school education or a job. Understanding the big picture
helps teachers align the learning objectives of their own curriculum with
the school’s curriculum. In the absence of a curriculum, teachers
wouldn’t know whether students are building a solid foundation to
support learning at the next level.
VI. students: a curriculum outlines for students a sequence of
Impact on students
courses and tasks that must be successfully completed to master a
subject and earn a certificate, diploma or degree. Students may be
motivated to study if they understand why certain subjects are taught in
the curriculum. A curriculum reassures students that they are on the right
track to reaching their goals and owning desired skills.
VII. in addition to teaching students academic skills, the curriculum is also
intended to tea
teach
ch students the importance of responsibility, hard work
and being responsible citizens.
16
VIII. Teachers in partnership with parents and community members

collaborate on the development of a curriculum that will instil character
in students and reinforce positive behaviour.
IX. Curriculum serves the broad purpose of being educational planning
tools. They help teachers and professors outline learning objectives for a
course or class, which in turn sets an end goal for learning a specific
volume of material.
X. Curricula also help teachers to identify an effective learning style by
focusing on the most critical aspects of a projected lesson plan.
Additionally, they can help teachers make effective use of classroom
time by setting time aside for revisiting complex issues or giving
students time to ask questions.
XI. Curricula ideally serve as time management and organisational tools as
well; by setting an agenda ahead of time, teachers and students have the
opportunity to prepare for future readings and assignments. This allows
for the development of time management skills, and allows students to
learn important life skills such as communication, organisation, setting
and achieving goals.
XII. Having a curriculum provides several benefits, such as providing a
structure for an educational course and having an end goal that teachers
set for their students to reach.
1.7TYPES OF CURRICULA
They say a journey starts with one step, indeed in this unit are moving
systematically step by step. If you have noticed ladies and gentlemen, one sub
unit is preparing us for the next sub unit. A look at the importance of the
curriculum has definitely given us hints on the types of curricula. There are
mainly three types of curriculum namely: Official curriculum, Hidden
curriculum and outcome based curriculum.
a) OVERT/ EXPLICIT/ WRITTEN/OFFICIAL / FORMAL
CURRICULUM: Sometimes it is called Perennial Curriculum. This
type of curriculum is the one proposed by government in power (with the
help of scholars and researchers) as a solution to meet the needs of
society. It is pre – determined by the government i.e. content is pre-
arranged in terms of subjects in each course of study. It is that which is
made up of several subjects that are taught in schools. It is a course for a
particular group; for example Basic school curriculum, secondary
teachers’ Diploma curriculumetc. Theorists have agreed that it rests on
the four important elements which are: aims/ objectives, methods,
content and evaluation. In Zambia, all curricula are developed at the
Curriculum Development Center(CDC) in Lusaka.
b) HIDDEN OR COVERT CURRICULUM / INFORMAL
CURRICULUM: This is a type of curriculum that takes place in
institutions where learning is done sub – consciously by the learners. It is
17
not implicit in any curriculum document. This may produce either

positive or negative results, e.g. bad behaviour or good behaviour.
 The Hidden Micro –Curriculum:: this is the interaction that
takes place at classroom level. At this level the hidden curriculum
manifests itself in each lesson due to the relationship between the
teacher and each pupil as well as between the learners themselves.
This interaction has an impact either positively or negatively.
 The Hidden Meso – Curriculum:: this occurs at school level. It
refers to the experiences which learners and teachers undergo
within a particular school and its immediate environment but
outside the classroom.
 The Hidden Macro – Curriculum:: this means those secret or
hidden experiences which occur at national level, usually as a
result of government or political influences e.g. school uniforms;
the majority wear but there is no law enforcing this but it has the
hidden effect of emphasizing quality and unity. Rural schools;
most of them receive poor quality of education. Competition;
schools compete with each other unofficially. Competition
prepares the pupils for the competitive world of world.
c) OUTCOME BASED CURRICULUM
CURRICULUM(LEARNER – CENTRED): CENTRED) This
comes as a result of learners performances. The emphasis is on skill
development especially in practical subjects. It focuses on the output of
the learner and the curriculum can be designed with reference to the
learner’s potential.
Outcome based curriculum [OBC] grew out of earlier two teaching
methods namely masterly learning and competency based teaching. It
came out of a belief that the perennial curr
curriculum
iculum placed emphasis on
aims and objectives of teachers and not on the end performance of the
learners.
ners. The argument was that the learners were taught too much
theoretical knowledge that may not be needed for a job market
knowledge and which they instantly forget after exams. It was believed
that the best was to teach learners worthwhile outcomes of le learning;
useful things they are able to do at the end of their schooling.
OBC is a result of technological advancement changes of societal needs
and goals, new political dispens
dispensations etc. since it is based on outcomes;
it gives priority to end results of learning, accomplishments of learning
and demonstrations of learning. Curriculum is outcome based if it is
learner- centred, results
results- oriented and founded on the belief that all
individuals can learn.
AIMS / OBJECTIVES OF CURRICULUM
1. To draw out, cultivate, excite and inspire the full development of each
learner.
2. To create an atmosphere where learners will learn to think, seek truth and
solve problems, reason and develop the power of thought.
18
3. To help learners establish values through acquaintance with the

humanities, Arts, natural sciences and religion.
4. To develop the character of students’ integrity, honest, judgement,
cooperation, friendliness and goodness.
5. To create a community of scholars.
6. To prepare men and women of citizenship in a democratic society where
freedom and liberty go hand in hand with law and justice.
7. To meet needs of students with a variety range of ability, aptitudes and
interests.
PRINCIPLES FOR CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

1. Curriculum should be child centred, be based on the present needs and
circumstances of the child. Must provide rich experiences for proper
development.
2. Should provide a fullness of experiences, subjects and co- curricular
activities. Studies must contain mental vitamins.
3. Must be flexible and dynamic; must be able to keep pace with the
expanding knowledge in science and technology and the changing
economic conditions.
4. Must be related to the life needs and aspirations of the people, must
enable us understand our people well and must lead us to satisfactory
knowledge.
5. Curriculum should be able to develop a rational outlook; it should contain
mathematics and science which will give them curiosity to modern
knowledge and develop a rational outlook.
1.8THEORIES OF CURRICULA
The late soccer commentator would say let us go boys and do it for mother Zambia,
geee, yayaya. In academic circles iam also saying let us do it for mother Zambia by
understanding the previous sub units before looking at theories of curricula. I
presume we have all understood the previous sub units and now ready for theories
of curricula. The following are some theories of curricula;
I. Rationalistic Theory: Rationalistic theory may be conceived as being
ideological because its underlying principle believes that what is real is the
idea of the object which is the conscious level of our mind and not the
object that we see which is a mere shadow of the idea. The aim of education
according to the rationalist theory is to develop the learners’ moral sense so
much so that they can distinguish between the right and the wrong.
II. Empiricism Theory: This theory states that no knowledge comes in mind
except through the gates of sense. The experience may in itself be
indisputable but the interaction is much more open to the subjective
19
perspectives of the interpreter. True knowledge is derived from evidence

and authentic knowledge comes through the senses. Empiricists believ
believe that
education should be according to the nature of the child and activities
should determine the curriculum.
III. Theory: Existentialist theorists believe that curriculum has to
Existentialist Theory
be what is available in the learners’ cultural environment. What is
significant here is how the curriculum should be taught. The objective here
is the learners’ ability to absorb and assimilate knowledge in making their
personal decisions. In this case, a learner is the ultimate chooser who
searches for
or personal identity and the teacher becomes the facilitator of
choices. Learners choose what they want to become. This theory is used for
adult learning levels.
IV. Theory: Pragmatism theory holds that practice in life is
Pragmatism Theory
meaningful and valuable, practical utility is the only catering standard of
judgement by which we can judge theories and the basic principle of
pragmatism encourage experimentation. Pragmatism does not believe in
imparting knowledge for its own sake but that knowledge should enablenable the
learner to solve some of the day to day problems and lead a better and fuller
life by creating new values. The principle of learning by doing or
experience is a valuable one here.
REFLECTION
In your respective groups critically analyse the above llisted
isted theories and choose
one theory which is applicable to our new curriculum in secondary schools in
Zambia.
1.9.1EXPLANATIONOF
LANATIONOF CURRICULUM STUDIES
Curriculum innovations of recent decades have been filled with the rhetoric of
promise and potential, and while some have materialised and brought beneficial
results, many have proven hollow in actually improving students’ learning. The
lack of impact is starting to show. Signs indicate that today’s students are more
poorly equipped for higher education and en entering
tering a career than were their
predecessors.
The roars of educators who called for changes in schooling during the 1980s
1980s/ 1990s
have, at best been softened to mere whispers, and at worst have been converted to
political posturing and partisan demagoguery. The majority of Zambians seem
convinced that the quality of public education is on the decline, and yet there is no
consensus about what should be done.
Concern continues to mount over how to improve the performance of learners who
attend our institutions
institutions.. It is this increasing concern that will give momentum to
educational improvement. Educators cannot sit back and wait for some remote
external source to provide answers that will blow in through the classroom
20
window. Rather, improvement in our schools will be accomplished by active

leadership that comes from within those very institutions that are being questioned.
A new breed of educators must emerge, who can tap existing human resources as a
means for turning institutions around and making them a more effective medium
for learning. To confront educational problems in a fundamental way the
curriculum should focus on improving connections between the curriculum and
environment / learner.
1.9.2APPROACHES TO CURRICULUM STUDIES
ACTIVITY
Identify the main approaches to curriculum studies. Explain whether or not these
approaches are still applicable in the modern school set up.
Welcome to the last sub-unit in unit 1. This is a welcome in style because it starts
with an activity. Please ensure that you identify these approaches on your own
before looking at what other scholars have written. Well let us now look at the
approaches to curriculum studies as illustrated by renowned scholars.
INTRODUCTION
An approach to curriculum reflects that person’s view of the world: including what
that person perceives as reality. An approach to the curriculum may include the
person’s philosophy, his view of history, view of psychology, learning theory and
his view of social issues. An approach further expresses a view point about the
development and design of the curriculum, the role of the teacher, the learner, and
curriculum specialists in planning the curriculum: the goals and objectives of the
curriculum and the important issues that need to be examined.
Allan Ornstein and Francis Hunkins [2004] identifiedfive main approaches to
curriculum studies, Behavioural approach, Managerial approach, Systems
approach, Academic approach and Humanistic approach / Reconceptualists. An
attempt will made to explain each one of them and show if the approach is
applicable in the Zambia school set up.
1) THE BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH:

This approach to curriculum studies traces its origin in the University of
Chicago and it is seen as the oldest and still the major approach to
curriculum [Ornstein and Hunkins, 2004: 2]. This approach relies on
technical and scientific principles, and it includes paradigms, models, and
step by step strategies for formulating curriculum. Basing on the plan; the
goals and objectives are specified, content and activities are sequenced to
21
coincide with the objectives and learning outcomes are evaluated in

relation to the goals and objectives.
Plan:44 steps of this approach
 Goals and objectives
 Content and activities
 Organisation of the content activities
 Evaluation
The behavioural approach to curriculum has evolved over the years to address
the complexities of human learning and it has allowed for research that
investigates the depth of the mind.
mind.Researchers have argued
ed that students will
experience and respond to the curriculum in unique ways, depending on their
cultural interpretations and prior life activities.
Today, behaviourists’ advocates in Zambia and probably elsewhere still
formulate precise objectives and ev
evaluate
aluate programs according to those
objectives.. Behaviourists monitor students’ activities both in class and through
home works and exams, then feedback is given to the students. The features of
the behavioural approach will continue to be reflected in Zamb
Zambian curricula set-
up because of its dependency on technical means of selecting and organizing
curricula.
2) MANAGERIAL APPROACH
APPROACH:
This approach considers the school as a social system, reminiscent of
organisation theory, whereby groups of people such as stud
students, teachers,
curriculum specialists and administrators interact according to certain
norms and behaviours. Educators who rely on this approach plan the
curriculum in terms of programs, schedules, space, resources, equipment
and personnel. This approach advocates among other things, the need for
selecting, organising, communicating with, and supervising people
involved in curriculum decisions. The managerial approach an offshoot of
the behavioural approach relies on a plan, rational principles and logic
steps, but not necessarily those used by behavioural approaches.
This approach tends to focus more on supervisory and administrative
aspects of the curriculum
curriculum, especially the organizational and implementation
process. The managerial approach[ managerial school] is rooted in the
organisational and administrative school models of the 1900s – a period
that combined a host of innovative plans involving curriculum and
instruction that centred around individualisation, depar
departmentalisation,
tmentalisation, non-
non
grading, classroom, homeroom and work study activities[ Ornstein and
Hunkins: 2004:4]
2004:4].. The approach became the dominant curriculum
approach in the 1950s and 60s. During this time the notion of the principals
as a curriculum leader and instructional leader was popularised and fused
with the idea of a general manager. Some advocates of this approach were
Robert Anderson, Leslee Bishop, Gerald Firth
Firth,, Arthur Lewis and John
McNeil. Among these some became curriculum professors at major
universities.
rsities.
22
The Zambian curricularists just like the managerial approach advocates are
also concerned with improving the curriculum in the light of prevailing
national policies. Today, many of our new ideas about school reforms and
restructuring, which are a common feature in Zambian schools, are rooted
in the ideas of change and innovation that characterised the 1950s and 60s.
Many current plans related to school based management and empowerment
are based on the older career ladder. School based management and
empowerment in Zambian schools has taken the concept of
decentralization and currently it’s being implemented throughout the
country. The features of the managerial approach therefore are still
reflected in Zambian schools though to a limited extent.
3) SYSTEMS APPROACH
This approach tends to view units and sub- units of the organisation in
relation to the whole. This approach is sometimes referred to as curriculum
engineering [Ornstein and Hunkins 2004; 5]. The approach includes the
processes [i.e. development, design, implementation and evaluation]
necessary to plan the curriculum by such engineers as the superintendents,
directors, coordinators, principals and the structures [subject, courses, unit
plans and lesson plans].
The systems approach was originally developed by social scientists in the
1950s and 1960s. It was widely used by school managers as part of
administrative and organisational theory. In this approach, the parts of the
school district or school are closely examined in terms of their
interrelatedness and influence on each other. One particular application of
the systems approach was developed by Rand Corporation and has rapidly
spread from government to business agencies.
Today, many schools employ a system approach known as Total Quality
Management [TQM]. This approach also drawn from industry represents a
paradigm shift emphasising client priority, in our case, extensive
collection, data analysis, self-monitoring, inspection, collaboration,
communication, cooperation and team responsibility. The concept of TQM
though still new in the Zambian society is slowly taking root. The planners
of the curriculum now have set guidelines that emphasise on client priority
and are concerned with the following:
 Curriculum issues and questions that relate to the entire school or
school system not simply in terms of school subjects or grades.
 How the curriculum is related across different program and content
areas.
 The extent to which the curriculum reflects the hierarchy or
organisational arrangements of the school or school system.
 Long term planning is infused with short range or incidental
planning.
Most of these features above are reflected in the Zambian School
Curriculum set- up for example the curriculum will have both long term
23
and short term goals. The features of the systems approach will continue to
be reflected in the Zambian School curriculu
curriculumm because of its emphasis on
the client [student / pupil], which is the basis for school’s survival.
4) ACADEMIC APPROACH
This approach is sometimes referred to as the traditional, intellectual or
knowledge oriented approach
approach.. The academic approach tries to analyse
an
major positions, trends and concepts of the curriculum. This approach
tends to be historical or philosophical or to a lesser extent social science in
nature. In this approach, the discussion of curriculum making is usually
scholarly and theoretic [not practical].
This approach is rooted in the philosophical works of John Dewey, Henry
Morrison and Boyd Bode. It became popular in the 1930s and 1950s.The
field became all
all-encompassing
encompassing because the books published accumulated a
great deal of curriculum know
knowledge
ledge and subject matter. However, after the
1950s the academic approach lost some its glamour among curricularists.
Of the approaches examined so far, we can argue here that the academic
approach is the least used approach in Zambian schools because it’s
scholarly nature. Currently planners in Zambia try to use rational
approaches
roaches and not one that is philosophical and historical in nature.
5) HUMANISTIC APPROACH
This approach comes from some curriculum leaders who reflect on the
field and content of the pre
previous
vious approaches and hold that they are too
rigid and too technocratic [Ornstein and Hunkins, 2004:8]
2004:8]. They contend
that the previous approaches focus more on scientific and rational aspects
thereby missing the personal and social aspects of curriculum and
instruction; ignore the artistic, physical and cultural aspects of the subject
matter, rarely consid
consider the need for self- reflectiveness and self-
self
actualization among learners and finally overlook the socio
socio- psychological
dynamics of classrooms and schools [Ornstein and Hunkins, 2004; 8].
This humanistic view is rooted in the progressive philosophy and chchild-
centred movement of the early 1900s which was first spearheaded by John
Dewey, Charles Judd and Francis Parker. The approach gained impetus in
the 1940s and 1950s with the growth of child psychology
psychology, which deals with
the needs and interests of the chi
children
ldren and humanistic psychology which
deals with valuing, ego identity, psychological health, freedom tolearn and
personal fulfilment. This approach considers the whole child and not only
the cognitive dimension. Both the formal and hidden curriculum are
worthwhile
orthwhile in this school.
This school’s advocates contend that music, art, literature, health,
education and humanities are as important as science and maths, and other
academic subjects. In the Zambian school curriculum the features of the
humanistic approach
approach are reflected for example, they favour the inclusion of
both the core and science subjects. However
However,, unlike the humanistic
curricularists there is a tendency in Zambia to put emphasis on science
24
subjects and so more time is allocated to science and maths subjects

compared to that given to humanities.
Another feature advocated by these theorists is that each child has
considerable input in the curriculum and shares responsibility with parents,
teachers and curriculum specialists in planning classroom instruction.
Curriculum committees come from the masses and not from top leaders,
and often students are invited to express their views on content and
experiences related to curriculum development. In the Zambian context,
teachers and students are never invited to have a say on what should be
included in the curriculum. This is perhaps one weakness that needs to be
addressed when analysing the Zambian curriculum. There is need for
teachers, parents and pupils’ representation when planning, constructing
and reviewing the curriculum.
6) RECONCEPTUALISTS
This is the last approach to curriculum studies according to Ornstein and
Hunkins. Though viewed by others as simply an extension of the
humanistic school, others recognise it as a separate field with distinct
features of its own such as paying attention to ideological issues of
education. They tend to take the academic approach to the curriculum
because they are more interested in studying the curriculum in the abstract
than in the practical application of knowledge to the creation of curriculum.
They focus more on understanding than developing a curriculum arguing
that the era for curriculum construction is past [Ornstein and Hunkins,
2004:9]. Among the advocates of such views are early reconceptualists
such as Counts, Rugg and Benjamin. They basically urged curricularists to
rethink, reconsider and reconceptualisethe curriculum.
Among the other views that they hold is that the school is not a system set
unto itself, apart from the world. The school is in the world, an extension
of society; its purpose is not to fit students into the world, into a static
society, but rather to enable them to be transformed and to transform
society. They hold that the existing order is oppressive and static. The
school and its curriculum must exist to change that.
The Zambian curricularists do not seem to hold the view that society is
static, but they might share a common view that the school and the
curriculum must enhance changes in society. The role of the school and the
curriculum is to bring about tangible changes in the society in which we
live.
25
Unit summary
In this unit the curriculum was explained with emphasis on the

definitions of both education and curriculum. We discussed several
misconceptions oon n the definitions of curriculum and the renowned
Summary definitions by various scholars.
In trying to understand the concept of curriculum further, we also
discussed the determinants of the curriculum and its importance.
This unit has also shared the types of curricula, aims/ objectives of
curriculum and principles of curriculum development. Four
theories of curricula were also analysed and their applicability in
our educational system. This unit further explored explanations of
curriculum studies in a practica
practicall Zambian context.
We concluded this unit by vividly looking at the approaches to
curriculum studies and the applicability of the approaches in the
Zambian school set up system.
Assignment
Discuss the six approaches to curriculum studies and clearly show

how each approach is applicable in the Zambian school set
set-up.
Assignment
Assessment
i. Discuss five principles for curriculum development.

ii. State five objectives of the curriculum.
iii. Explain five determinants of the curriculum.
iv. Discuss the three main types of the curricula..
26
Unit 2
CURRICULUM DESIGN
Welcome to unit 2. At this stage you are expected to define and

describe different types of curricular. In this unit we will go further
by looking at different models that some scholars have tried to put
forward. There are so many models so far that have been
propounded by different scholars as described below. It is difficult
to pinpoint which one is the best but depending on the
circumstances on the ground at least one of them is applicable to a
particular situation. There are several concepts that can guide the
development, construction and implementation of curriculum.
 Discuss types of instructional designs.
 Formulate instructional strategies.
 Analyze patterns of curriculum design.
Outcomes

27
Unit 2 CURRICULUM DESIGN
PATTERN OF CURRICULUM DESIGN
A design in this case may be referred to as a model. This is an

approach taken in order to design an appropriate curriculum.
Graves (1979) says “a model is a simplified representation of a
complex reality which enables the curriculum specialist to
understand the pr
process
ocess of curriculum development better.” In order
for a curriculum specialist to design an appropriate curriculum, it is
important that they understand the needs of society so as to set
appropriate goals and objectives.
Curriculum design is concerned abo
about
ut making choices in order to
construct an ideal structural frame work for the intended
curriculum. How does a curriculum developer construct a viable
curriculum when given a complex array of content in order of
preference? How can areas of concern be inte integrated when
presented separately? What role do all stake holders play in the
curriculum process?
CURRICULUM ELEMENTS/ COMPONENTS

Curriculum is based on four agreed upon elements from which a
specialist should come up with an appropriate design in order to
meet the educational needs of society.
Intent: This is made up of aims, goals and objectives.
1. Curriculum Intent
These are a guide to the selection of content, learning activities and
evaluation procedures. Objectives should be very clear and precise.
The main aim of designing curriculum is to provide answers to
educational needs of a particular group or society. It should be
meaningful and acceptable to the intended target. Hence, the needs
should determine the formulation of appropriate objectives.
2. Content: These
hese comprise the subject matterwhich is intended to be
delivered to thelearners
thelearners.. It includes facts, concepts, values, skills
and principles. Content refers to the body of knowledge suggested
to be delivered to a particular group. Dewey advises that
curric
curriculum
ulum planners must justify their content selection in terms of
its potential for generating knowledge so as to make it meaningful.
Some example of such knowledge may comprise; mathematics,
language, science, arts and crafts, music, religion, history,
geogr
geography
aphy and philosophy. A philosophical analysis of knowledge
is a pre
pre-requisite
requisite of an effective curriculum planning.
28
3. Learning experiences: This is the interaction between the learner

and conditions within the external environment to which the learner
should respond. It comprises the activities under which the learner
is subjected to. These learning experiences should comprise
activities that will help the learner to gain the intended necessary
knowledge and skills.
4. Evaluation: It is an assessment of the curriculum which determines

its effectiveness. It exposes the weaknesses, strengths and
challenges of the curriculum in order to determine way forward.
Curriculum should from time to time reviewed in order to ascertain
the achievement of goal and objectives.
INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGNS
There are several patterns of curricular designs as propounded by
many philosophers. Curriculum designers must pay particular
attention in order that they design a curriculum that will serve the
intended purpose.
1. Child- centered curriculum
This focuses on the child’s interest. It focuses on the already
developed mind of the child in terms of interests, beliefs, thoughts
and wishes. Education therefore, should help to fully develop these
potentialities by guiding them to select or choose the most
interesting and fruitful for them in order to broaden their minds. In
this regard, curriculum design is guided by the already existing
knowledge of the child.
The challenge with this kind of design is that the mind of the child
cannot extend beyond their capacity. In addition, Urevbu (1985:
49) argues that “the major argument for the Child- centered
curriculum is essentially an ethical one. How do we make children
attend school even when they do not want?” This kind of approach
may not cater for all children unless they are forced to attend
school.
2. Subject- centered curriculum

This is centered on academic subjects. It organizes the curriculum
into a variable number of subjects each of which represents a
specialized body of knowledge. Examples of these are: physics,
mathematics, geography etc and practical subjects such as home
economics fine arts, typing etc.
29
The advantages of this approach are that teachers are trained in

specific subject areas which make it easier for them to teach
effectively. Secondly, pupils find it easier to choose their areas of
interest and thirdly, textbooks and other teaching/ learning
materials are generally organized in advance.
3. Core
Core- curriculum
This simply refers to the main content that all learners should be
subjected to (compulsory subjects) and mostly dictated by
government policy. However, this may differ from f country to
country as governments differ in their education focus and
education pr
priorities.
iorities. The ministry of education will define
education al objectives, determine content, plan and authorize
programs which should be executed in schools. The challenge with
this approach is that it is hard to find materials in place of
conventional boo
books.
4. Integrated curriculum
It is difficult to clearly justify what integration means in this case.
Is it putting all curricular together or putting selected curricular?
What is that should be integrated? The understanding behind this is
that curriculum sp specialists
ecialists should look at connections or
interrelations of various subjects such as history and geography,
technological knowledge and urbanization, science and
mathematics. A simple example could be integrated science at
junior secondary school.
Another ex example
ample of integrated curriculum might involve areas of
practical thinking such as sex education, violence and war, building
a democratic society.
Activity: i) what is curriculum design?

Activity
ii) From the designs you have learnt above, which one is
more applicable to Zambia? Justify your answer.
FORMS OF MODELS
As previously pointed out, there are many scholars that have tried
to suggest some approaches to curriculum designs. Basi
Basically there
three types of models. We will look at each model in detail as
propounded by different scholars.
30
1. Academic or Objective Models
Tyler (1949) said the development of curriculum should be linear

and systematic. He came up with a simple classical model.
Tyler’s model
Selection of Objectives
Selection of learning experiences
Organization of learning experiences
Evaluation
Tyler says that in order for a curriculum developer to design an

appropriate curriculum, they should answer four questions based on
the stages of the model.
a) Selection of Objectives: What education purpose should the
school seek to attain? MOE- Focus- On Learning (1996: 27). The
curriculum should focus on what the school intends to achieve in
order to satisfy the needs of the learner and society.
b) What educational experiences are likely to attain these
objectives? This looks at the content that will be delivered to the
learners. It is important that the suggested content should be that
which will enable the learner to fit in society and offer services that
are required in that particular society.
c) How can these educational experiences be organized
effectively?The curriculum designer must clearly state how best
these can be effectively delivered to the learners in order that they
gain the appropriate knowledge and skills.
d) How can we determine whether these purposes are being
attained? This is an evaluation or assessment of the curriculum. It
is a systematic examination in order to find out the successes and
challenges in the implementation of the curriculum.
Hilda Taba (1962) criticized Tyler’s model. She argued that there is
need to obtain more information, hence, the approach should be
more scientific. She said that the approach should be based on
research and suggested seven stages of a curriculum process.
31
Taba’
Taba’s Model:
Step 1. Needs Assessment:: She said there in need to investigate the
educational needs of the society. When the needs of the society are
known, it becomes easy to plan for them.
Step 2. Formulation of objectives: Setting targets basing on the
data collec
collected
Step 3. Selection of content: The objectives
es should determine what
materials must beselected in order to meet the targets.
Step 4. Organization of content: Mobilizing
obilizing the selected materials
to be used
Step 5: Selection of learning activities:Suggesting
Suggesting the learning
experiences that the learners will undergo during the process of
curriculum implementation
Step 6. Organization of learning experiences: Prioritizing the
activities or arranging them in order of preference.
Step 7. Determination of what to evaluate
valuate and ways and means
of doing it: This is theevaluation and assessment to determine way
it:This
forward.
2. Cyclic Models
These models take situation analysis as an important tool to
curriculum design. They contend that when data is collected from a
particular society about their educational needs, it becomes easy to
make a plan of action in order to solve the problems.
The Wheeler Model

D. K. Wheeler (1967) argued that curriculum developers should
employ a cyclic process in which elements are related and
inter
interdependent.
dependent. He suggested five stapes based on Tyler’s and
Taba”s designs. He says the interrelation of the elements
determines the success of the process. If the cycle is complete, it
means the curriculum is successful. At a point where elements
cannot rela
relate
te well it means there is a challenge which needs to be
corrected before proceeding to the next stage.
32
Wheeler’s model
Wheeler says that the curriculum process is cyclic and that the
elements are interdependent such that if the cycle is complete then
the curriculum is successful. An incomplete cycle means that the
curriculum has failed to achieve its intended goals.
Audrey and Nicholas (1978) refined the works of Tyler, Taba and
Wheeler. They agree with the cyclic model by argue that evaluation
is not the last stage but that it should be done at every stage in the
process. They add that regular evaluation helps to closely monitor
the process which makes it easier to make adjustments or
corrections and eliminate errors. A cyclic model is more ideal in
countries where there is a decentralized curriculum because
monitoring and supervision becomes easy.
3. Interactive Models. Interactive models are flexible and more

realistic. For them they start with data collection on about the needs
assessment followed by dialogue with all stake holders so as to
agree on what should be done. This makes it easier for monitoring
because every stake holder is aware of what is expected in the
curriculum process and implementation.
Deaker’s and Walker’s Model

Deaker and Walker (1970) identified only three stages.
Stage 1. Platform: This involves listening, taking down notes and
formulation of objectives.
Stage 2. Deliberations: A stage where discussions take place to
select what is appropriate.
33
Unit 3 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
Stage 3. Curriculum design: Conclusions made at stage 3 should

result in the construction of curriculum.
Walker and Deaker defend their model by provi providing a forum of
discussion where stake holders deliberate, argue and agree together
so that they come up with an appropriate curriculum. They contend
that planning in the absence of the end users may leave out
important factors that will eventually render the curriculum
irrelevant.
SUMMARY
Curriculum is dynamic. Therefore, curriculum designers should
constantly conduct needs assessment in order to find out the
educational needs of a particular society. So far we have looked at
three types of models namely
namely,, Objective models, cyclic models and
Interactive models. We have also examined different patterns of
curriculum designs. Selection of a particular design depends on the
prevailing circumstances of a particular environment and the stake
holders involved. Therefore it is important to conduct serious
scientific researches before a curriculum could be developed.
Activity: i) Provide a detailed critique about Tyler’s model

ii) In your view, which model would be suitable for
developing countries?
Unit 3
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
Introduction
In this chapter we will look at how curriculum is developed. We
will further discuss the factors that affect the development of
curriculum either positively or negatively. Curriculum developers
need to consider these factors in order in order to design curricular
that should stand a test of time.
By the end of this topic SSBAT:
34
 Outline factors affecting curriculum development

 Examine how each factor affects curriculum development
 Discuss how best these factors can be handled in order to produce an
Outcomes effective curriculum

FACTORS AFFECTING CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
There are several factors that affect the development of curriculum.

Some of these are discussed below:
1. Society: Every society has its own values, morals, traditions,
beliefs and skills which should be transmitted by schools. A
curriculum which is irrelevant to a society is rejected and a
curriculum which brings success to a society is welcome. The
society is the major stake holder of curriculum development. It is
the society that curriculum is intended for hence, it is the
beneficially of every curriculum. Curriculum developers need to
first look at needs analysis in order to ascertain the educational
needs of a particular society. The skills and knowledge that learners
gain in schools are to applied in society therefore, there is need to
seriously conduct a research on what the society needs.
2. The government: The Government has the duty to draw up

curriculum. Through education, the ideology of the country is
transmitted. More importantly, the government hires and fires
35
teachers who are the implementers of curriculum. It has the

mandate to dictate what necessary subjects should be offered to its
citizens. The political leadership also formulates policies for
education activities in the cou
country.
ntry. Lack of political will on
education has negative effects on the education system in the
country.
3. The Church: Education in colonial Africa was brought introduced

by Missionaries.They were the ones who brought formal education
in Africa and Zambia iin n particular. Up to now they are still running
a number of Mission schools in the country supplementing
government’s efforts. The church needs to be consulted on what
content should be included in the curriculum. They have the
freedom to make decisions on certain subjects or topics. They can
reject certain aspects that they feel can jeopardize their doctrines let
alone fueling indiscipline in their schools.
4. Teachers: Teachers are the implementers of curriculum. They

determine its success or failure. A cur
curriculum
riculum for a particular group
should determine the teachers’ qualifications because qualifications
have a positive or negative impact on the curriculum.
5. Psychology: One of the aims of education is that the learning

activities should bring mental develop
development
ment in the learner. A
curriculum that provides ability, aptitude and intelligence of the
learners, recommends appropriate rewards and punishment
provides growth to learners to much with content. The suggested
content should therefore stimulate learners’ thoughts. Subjects
should broaden the learner’s thinking.
6. Parents: Parents may decide to send their children to particular

schools of their choice for their children. They may also want to
know what their children are learning and how they are taught.
xamination Boards: ECZ, Colleges and Universities train

7. Examination
markers and setters of assessment items. Through the process, they
are able to make adjustments in terms of content and teaching
strategies.
36
THE PROCESS OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

Developing a curriculum is not an easy task. There are a lot of
things involved and if not carefully handled, the curriculum may
not serve its intended purpose to the target group or society.
Curriculum developers therefore, need to take a careful analysis of
the process so as to make the curriculum relevant. Planning from
imagination or thinking for people while in offices if an
unprofessional way of designing curriculum. The better way is to
get information from the stake holders on the ground.
There are several stages involved in the process of curriculum
development and implementation. These are discussed below:
i) Situation Analysis: This is a systematic examination of the
situation conducted in order to develop an effective curriculum. It
can be conducted in broader terms such as at national level, groups
of schools, societies, regions and provinces, within the education
system. Hilda Taba (1962) says “It is a process of examining the
context of which curriculum is to be developed.” Factors to
consider are: society, pupils, schools, climate, staff, facilities and
equipment. Researchers must identify the needs of the learners,
parents and community. These needs must be defined and priorities
set and the make recommendations.
ii) Goal formulation:

These are targets that are set basing on the needs assessment. They
must aim at equipping learners with relevant skills and knowledge
for both formal and informal employment. The aims and objectives
should uphold the values, norms, standards and traditions of
society.
iii) Policy Decision Makers

The Central Government is the law maker. The recommendations
by the Curriculum Development Center experts are taken to
Parliament to be debated up on and once enacted, the curriculum
becomes law. Policy makers consider the following:
 Time needed for planning and implementing the curriculum
 Priorities
 Qualifications of the personnel involved
 Responsibilities
iv) Trials and Tests
37
At this stage the Governments needs to try out the curriculum in

order to see its practical aspect. Pilot schools are identified and
selected where the curriculum will be tried out. These are
representatively selected
selected- both rural and town schools. At the end
e
of a specified period, a report is given as to whether the curriculum
is viable or not.
v) Implementation
Once the curriculum is accepted, it is extended to all schools across
the country. All stake holders must be informed such as parents,
teachers and pupils. However, there is need to retrain facilitators
such as teachers, lecturers and instructors.
vi) Evaluation
After some specified period of time, an assessment to determine the
successes and challenges is conducted. This determines whether the
curricul
curriculum
um will stand a test of time or it should be abandoned.
Activity:
1. With reference to the factors determining the curriculum
development, discuss the challenges curriculum planners face.
2. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of a localized
curriculum.
3. Discuss factors affecting curriculum implementation.
38
Unit 4
ADAPTING CURRICULUM
Introduction
[Add introductory text here]
 [verb][complete the sentence].

Outcomes

Adapting Curriculum for Special Education Needs (SEN)

Not all learners can learn smoothly. Some learners have learning
difficulties or disabilities that make it harder for them to learn than
their friends of the same age. Due to these challenges their
educational needs cannot be met within the traditional classroom
set up, and as such, they require special attention. Therefore, it is
important to plan a user friendly curriculum which will cater for
them so that they feel part of the system. Infact, a disability is not
inability. Some of the SEN learners perform much better than the
so called normal. Learning disabilities are in many forms such as
39
Unit 4 ADAPTING CURRICULUM
visually impaired, hearing impaired, mentally retarded and

physically impaired.
Types of Special Needs
It is important that teachers become familiar with most of thes
these
types of special needs. The following are some of the impairments.
Impairment/ Type of Special Needs

Condition
Physical &  Difficulties in mobility and

Physiological balance, interaction with social
and none social environment
 Negative self-image
image
 Poor posture and balance
Hearing  Difficulties in oral
communication, socialization,
short term memory
 Poor balance
 Difficulties in hearing
Visual  Poor mobility and poor posture
 Difficult to develop self-help
self
skills
 Unable to read print
 Negative self image
Developmental delay  Skill development is delayed by 2
years behind in motor, language,
cognitive, mental, social,
emotional and self-help
self skills
Intellectual Disability  Development is delayed in more
than three areas. The child
functions below the age of the
classmates
Specific learning Poor oral communication, poor reading,
difficulties poor writing, poor spellings and
mathematics
Neurological Austism  Memory gaps, flabby muscles,

irregular tremors
 Poor social interaction, poor
language, poor communication
communicati
and poor learning skills
 Unusual behavior like rocking
and spinning objects
Giftedness or high  Learns too quickly
level of intellectual  Challenging behavior
ability  Critical thinking
 Critical of the teacher
40
Adapting Instructional Strategies and Materials.

Teachers need to develop strategies that would help them detect
these special needs. They should come up with tools for screening
impairments and other conditions.
A child observation sheet can be developed by the teacher. It can
be for the whole class or for an individual.
Child Observation Sheet
Class:………………… Date:…………... Compiled
By:…………………………………..
Specific learning Needs Names of Pupils
Communication behaviour:
 Limited vocabulary
 Difficulties in understanding
questions
 Inappropriate responses
 Unclear speech sounds
 Isolation
 Difficulties in co-operating
with others
 Needs repeated instructions
Reading behaviour:
 Cannot recognize letters by
sound
 Cannot sound out simple
words
 Guesses words when reading
 Finds reading tiring
 Cannot remember common
words
 Reads slowly and forgets the
beginning easily
 \Loses pace when reading
Writing and Spelling behaviour:
 Holds pencil/ pen awkwardly
 Writes letters bellow or
above the line
 Leaves big spaces in
between letters
 Confuses word order
41
 Writes slowly
 Writes letters backwards
 Writes letters too big or too
small
Mathematics:
 Difficulties in size
relationship- big/ small
 Un able to comprehend
mathematical language
 Difficulties to understand
mathematical sign and
symbols
 Cannot remember
mathematical tables
 Difficulties in multiplying,
adding, subtracting and
dividing
Mobility Difficulties: Names of Pupils
Poor gross mobility behaviour:
 No active games
 Limited movements
 Poor balance
 Bad sitting, standing posture
Poor fine Motor Mobility
Behaviour
Behaviour:
 Struggles to hold pencil/ pen
 Poor writing posture
 Presses pen/pencil too hard
or too soft
 Writes slowly
Giftedness Names of Pupils

High intellectual abilities
behaviour
behaviour:
 Uses words accurately
 Very good memory
 Solves abstract problems
 High performance in all
subjects
42
 Works independently
 Initiates interaction among
peers
The above observation sheet can help teachers to identify different

types of disabilities in the learners. Once, learners abilities are
identified, it is easy for the teacher to develop means and other
strategies for such pupils in order to enhance effective teaching and
learning in the classroom.
It is important that teachers should also set goals and specific
learning outcomes for each child with special learning needs. They
also need to specify what each child must learn including the gifted
ones.
Teachers must also conduct extra lessons in older to provide more
time for grasping of concepts, skills and core vocabulary of pupils.
THE JUNIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL CURRICULUM

This is a two year course that covers grades eight and nine of the
Zambian Education System. The curriculum at this level equips
pupils with necessary knowledge and skills which will be built
upon at the senior secondary level. In the past, all subjects taught to
learners right from grade eight to grade nine. This time, the
curriculum has changed in order to help pupils take a particular
path.
The curriculum has changed taking two dimensions called Career
Pathways, namely: Academic and Vocational. This entails that
pupils will have to take one way depending on their capability and
passion.
The Vocational Career pathway is meant for learners who have
ambitions and interest in technical and practical jobs. The emphasis
on this path is on developing practical skills which promote
manufacturing and production of goods and services in industries.
Learners will learn this path from grade eight up to grade 12.
Learners will study these subjects and be awarded a Vocational
Certificate at the end of their two year program. This certificate can
help them to get employed if they decide to stop at grade nine or if
they fail to qualify to grade ten.
This pathway has five optional subjects from which learners can
choose.
i). Technology
ii). Performing and Creative Arts
43
iii). Physical Education and Sports

iv). Home Economics
v). Agriculture
The Academic Career Pathway: This pathway comprises subjects
that are non
non-practical.
practical. Compulsory subjects in this pathway are:
i. English,
ii. Business Studies, ,
iii. Computer Studies,
iv. Intergraded science,
v. Mathematics,
vi. Religious Education
vii. Zambian Languages.
Activity
Activity:
1. In your view is the change of the Zambian Secondary
school curriculum necessary?
2. Explain in detail why curriculum change is necessary for
any education system
3. With reference to inclusive education, what challenges do
teaches face in handling learners of divergent
vergent learning
abilities?
44
Unit 5
EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
Introduction to Education Research

This topic may seem strange to some people and irrelevant to
others. However note that it is a very important and relevant topic
especially to those who poses critical minds. It will help you
become a critical thinker and someone who questions issues. The
topic explains the nitty-gritty of writing a research paper. Research
is important because it tries to help people who are affected directly
or indirectly by the topic under research. Its purpose is to make
those people live a better life thereafter (as a result of your
research). Research also help improve the educational system for
the benefit of all so it is important that you take it seriously like any
other topic so far covered.
I wish to stress the point that this cause if followed properly will
enrich your understanding of the world around you. You will
acquire knowledge and skills necessary to make breakthrough in
talking issues of educational nature.
 Distinguish research from other modes of searching for the truth

 Define research
 State characteristics of research
Outcomes  Describe types of research
 Identify research theories
 State the importance of theoretical frameworks
 Stages of the research process
 Identify research area / topic
 State Title selection
45
Unit 5 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

RESEARCH
RESEARCH FOR THE TRUTH
- Man has been in search for truth since time immemorial
- The reasons surrounding this search is that truth is utilized (used)
fully in various fields including religion, culture, traditions,
economics, justice and evaluation e.t.c
- In practice the overriding principles states that truth is sought
(looked for) in order to solve various. Problems confro
confronting
humility.
- Jesus Christ (J
(John
ohn 8:32), enclosing the significance of truth once
taught his disciples in the following manner; “if you know the
truth, the truth will set you free.”
- In searching for truth, Cohen and Manion
anion (1985) have identified
three mai
main sources of truth, namely
(i) Experience
(ii) Logic/ reasoning
(iii) Research
(i) EXPERIENCE
- Where solutions to problems clearly lie beyond an
a individual’s
personal knowledge, such a person may make use of the different
46
experiences of others, usually older. People: e.g. a child a teacher a

parent
- In our efforts to come to terms with the problems of daily life, we
are heavily dependent upon experience e.g. a child repairs a
puncture in a bicycle’s inner tube speedily and efficiently because
he has done it several times before.
- Personal experience however has got limitations; for instance the
limitations of personal experience in the form of common – sense
knowing can quickly exposed when compared with features of the
scientific to solving problems.
- One consideration lies in the area of central distinguishing the lay
mans and the scientists attitudes to experience
- The former (lay man) makes no attempt to central any extraneous
sources of influence after trying to explain occurred event.
- The latter (scientist) on the other hand being conscious of the
multiple (many) causes for a given occurrence resorts to definite
techniques and procedures to isolate and test the effect of one or
more the alleged causes.
- There is also the difference of attitude to the relationship amongst
factors in a problem e.g. effects of illiteracy on academic
performance.
- The lay person’s (grandfather in the village) concern with the
relationships is loosely unsystematic and uncontrolled: on the other
hand the scientist displays a much more serious professional
concern with relationships in a problem (independent variable
(factor) and dependent variable (factor)).
(ii) LOGIC / REASONING
- Reasoning consists of three types namely; Deductive, inductive and
the combined; inductive- deductive approaches.
(a) Deductive reasoning is based on the understanding of providing a
particular instance and then a conclusion: for instance, all planets
orbit the sun; the earth is a planet, therefore the truth orbits the sun
47
(b) Inductive reasoning: it means of which the study of a number of

individual cases would lead to an hypothesis and later to a
generalization.
(c) Inductive
Inductive- deductive approach- this is a combination of deductive
and inductive reasoning
- It is acknowledged that this dual approach is the essence of the
modern sci
scientific
entific method and marks the last stage of man’s
progress towards empirical science
- It is appreciated that despite deduction and induction having their
weakness, they have contributed to the development of science
namely the suggestion of hypotheses, the clarification and
interpretation of scientific findings.
(iii) RESEARCH (THE BEST SOURCE)
- The tthird means by which man sets out to discover truth is
research.
- Orodho, and kombo (2002) defined research as “the process of
Orodh
arriving at dependable solution
solutions to problems
ems through the planned
systematic collection analysis and interpretation of data
ACTIVITY
1. Identify three sources of man’s experience and provide examples in

each case.
2. Why is it argued that the three modes of searching for truth
complement each other?
3. How does the truth manifest itself?
48
5.1DEFINITIONS OF RESEARCH
INTRODUCTION:
In topic one under this unit you were introduced to three modes of seeking
truth with a view to solving various problems. These modes are
experience, logic / reasoning and then research after your careful
study you should by now come to appreciate that of these three
channels of truth seeking, research has been considered the most
efficient and reliable. However, it must be stressed that the other
two modes much also be respected because in their own way they
have contributed enormously to human development.
In topic two of unit 5 you are supposed to critically state what a

research is through definitions.
In defining research, you need to read and understand various

stands of writers in research. All in all, research is a cornerstone of
any science, including for examples, the natural sciences such as
chemistry and physics; and the social sciences such as sociology
and psychology.
- Tuchman (1978:1) describes research as a systematic attempt to

provides answers to questions,
- Orodho and kombo (2002:2) define research as the process of
arriving at dependable solutions to problems through the planned
systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data.
- Research is a systematic process of collecting and logically
analyzing information (data) for some purpose (James. H.
McMillan ) and Sally Schumacher: (1990)
- Kerlinger (1973:11) defines research as a systematic, controlled,
empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions
about the presumed relations among natural phenomena.
49
- Hurston (2010) referred to research as the organized, structured

and purposeful investigation aimed at discovering
discovering, interpreting and
revising human knowledge on different aspects of the wor
world by
someone first hand.
- Research can be also be described as an endless quest for
knowledge or unending search for truth.
- Research is a way or arriving at dependable solutions to problems
through the planned and systematic collection, analys
analysis and
interp
interpretation of data (Cook. P. M)
- Another definition of research may be put as a method of studying
problems whose solutions are to be desired partly or wholly from
facts. Those facts may be statements of historical facts, those
contained in records and reports, the results of tests,
test answers to
questionnaires and so on (Monroe.W. S)
- Research breeds new knowledge or corrects previous errors and.
Misconceptions and adds in an orderly way to the existing body of
knowledge.
- Research is an essential and powerf
powerful
ul tool that leads man towards
progress: it shows us the way in our difficulties
difficulties, opens new avenues
and provides to us better alternatives.
- All research aims at is progress and good life. When we say
research adds new knowledge, the knowledge must be verif
verified by
any interested person.
ACTIVITY
i. Identify the key words frequently appearing in the
definitions of research and discuss their relevance.
ii. Choose three definitions of research from the above stated
and critically analyze them.
50
5.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

Having defined the concept of research; lets us now turn to the
characteristics of research. Ladies and gentlemen I hope we have
all understood the definitions of research because it is through this
understanding that we will be able to state research characteristics:
 Research is systematic:
Research attempts to solve problems whether social economic,
political, cultural or healthy related in systematic way. It is
systematic in that a general system is followed. This involves the
identification of the problem review of related literature and data
collection. This is followed by data analysis conclusions and
recommendations.
 Research is objective:
Research is a scientific attempt to find an objective or unbiased
solution to an educational or social problem. Research involves
gathering new data from primary sources (first hand and secondary
sources (using existing data).
 It is based on observable experience or empirical evidence: we can
therefore say that research is empirical in nature.
 It employs carefully designed procedures and rigorous analysis.
 Research is self-correcting: in this manner firstly this scientific
method has built in mechanisms to protect the scientist from error
as for as is humanly possible. Secondly procedures and results are
open for public scrutiny by fellow professionals.
 Research is a combination of both experience and reasoning, and
therefore must be regarded as the most successful approach to the
discovery of truth.
 Research is highly purposive: it deals with significant problems
which demand a solution.
51
ACTIVITY
In your own words and understanding ex
explain
plain five characteristics
of research.
5.3 TYPES OF REASERCH
Having seen the characteristics of research we can now shift to the

types of research. Prospecting teachers always ensure that you
thoroughly understand a sub
sub-unit before moving to the next one.
on
TYPES OF RESEARCH:
Research can either be Qualitative or Quantitative
(a) QUALITATIVE RESEARCH.
This is a form of research that involves description. Qualitative
research seeks to describe and analyze the culture and behavior of
humans and their groups from the point of view of those being
steadied. Qualitative research uses the natural setting, for instance a
classroom setting and not a laboratory. This means the scenario is
not artificial. Qualitative research relies on research strategy that is
flexible aand
nd interactive: this includes interviewing, focus groups
discussions
discussions, observations and Questionnaires.
In qualitative research feelings and insights are considered
important (Orod
(Orodho
o and Kombo: 2002). Sometimes qualitative
research is called naturalistic in
inquiry
quiry of field studies. Examples of
qualitative research include case studies of communities and
institutions.
It provides insights into the problem or helps to develop ideas or
hypotheses for potential quantitative research. Qualitative research
describes a problem from the point of view of those experiencing it.
Qualitative research is non
non- statistical, its methodological approach
is primarily guided by the concrete material at hand. Qualitative
research is typically investigative in nature. Its findings are often
52
not conclusive and cannot automatically be used to make

generalizations.
APPLICABILITY:
Qualitative research is appropriate under the following conditions.
 When the subject matter is unfamiliar: for examples, when one
wants to know the causes and effects of a certain phenomenon
(factor) and the answer is unfamiliar to the research: e.g. Effect of
free primary education in school accessibility and retention.
 When a research wants to relate particular aspects of behavior to
the Wider Context: for example when the researcher wants to find
at effects of functional illiteracy on the academic performance of
college student teachers, a few colleges and students will be
sampled the findings however will be applicable to a wider context.
 When flexibility of approach is needed to allow for discovery of
the unexpected and in depth investigation of particular topics. For
example in finding out the effect of abortion on education, the
researcher may interview those who have carried out an abortion
and are willing to be interviewed. Focus group discussions may be
used. The researcher can also change a research instrument
depending on the respondents. For example a researcher may have
planned to use questionnaire written in English but may discover
that the majority of respondents are semi-literate. The researcher
may therefore choose to interview and use the language which the
respondents are most comfortable in.
 This method is used for studying selected issues, cases or events in
depth and detail (Orodho and Kombo, 2002)
FORMS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
 Ethnographies; these are observations of groups.
 Phenomenological studies: which study subjects over a period of
time through developing relationships with them and reporting
findings based on research experiences.
53
 Case studies which use various data investigate the subject over
time and by activity.
(b) QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH.
Quantitative research relies on the principles of variability: that
means confirmation proof, etc
etc. knowledge images from what can be
proven by direct observation. The researcher’s values interpretation
and feelings are not considered. Objectivity is reinforced. This
approach is mainly applicable in scientific studies. This research
establishes the cause effect relationship. Quantitative research
focuses on measurement and numeric figures or numbers.
Quantitative research is used to quantify the problem by way of
generating numerical data or data that can be transformed into
useable statistics. It is used to quantify attitudes, opinions,
behaviors
behaviors, and other defined variables.
APPLICABILITY
Quantitative research is applicable under the following conditions.
 When the research incorporates the statistical (how many?)
element, designed to quantify the extent to which a target group
is aware of thinks this e.t.c.
 When control of approach is need to allow for discover of the
unexpected and in depth investigation of particular topics.
Control of one phenomenon of interest
 When the scenario is artificial, for instance in a laboratory is
needed.
QUALITATIVE
ALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Qualitative and quantitative approaches to research are
complimentary. Where appropriate, they should be combined to
maximize the strengths and minimize the limitations of each:
for example, in a study on the effect of abortion on education, a
researcher can
an first use qualitative research and interview
respondent to find out their views on the effect of abortion. The
researcher can then segregation group of students who have
54
terminated their pregnancies and another group that has not

terminated pregnancies and observe them keenly on specific
psychological test. The researcher can theretofore make
deduction on the effect of abortion on education
Group discussion
- In your respective groups discuss the three types of research
with emphasis on their applicability.
5.4 RESEARCH THEORIES

Welcome to this sub-unit which appears to be strange and
irrelevant to others. Most of us must be wandering why we should
be wasting our time and energy studying theories in research. To
the contrary theories are very important in research; to appreciate
this importance let us look at the format of a research report with
focus on chapter one:
CHAPTER ONE
- Introduction
- Background to the problem
- Theoretical frame work of the study
- Statement of the problem
- Purpose of the study
- Objectives of the study
- Research questions
- Significance of the study
- Limitations of the study
- Definition of terms used in the study.
The highlighted words in chapter one of the research report format

is the reason why we should study theories of research: well thank
you for closely following the discussion and appreciating the
55
importance of research theories when writing a research report. A

research report is of course writing after conducting the actual
research. To further appreciate the study of theories ladies and
gentlemen let us look at the theoretical framework and the actual
theories in research.
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
A theoretical framework is a collection of interrelated ideas based

on theories. It is a reasoned set of prepositions, which are derived
from and supported by data or evidence. Theoretical frameworks
accounts for or explain
explains phenomena. It attempts to clarify why
things are the way they are based on theories. A theoretical
framework is a general set of assumptions about the nature of
phenomena. To understand theoretical frameworks, an analy
analysis of
theories has to be made.
THEORIES IN RESEARCH
A theory is a reasoned statement or groups of statement, which are

supported by evid
evidence,
ence, meant to explain phenomena. They are a
systematic explanation of the relationship among phenomena.
Theories provide a generalized explanation to an occurrence. There
are several kinds of theories in all disciplines. It is impossible for a
researcher to know all these theories. Therefore a researcher should
be conversant to know all these theories. Therefore a researcher
should be conversant with those applicable to ones area of research.
When a theory fails to be supported by data, it can be rejected, or is
revised. Theories are testable in a practical situation. Theories
provide indicators and examples of what is incorporated in the
framework. Theories provide tentative theoretical answers to
questions, issues and problems before the researcher practi
practically
confirms through research that the answer is correct. Theories have
proponents. Researchers apply theories to guide their work and
help interpret finding. They provide a foundation for inquiries. The
56
following are some of their theories that can be used to formulate a

theoretical framework:
a) STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM THEORY (EMILE

DURKHEIM, 1858-1917)
This theory proposes that human society is like an organism and is
made up of structures called social institutions. These institutions
are specially structured so that they perform different functions on
behalf of society. This theory attempts to provide an explanation on
how human society is organized and what each of the various
social institutions does in order for society to continue existing.
According to his theory, as a result of being interrelated and
interdependent, one organ can affect the others and ultimately the
whole. The whole can also affect one or all the social institution. A
researcher can use this theory to point out why and how some
societies operate relatively well compared to others socially.
b) SYMBOLIC INTERACTION THEORY (MAX WEBER,
1864-1920)
This theory deals with explaining how individuals relate with each
other. This is a theoretic orientation, which contains assumptions
proposing that the social world is made up of symbols, which
human beings use as a means of interaction. According to this
theory human beings do not act individually but interact with each
other, thus reacting to each other. A researcher can use this theory
in an attempt to explain and understand how people relate to each
other and what is used in facilitating a relationship between
individuals and groups of people in society. A researcher may
attempt to show how the behavior expressed by members of groups
to which one belongs and by members of one’s personal networks
have an influence. The researcher may show how people rely on
the opinions of others, especially when a situation is highly
uncertain or ambiguous and no objective evidence is readily
available.
57
c) CONFLICT THEORY (KARL MARX 1818-1883)

1818
This theory emphasizes the existence of opposing forces in the life
of individuals group, social structures and society in general. This
theory views human society as a collection of competing interest
groups and individual, eeach
ach with their own motives and
expectations. The principles assumption underlying this theory is
that all members in society do not have the same values, interest or
expectations. These vary according to one’s position, privileges,
ability, class and wealt
wealth.
h. Agreement tends to appear among those
who share similar privileges. This is likely to encourage unequal
distribution of the scarce but valuable resources and opportunities.
This results in divisions in society resulting in hostility and
opposition. A re
result
sult in divisions in society resulting hostility and
opposition. A researcher can use this theory in an attempt to
explain why conflicts occur in society.
d) BASIC NEEDS THEORY (ABRAHAM MASLOW. 1943)
According to this theory, there are certain minimum require
requirements
that are essential to a decent standard of living. These are known as
physiology needs. They include food, shelter, health and clothing
they are primary needs and have to be centered for before others
needs such as security and shelter, sense of belo
belonging and
affection, love, esteem and finally self –actualization
actualization are pursued.
A researcher can apply this theory when attempting to prove that
lack of basic survival needs may be a contributory factor to the
situation of the phenomena under study.
Assessment
Discuss the research theories and clearly state situations in which
these theories can be used.
58
IMPORTANCE OF THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS

A theoretical framework plays a major role in research. These
include the following:
a) It introduces the researcher to a new view of the research
problem. This enables the researcher to understand the total
realm of the problem.
b) It enables the researcher to conceptualize the topic in its
entirety as an outgrowth of the larger society. This helps the
researcher to acknowledge the problem from a wider
perspective and not from a narrow personalized self-interest
approach. This enhances the researcher’s objectivity.
QUALITIES OF AN EFFECTIVE THEORETICAL

FRAMEWORK
An effective theoretical framework should:
a) Account for and explain a phenomenon.
b) Be specific and well-articulated.
c) Reflect the research problem being addressed.
d) Be measured in a practical situation.
e) Provide tentative answers to questions, issues and problems
addressed in the research problem.
f) Should systematically address the various aspects of the
problem, particularly the key factors that are assumed to
influence or cause the problem.
GUIDANCE IN FORMULATING A THEORETICAL

FRAMEWORK
In formulating an effective theoretical framework, the researcher

should adhere to the following:
a) Reflect- on the existing theories for the purpose of identifying a

fitting context.
59
b) Analyze the research title to identify the independent and

dependent variables. The researcher should then reflect on the
relationship between these variables.
c) Find out which theories best explain the relationship the
variables. This can be achieved by using the library and reading
books and articles related to the topic selected. The researcher
should read through various theories related to one’s research
resear
topic. The sources include professional publications, journals in
education, these, abstracts from doctoral dissertations and
master these psychological obstruct. These reading will present
various studies related to one’s study area. This will assist in
i
the formulation of the theoretical framework.
d) Formulation- the researcher should then write down the
theories applicable, link the ideas and identify the relationship.
After this the researcher should formulate the theoretical
framework. This will involvee discussing the selected theories in
an attempt to answer the research question.
e) Evaluation- after formulating the theoretical framework, the
researcher should evaluate it to find out it addresses all sections
of the research problem
CHALLENGES FACED IN FORMULATING OF THEORETICAL

FRAMEWORK
Lack of differentiation between a theory and theoretical frames
work. While a theory simply states what proponents have
discovered in relation to a certain issue, a theoretical framework
uses this theory to account for a certain issue, a theoretical
framework uses this theory to account for and clarify why things
are the way they are applicable to the study. Moreover, some
researchers quote theories that do not explain the phenomenon
under study.
60
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CONCEPTUAL AND

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS
Many researchers get confused whether to use conceptual or
theoretical frameworks in the studies. Although both these
frameworks are tools to assist a researcher make meaningful
findings, they vary. A conceptual framework bases on ideals that
may be formulated from a researcher’s own perception. This may
be from observation or experience. On the other hand, the
theoretical framework is based on recognized theories.
A conceptual framework cannot be refuted or tested through
research. A theoretical framework is testable and can be rejected or
revised. Ideas raised in a theoretical framework have proponents
while those in a conceptual framework are mainly the researcher’s
with a few references to support them. A theoretical framework is a
discussion of related theories attempting to predict a phenomenon.
A conceptual framework is an idea stated.
Reflection
i. Discuss the relevance of theoretical and conceptual
frameworks in research.
ii. Show the relationship between conceptual and theoretical
frameworks.
iii. State four qualities of an effective theoretical framework.
iv. Briefly explain how a theoretical framework can be
formulated.
v. List three challenges faced in formulating a theoretical
framework.
5.5 STAGES OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS

Ladies and gentlemen welcome to this subunit which will help us
understand the research process of the research proposed and the
61
research thesis (report) respectively. However will look at the

research proposal and research thesis (report) in brief so as not to
pre--empty
empty year two and year three work. According to the Junior
Secondary teachers diploma syllabus, curriculum studies and
Education Research, Research Proposal will be studied in year two,
write the research report in year three. To have an insight of the
research process will outline the formats for the research proposal
and research report, because these two documents have two
different stages of the research process. The first step in the
research process of course is to identify the problem and formulate
a title.
RESEARCH PROPOSAL FORMAT

Chapter 1 –Introduction
 Background to the study
 Statement of the research problem- purpose of the study
 Objectives of the study
 Research questions
 Significance of the study
 Hypothesis
 Conceptual or theoretical framework
Chapter2 –Literature Review
Chapter 3 –Research Methodology: Research design, Research
site, Population, Sampling techniques, Research instruments, Data
collect
collection, Analysis and Presentation.
RESEARCH REPORT (THESIS) FORMAT
A research report consists of preliminaries which are numbered in
roman numerals. The preliminaries in order of appearance include
the approval, acknowledgement, table of contents, lists of tables,
list of figures and abstract. Others include declar
declaration and
dedication before the approval page. A research report consists of
62
the first three chapters of the proposal plus the research findings,
conclusions and recommendations.
 Title
 Declaration
 Approval
 Acknowledgement
 Table of contents
 List of tables
 List of figures
 Abstract
CHAPTER ONE –INTRODUCTION
 Background to the problem

 Theoretical framework of the study
 Statement of the problem
 Purpose of the study
 Objectives of the study
 Research questions
 Significance of the study
 Limitations of the study
 Definition of terms used in the study
CHAPTER TWO –LITERACURE REVIEW
CHAPTER THREE –METHODOLOGY
 Methods used in the study
 Design of the study
 Population of the study
 Sampling procedure
 Research instruments
 Pre-testing of research instruments
 Size of the sample
 Data collection
63
 Data analysis
 Data interpretation
 Problems encountered in the field
CHAPTER FOUR –PRESENTATIONS
PRESENTATIONS OF FINDINGS
CHAPTER FIVE –DISUSSION,
DISUSSION, CONCLUSION
AND
ANDRECOMMENDATIONS
5.6 RESEARCH AREA/TOPIC
5.6.1.
.1. Topic Selection.
The term "topic'' refers to subject, issue or area under discussion.
The topic (subject) one selects to research is essential in the success
of the research. This is mainly because one's interest in the topic
will sustain the research. If a researcher is interested
nterested in a particular
area, he/she will enjoy reading materials related to that subject, and
will put time and effort into the work. The researcher will be keen
on collecting the required data, analyzing it and finding out the
results.It is imperative that a researcher selects a topic that interests
him/her. The followingare some of the stepsthat
that should be followed
in topic selection.
a) Identify what interests. or puzzles one in an area of study
There are many issues in life that may puzzle or interest a
researcher. These may be social, economic, health, political or
cultural issues. However, it is important to identify a puzzling
aspect in one's area of study. This not only enables the researcher to
go in
in-depth
depth in one's professional area, but also to defend
defe the
researched work with authority. For example, in identifying an area
of study, a student in the department of Sociology may be puzzled
as to why people still consume illicit brews despite the dangers
experienced and the warnings given by the governme
government. These are
fertile grounds in which students can identify research topics.
64
b) Identify keywords for the topic
The researcher should then zero down to the real aspect puzzling
him/her and express it in specific keywords. These keywords can
include words representing the issue that has puzzled the
researcher. For example if the researcher is puzzled about illicit
brews, the keywords may be increase of illicit brews. For the
student in education, the keywords may be free primary education,
school accessibility, retention and performance. The researcher
should think of what to concentrate on based on these words.
c) Define the topic
After identifying the keywords the researcher wants to concentrate

on, he/ she has to define the topic. Defining the topic involves
analysing selected keywords keenly. Out of these keywords there
are a number of topics that can be studied. For example, on the
issue of free primary education, the researcher may decide to
concentrate on free primary education and student accessibility, or
free primary education and student retention, or free primary
education and learners' performance or all of the above, thus
analysing free primary education and school accessibility, retention
and performance. The researcher has to identify specifically what
he/she wants to concentrate on. This enables the study to be
focused.
d) Formulate the topic
After identifying and defining the topic, the researcher should

formulate it. For example the prevalence of illicit brews in Kenya.
The researcher should search for articles and other materials
relevant to the research topic. This information will assist the
researcher develop clarity over the topic selected. This will also
assist the researcher in the formulation of the research problem
later on. The researcher should, take notes, paraphrase and
summarize what has been read on relevant materials. This will be
65
included in the literature review. Relevant information related to

the selected topic can be foun
foundd in a library or the Internet.
Qualities of an Effective Research Topic
A good research topic has the following qualities:
a) It is researchable: That means it is a subject where the research

instruments can be easily formulated and the study population
sampled. The objectives that will be formulated based on the topic
are measurable.
b) It captivates the interest of the researcher: The topic selected

should be one that the researcher has an interest in.
c) It makes a contribution to knowledge: A good research topic is

one in which the researcher is aware that the findin
findings of the study
will contribute to the body of knowledge.
d) It is provocative:: It open to varied views and interpretations
e) It is clear and focused: The topic is not vague

va or alien to the
researcher.
Challenges Encountered in Topic Selection
Selecting a topic in research is essential and requires a lot of care.

This is because the topic selected has a lot of influence on the
success of the project/study. There are various challenges
encountered in topic selection, and some have resulted in
researcher aba
abandoning
ndoning the project half way, or the project taking
longer to be completed than anticipated. The following are some of
the problems encountered in topic section.
a) Choosing a topic that is too wide
A researcher may select a research area that is too wide and fail to
limit the scope. This occurs due to underestimating the dimension
of the topic. For example, a topic such as Truancy in schools may
also be problematic unless the scope is clearly specified. This topic
66
may be too wide because the causes and effects of truancy on

education vary by gender and region. Truancy also has diverse
effects on school accessibility, retention and academic
performance. It may be impossible for this researcher to conduct an
in-depth study. To avoid selecting a topic that is too wide, the
researcher should be very clear and focused on what they want to
research. If it is issues related to drought or truancy, then they have
to be very certain on what they want to investigate in relation to
drought or truancy and make that the focus of the study.
b) Choosing a topic that is too complex
At times a researcher may choose a topic that is too complex for

research at the level of the student. This complexity is based on the
fact that some of the research may require large samples. A study
on the mushrooming of churches in Zambia is complex in that it
requires clear definition of the term "mushrooming. This topic may
present the researcher with problems particularly during data
collection and analysis.
c) Poor timing
Most research works have a limited time span for which data
should be collected and presented. Failure to adhere to this may
lead to disqualifications or penalties. Some topics, for example,
Effects offree primary education over a five year period may not be
feasible for a master's programme. This is mainly because these
programmes usually cover a span of two years.
d) Limited accessibility to materials and respondents
A particular topic may prove unsuitable simply because there is no

ready accessibility to the requisite source materials. It is common
for some source materials not to be made available for some years
after an event or during the lifetime of an individual. Other
materials may not be available in libraries. Some research works
have been delayed or changed due to the problem of unavailability
67
of subjects. For example, a study based on Ai

Aids
ds patients at Ndola
central Hospital may not be easy as accessibility to respondents
may be limited. The patients may also feel an invasion of privacy
and refuse to respond.
Activity
i. Explain the steps involved in selecting a topic.
ii. Formulate your own topic based on educational matters by
following the above stated steps.
iii. List qualities of an effective research topic.
iv. Scrutinize your research topic by subjecting it to the above
mentioned qualities.
v. Discuss challenges encountered in topic selection.
5.7TITLE
TITLE SELECTION.
The term "title" refers to heading, label or tag. The title of the
proposal or thesis describes what the study is about. The title is a
mini abstrac
abstract.
t. It portrays a quick summary of the key idea(s) in a
proposal or thesis. For example the following title by Kombo
(2005), Abortion in Kenya: An examination of its causes and
effects on female students in secondary schools and colleges
indication that the study is on abortion. It also indicates that the
study will analyse the causes and effects of abortion. It can be
deduced from the title that the respondents will include female
students in secondary schools and colleges. The title should be
formulated af
after the researcher has identified the research topic.
68
5.7.1THE FOLLOWING STEPS ARE ESSENTIAL IN TITLE

SELECTION:
a) Identify keywords for the title
Before selecting the title, the researcher should identify key issues
in the topic the researcher is interested in.
b) Reflect on the key issues
The researcher should brainstorm the key issues identified. This

includes attempting to find out the independent and dependent
variables. For example if the researcher is puzzled over price
increase and commodity consumption, questions that the researcher
should attempt to answer are:
• Does price increase affect consumption?
• Does price increase influence consumption?
• Does consumption influence price increase?
The researcher will attempt to find out how these issues can be
linked to form a title.
c) Formulate the title
After the researcher is clear about the independent and dependent

variables, the title can be formulated. The formulation of the title
involves trying to link the key variables. This can be formulated by
using terms such as The effect of ..., The impact of ..., An
assessment of ..., for instance, The effect of price increase on
consumption or The effect offree primary education on school
accessibility.
69
d) Evaluation
After formulating the title, the researcher has to ensure that it is

clear and specific. This means the independent and dependent
variables are easily identified (variables will be discussed later).
For example, if the title is on the effect of price incre
increase on
consumption the researcher may specify it as The effect of price
increase on sugar consumptionin Kenya. If the title is on free
primary education, the title can be The effect of free primary
education on student accessibility, retention and
andacademic
performance.
5.7.2Qualities of an Effective Title

5.7.2
An effective research title should portray the following qualities:
• It should be brief.md specific: For example, The impact of drug

abuse on education. This brevity makes the title stand out and have
a strong impact. It is easier to identify the independent and
dependentvariables. The title becomes clear and focused.
• It should be in line with the set objectives: The title is a brief

summary of what the study is about. It should portray the aims and
objectives of the study. The words used in the title should clearly
reflect the focus of the study.
• It should be clear and unambiguous: The title should not lead to

various interpretations of the study.
• It should reflect a relationship between the independent and

dependent variables, for example, the effect of price increase on
food consumption. '
• The title should portray an issue that is researchable. The aspects

in question should be measurable.
5.7.3CHALLENGES ENCOUNTERED IN TITLE SELECTION

5.7.
There are various challenges faced by researchers in title selection.
70
These include the following:
a) Choosing a title that is not specific
A researcher may select title thatis open to varied interpretations.

For example, Crime in Zambia wide title that is open to various
interpretations. This is because there are also varied forms of crime.
For it to be effective, it has to be specific. To avoid this in title
selection, the researcher should be very clear and focused on what
the independent and dependent variables of the study are.
b) Writing a title that is too wordy
A brief title is more effective than a long one. This is because

variables are easily identified. Some titles have too many words. To
avoid this, researchers should ensure that words that are not
necessary for understanding the title are omitted. For example, the
title; the effect of free primary education on the academic
performanceof boys and girls in boarding and day schools in
Zambia can be summarized as The effect of freeprimary education
on academic performance. When all else fails, a two part title can
be used with the parts separated by a colon.
c) Poorly formulated titles
Some titles are difficultto comprehend for example, Understanding

drug abuse in Zambia. It is difficult to comprehend what the
term"understanding" means.
d) Lack of consistency
Some study titles neither tally with the research objectives, nor
with the problem statement or methodology applied. For example a
'researcher who in a study on the effect of price increase on sugar
consumption
In Zambia, concentrateson finding out about student indiscipline in

schools is not addressing the title selected.
71
Activity
I. Explain the difference between a topic and a title.
II. Mention the key steps in research title selection.
III. List qualities of an effective title.
IV. Formulate your research title and subject it to the qualities
of an effective title.
V. Discuss challenges encountered in title selection.
6.0 VARIABLES.
The term "variable" is derived from variations. This refers to

differences. Variables are attributes or qualities of the cases that we
measure or record. For example, if the cases are persons, the
variables could be sex, age, height, weight, level of empow
empowerment,
ability, and so on. They are referred to as variables because it is
assumed that the cases will vary in their scores on these attributes.
For example, if the variable is age, we obviously recognize that
people can be of different ages. In any parti
particular
cular study, variables
can play different roles. For example the reaction of people towards
price increase may vary according to commodity use and
availability. There are two major forms of variables: the
independent and dependent variables.
Independent Va
Variable
The independent variables are also known as the predictor or

explanatory variables. These are the factors that the researcher
thinksexplain variation in the dependent variable. In other words,
these arethe causes.If a study is on The impact of price increase on
beer consumption in Zambia then price increase is the independent
72
variable. This is because it canexplain or affect the increase or

decrease in beer consumption.
Dependent Variable
Usually there is only one dependent variable, and it is the outcome

variable the researcher is attempting to predict. If theresearcher
attempts to predict the effect of the physiotherapy strategy on
community-based rehabilitation programmes for the physically
impaired. A community-based rehabilitation programme therefore
is the dependent variable. Variation in the dependent variable is
what the researcher is trying to explain. In other words, the
dependent variable" depends" on the independent. For instance, the
fluctuation in beer consumption is seen in so far as it is caused by
the price increase- independent variable - which is expected to
change or alter in some way the dependent variable.
Activity
Identify the independent and dependent variables in your research

title with scholarly justification.
7.0LITERATURE REVIEW
The term "literature" refers to the analysis of textbooks or

manuscripts. Although many people rightly associate literature with
novels and poetry, in research the term is more specific. In terms of
a literature review, "the literature" means the works the
researcherconsulted in order to understand and investigate the
research problem. A literature review therefore is an account of
what has been published ona topic by accredited scholars and
researchers. It is a critical look at the existing research that is
73
significant to the work that the researcher will be carrying cut. It

involves examining documents such as books, magazines, journals
and dissertations that have a bearing on the study being conducted.
7.1
.1 Importance of Literature Review in Research
Resear
Literature review is essential in research. This is due to the

following:
a) It sharpens and deepens the theoretical foundation of the
research. Literature review enables the researcher to study
different theories related to the identified topic. By studying
study
these theories, a researcher gains clarity and better
understanding of the theoretical foundations related to the
current research.
b) It gives the researcher insight into what has already been
done in the selected field, pinpointing its strengths and
weaknesses.
knesses. This information guides the researcher in the
formulation of a theory that aims at addressing the
identified gaps.
c) It enables the researcherto know the kind of additional data
needed in the study. This helps avoid duplication of work.
d) An understanding of previous works helps the researcher to
develop a significant problem which will provide further
knowledge in the field of study
e) Wide reading exposes the researcher to a variety of
approaches of dealing with the research issue. This
contributes to a well-designed
designed methodology. The researcher
can avoid methods indicated in the literature to have failed
and adopt new approaches. This will result in a significant
study.
f) It helps in developing an analytic framework or a basis for
analysing and interpreting data.
7.2
.2 Qualities of an Effective Literature review
74
The following are qualities expected from an effective literature

review.
a) It is critical, organized and analytical in orientation - In an

effective study the literature review is used to analyse issues such
as: whether the hypotheses in the studies reviewed were logically
formulated. The methodology used in the studies and the quality of
interpretation of the findings are also analysed. Other issues
addressed by the researcher while reviewing literature relate to the
sampling procedures adopted and their appropriateness for the
study. The interpretation of data particularly on whether it is based
on logical deduction of findings is also examined. An investigation
is also made on research findings and their statistical significance.
The applicability of the research findings to a wide population is
discussed.
b) It justifies the need for the study- An effective literature review

identifies the gaps in the studies quoted. By identifying these gaps
and highlighting the identified controversies, it helps to indicate
that further research needs to be carried out on the identified topic.
It also points out how the current study will contribute positively
towards filling the identified gaps.
c) It highlights the relationship between the past and the current

study – An effective literature review links the current study with
past studies. It evaluates and shows the relationships between the
work already done by other scholars and the researcher's work.
This link brings consistency and continuity in relation to the
identified topic.
d) It puts the research problem into perspective. - By quoting and

analysing various studies related to the selected topic, the literature
review helps define the research problem. It also acts as a guideline
in assessment of the research questions.
7.3 Guidelines in Formulating an Effective Literature Review
75
The following techniques are ess

essential
ential in reviewing literature:
a) Identify key issues to be addressed by the literature review-
Before the researcher begin:; to search for articles and
materials relevant to the research topic, he/she should
identify the key issues that will guide the literature search.
These key issues can be formulated by the researcher
clearly identifying the research topic, title and the
relationship between the independent and dependent
variables. The objectives of the study should also be
identified. The researcher should also be certain of the
specific problem the literature review will help address.
b) Formulate a preliminary statement of the problem. -The
researcher should formulate a preliminary statement. This
will assist the researcher to be focused in material selection.
For example, what are thecauses and effects of abortion on
the education of female
ale students in secondaryschools and
colleges? What has been done and can be done to assist
thesestudents? After the preliminary statement, the
researcher can now begin to identify sources of information
relevant to the research topic.
c) Identify sources of information-The
The researcher needs to
identify books, articles, professionalpapers and other
relevant publications that relate to the research title and the
research problem. There are a wide variety of sources
available for locating articles for the review of literature.
Many of these sources are available in the libraries. The
Internet can also be used to locate articles. Some of the
sources of information include journal articles. These are
good especially for up to date information. They are
frequently used
ed in literature reviews because they offer a
relatively concise, up-to-date
date format for research, and
because all reputable journals are peer reviewed and
76
refereed (that is, editors publish only the most relevant and
reliable research). Books offer a good starting point from
which to find more detailed sources. Conference
proceedingsare useful in providing current research
findings or research that has not been published.
Information can also be gathered from
government/corporate reports. Many government
departments and corporations or commissions carry out
research. Their published findings can provide a useful
source of information, depending on the researcher's field of
study.Newspaperscan also offer useful information about
recent trends, discoveries or changes, e.g. announcing
changes in government policy. Theses and dissertations can
be useful sources of information.
d) Analyse critically the articles identified –After identifying
the articles to be used, the researcher should critically
analyse each book or article selected by reading the article’s
abstract or summary. This will enable the researcher to
deduce how applicable the article is to the current study. In
the selection of articles, the most recent works on a subject
area must be identified. This shows or demonstrates how
the researcher is conversant with current trends in
knowledge in the subject area.
7.4Challenges Faced in the Formulation of a Literature Review
There are many challenges researchers encounter while writing the

literature review. This includes the following:
a) Failure to connect the reviewed studies with the current
study– Some literature reviews are simply listings of one
piece of literature after the other without any discussion and
analysis. The researcher hardly relates the studies to his/her
study. These make the studies unrelated to the current
study.
77
b) Poor presentation-Some
Some researchers create too many
paragraphs in their work by treating each article in a
separate paragraph. This makes the work disjointed
particularly if separatee paragraphs are addressing a similar
point. The researcher should ensure that similar points are
grouped together or combined. Some researchers start each
article with the name of the researcher. This repetition can
become tiresome for readers. This can bee varied by quoting
the author after writing about the article.
c) Large quantities of studies to review-Some
review researchers
attempt to read and review all the materials related to their
topic. This is impossible. The idea of the literature review is
not to provide
ide a summary of all the published work that
relates to one's research, but a survey of the most relevant
and significant works. The researcher should therefore read
abstracts of the selected articles, and select materials that
are most relevant to his /her study.
d) Lack of documentation- Some researchers read articles
without writing until they have "finished" reading. This at
times results in forgetting or omitting important points. A
researcher should note down important points in the course
of reading.
e) Lack of referencing- Some researchers rarely note down the
references in their work while reading. Researchers should
always put references into their writing.
f) Lack of critique- Some researchers blindly accepts research
findings and interpretation without critically examining all
aspects of the research design and analysis. The researcher
should critically analyse the work, pointing out contrary
findings and alternative interpretations.
g) Failure to review current studies- Some researchers bases
their reviews on works that were carried out over twenty
78
years ago. Though these studies may have valid information

and cannot be ignored, the researcher should attemptto base
most of the review on current studies. The researcher should
make attempts to analyse studies carried out less than five
years ago in relation to his/her study. After reviewing
1iterature the researcher should discuss the identified gaps.
Reflection
i. In your own words what does literature review mean?
ii. Discuss the importance of literature review.
iii. State qualities of an effective literature review.
iv. Check your literature review and compare it to the stated
qualities.
v. Explain the guidelines in formulating an effective literature
review.
vi. List challenges faced in formulating an effective literature
review.
8.0RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
Research Design
A research design can be thought of as the structure of research. It

is the "glue" that holds all of the elements in a research project
together. A design is used to structure the research, to show how all
of the major parts of the research project work together to try to
address the central research questions. Orodho (2003) defines it as
the scheme, outline or plan that is used to generate answers to
research problems.
8.1 Types of Research Designs.
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It is important to understand the relationship among various

designs. This will assist the researcher in makin
making design choices
and thinking about the strengths and weaknesses of different
desig
designs. The designs are as follows:
a) DESCRIPTIVE DESIGN
The major purpose of descriptive research is description of

the state of affairs as it exists. The researcher reports the
findings. Kerlinger (1969) points out that descriptive studies
are not only restricted to fact findings,
ndings, but may often result
in the formulation of important principles of knowledge and
solution to significant problems. They are more than just a
collection of data. They involve measurement,
classification, analysis, comparison and interpretation
int of
data.
Descriptive survey is a method of collecting information

by interviewing or administering a questionnaire to a
sample of individuals (Orodho, 2003). It can
ca be used when
collecting information about people's attitudes, opinions,
habits or any of the variety of education or social issues
(Orodho and Kombo, 2002). For example, teachers in
schools can carry out a survey to find out students' attitudes
towards their
heir teaching styles or discipline. When using this
design the researcher should ensure the following:
 Construct questions that will solicit the desired information.
 Identify the individuals that will be surveyed.
 Identify the means by which the survey will
wil be conducted.
 Summarize the data in a way that provides the designed
descriptive information.
b) EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
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In this design, subjects are randomly assigned to an

experimental group which receives the treatment or to a control
group which does not receive treatment. Assuming the two
groups were initially equivalent, the researcher can compare
their performance. In this design cause and effect can be easily
determined. If you decide to use this design, you must be
certain of the independent and dependent variables and must
guard against the influence of extraneous variables.
c) CORRELATION DESIGN
This design enables the researcher to assess the degree of

relationshipthat exists between two or more variables. H
analyses the correlationbetween two or more variables (Orodho,
2003). For example, if you compare the examination
performance of a group of university students who prepare their
own meals every day and those who eat at the cafeteria, you
will use a correlation design. Suppose the academic
performance of students who prepare their own meals is lower
than those who eat at the cafeteria, then you may deduce that
preparation of meals by students has an impact on their
academic performance.
d) CASE STUDY DESIGN
A case study seeks to describe a unit in detail, in context and

holistically. It is a way of organizing educational data and looking
at theobject to be studied as a whole. In a case study, a great deal
can belearned from a few examples of the phenomena under study.
For example,the impact of pay-as-you-eat on education: A case
study of Kenyatta University. A study of Kenyatta University can
allow an in-depth investigation of the problem at hand. You should
use case study design if you intend to analyse an issue in detail.
81
e) CROSS CULTURAL RESEARCH DESIGN

ESIGN
This is used to compare the behaviour patterns of different cultures.

Using this design you can perceive how various -cultures perceive
certain educational and social outcomes. For example, you can
compare the performance of students in English in ru
rural and urban
schools and find out to what extent cultural variations influence
performance.
Steps to Follow in Selecting a Research Design
Below are some of the steps a researcher should follow while

selecting a research design:
a) Identify the kind of research you intend to carry out. Being
aware of the purpose and objectives of your study and your
theoretical foundations will considerably influence how you
design your research: where you go, for how long, with
whom you talk, and the kind of questions you
y ask. Deciding
if you intend to test or elaborate existing theory or are
trying to build a new, grand theory, or are using existing
theory in a new way, has implications in the kind of
information you need to collect.
b) Use the library to analyse samples off research designs from
books and periodicals. The Internet is another option.
c) Discuss with colleagues on the validity and reliability of
your research and make a decision on what design will
assist in answering your research questions appropriately.
Quali
Qualities of anEffective Research Design
 They are systematic and logical. They effectively address
the questions raised in the study. Based on this design the
researcher can construct questions that will solicit the
desired information.
 They contribute to accurate
ate and fair interpretation of results.
82
 They clarify to the researcher the respondents and the

means by which the study will be conducted.
 They contribute to deeper insights and better understanding
of the research topic.
Guidelines in Selecting a Research Design
The following are essential points that researchers should adhereto

while selecting a research design:
a) Identify the research questions to be addressed by the study:
The researcher should identify and reflect on the research
questions raised in the study. Reflection should include
brainstorming on issues such as:
 Do the questions raised in the study require collecting
information by interviewing or questionnaires? If the
response is positive then the researcher will use a survey
design.
 Do the questions raised in the study require systematic
manipulation of independent and dependent variables? If
the answer is yes, then the researcher will use an
experimental design.
 Does the study require the researcher to assess the degree of
relationship between two or more variables? If the answer is
positive then a correlation design will be used.
 Does the study seek to describe a unit in detail? If so then a
case study design will be used.
 Does the study seek to compare the behaviour patterns of
different cultures? If the answer is positive then a cross-
cultural research design will be applicable.
b) After identifying the research design to be used, read
materials related to that design to understand its advantages
and disadvantages.
83
Indicate the research design

ign pointing out its validity and
reliability to the current research.
Pitfalls in Selection of Research Designs.
While selecting a research design, a researcher should be on the

lookout for the following pitfalls and avoid them:
a) Choosing a design that cannot assist in meeting the research

objectives.
b) Choosing a design that is too complex for research at the level at

which the student is studying.
c) Choosing a design that requires extensive study and a lot of time

while the time assigned to the resea
research
rch is limited.
d) Lack of clarity about the design.
e) A research design that lacks flexibility.
From the above, it is clear that in selecting a research design the

researcher should ensure that it links concepts and questions with
the study and it is spe
specific
cific and flexible and expansive enough to
adapt to various complexities.
Reflection
i. Discuss your own understanding of a research design.
ii. Discuss types of research design and state situations in
which they can be used.
iii. Explain steps and guidelines to follow
low in selecting a
research design.
iv. List qualities of an effective research design.
84
8.2 Sampling Techniques.
Sampling is the procedure a researcher uses to gather people,

places or things to study. It is a process of selecting a number of
individuals orobjects from a population such that the selected group
contains elementsrepresentative of the characteristics found in the
entire group(Orodho and Kombo, 2002). When dealing with
people, it can be defined as a set of respondents (people) selected
from a larger population for the purpose of a survey. Research
conclusions and generalizations are only as good as the sample they
are based on. Samples are always subsets or small parts of the total
number that could be studied. Sampling is the act, process or
technique of selecting a suitable sample. The way in which a
researcher selects subjects for a study will determine how one is
able to generalize the results of the study.
Sampling Design
The term "sampling design" refers to that part of the research plan
that indicates how cases are to be selected for observation.
Sampling designs are divided into two broad areas:
• Probability designs.
• Non-probability designs.
8.3PROBABILITY SAMPLING
The key component behind all probability sampling approaches is

randomization, or random selection. In probability sampling
people, places or things are randomly selected. Each unit in the
population has an equal chance of being selected. This sampling
gives every member of the population equal chances of being
included in the study. Probability sampling enables the researcher
to generalize to the larger population and make inferences. If the
purpose of your research is to draw conclusions or make
predictions affecting the population as a whole, then probability
85
sampling is appropriate. Various methods have been established

accomplish probability sampling. Thes
Thesee include the following:
a) Simple random sampling
This method referred to as simple random sampling as no

complexities are involved. All you need is a relatively small,
clearly defined population to use this method. For example in a
town of 10,000 residents, the researcher may simply obtain a list of
all residents, and then using a sequence of numbers fr
from a random
numbers table (or draws of a hat, flips of a coin), selects say 10%
or 20%, or some portion of names on that list, making sure that he/
she is not drawing from any letter of the alphabet more heavily than
others. Advantages of simple random sam
sampling
pling are that the samples
yield research data that can be generalized to a larger population.
Disadvantages
However this method also has disadvantages. This includes the

following:
 It is not the most statistically efficient method of sampling.
The researcher
her may, just because of luck of draw, not get
good representation of subgroups in a population.
 Bias in selection is common.
 Some samples may be over or under represented.
 Non response error is high'. Some of the members selected
may have moved to other areas.
b) Stratified random sampling
86
Stratified random sampling involves dividing your population into

homogeneous subgroups and then taking a simple random sample
in each subgroup. The sample is selected in such a way as to ensure
that certain subgroups in the population are represented in the
sample in proportion to their number in the population. This
method is appropriate when the researcher is interested in issues
related to gender, race or disparities in the population.
The advantages of this method are that you will be able to

represent not only the overall population, but also key subgroups of
the population, especially small minority groups. Stratified random
sampling will generally have more statistical precision than simple
random sampling.
Disadvantages
If not carefully stratified, bias can occur resulting in some groups

of the population being unrepresented.
c) Systematic random sampling
Suppose a researcher had a large list of people, places or

things to select from, such as 100,000 people or more. The
appropriate method to use is to select-every 10th, 20th, or
30th person from such a list. This decision to use every l0th,
20th, or 30th person is called the sampling interval, and as it
is done systematically and the entire list is used, the
researcher is said to be systematically random sampling.
Advantages
 Large populations can be analysed.
 Every member of the populations has an equal chance of
inclusion.
 Bias is minimized.
87
Disadvantages
 The response may be low since the respondents' availability
is unpredictable.
 The selection of the first sample member may result in a
bias in the entire sample.
 The list used may not be in a systematic order.
d) Cluster random sampling
In the event that a population is dispersed across a wide geographic

region, one may have to use cluster random sampling. This method
allows for the division of the study population into clusters (usually
counties, regions, provinces or other boundaries) and random
sampling of everyone in those clusters. The units within the
sampl
sampled clusters should be measured.
Some forms of random selection include picking a name out of a

hat. These days, you can use a computer and generate random
numbers as the basis for random selection. Random sampling is
still regarded as one of the best statistic
statistical methods
ethods as it is free from
bias.
Disadvantages
 There is a risk of missing on important sub-groups.
sub
 Lack of complete representation of the target population.
8.4
.4 NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
This method is mainly applied to find out how a small group, or a

representative group, is doing for purposes of illustration or
explanation. Various methods have also been established to
accompl
accomplish non-probabilistic sampling.
88
a) Quota sampling
This sampling technique begins by dividing the population into

relevant strata such as age, gender or geographical region. The total
sample is allocated among the strata in direct proportion to their
estimated or actual size in the population. Once the researcher
identifies the people to be studied, they have to resort to haphazard
or accidental sampling because no effort is usually made to contact
people who are difficult to reach in the quota. The problem with
this method is that bias intrudes on the sampling frame. This is
because researchers allowed to self-select respondents are subject
to bias such as interviewing their friends in excessive proportions
or concentrating in areas where there are large numbers of potential
respondents.
b) Convenience sampling
This method is based on using people who are a ca19tive audience,

people the researcher meets haphazard1y or accidentally
Respondents are people who just happen to be walking by, or show
a special interest in your research. The use of volunteers is an
example of convenience sampling.
c) Purposive sampling.
In this sample method, the researcher purposely targets a group of

people believed to be reliable for the study. For example, to study
the effects of abortion on learning, the researcher may make efforts
to contact students who previously had terminated their
pregnancies. The researcher never knows if the sample is
representative of the population. The power of purposive sampling
lies in selecting information rich cases for in-depth analysis related
to the central issues being studied.
89
Purposive sampling can be used with bo

both
th quantitative and
qualitative studies. Purposive sampling can be carried out in
addition to probabil
probability sampling.
8.5
.5 Bias and Error in Sampling
There are various challenges faced by researchers during sampling.

Some of these challenges include the foll
following:
owing:
Sampling error
error- Sampling error comprises of the differences
between the sample and the population that are due solely to the
particular units that happen 'to have been selected.
There are two basic causes for sampling error; chance and sampling
bias.
a) Chance
Chance-This
This is the error that occurs due to bad luck. This may
result in untypical choices. Unusual units in a population do exist
and there is always a possibility that an abnormally large number of
them will be chosen. The main protection agains
against this kind of error
is to use a large enough sample.
b) Sampling bias- Sampling bias is a tendency to favour the

selection of units that have particular characteristics. Sampling bias
is usually the result of a poor sampling plan. The most notable is
the bias of non-response
response when for some reason some units have no
chance of appearing in the sample. A mail questionnaire is sent to
100 randomly selected graduate students. Only 52 students
respond. The results show that students are not under stress, yet the
actual case is that stress levels may be high except among those
who are answering the questionnaire.
90
Reflection
i. Explain what sampling techniques and sampling designs
mean.
ii. Mention the various methods used in probability sampling,
and state the advantages and disadvantages of these
methods.
iii. Discuss the various methods used in non- probability
sampling.
iv. Discuss biasness and error in sampling.
8.6 Respondents
In research, the term "respondents" refers to those who will reply

to, or respond to the research instruments. The selection of
respondents is crucial to the overall usefulness of the information
produced.
This is because respondents help in the clarification of issues under

the study. This contributes to the achievement of set objectives.
The selection of respondents will largely depend on the information
needed and the data techniques to be used. The researcher should
ensure that informants, particularly key informants, possess special
knowledge related to the study area.
Qualities of Effective Respondent Selection
The following should be adhered to by researchers in the selection

of respondents:
• Respondents should be individuals who possess some knowledge

about the topic being studied.
• They should be willing to share the information they have in

relation to the topic with the researcher.
• They should be active participants in the culture or organization

under study.
91
• They must be willing to give their time to the study.
• A large sample of respondents is better than a small one. In

general, the larger the sample, the more representative it is likely to
be, and the more generalizable the results of the study are likely to
be.
Challenges Faced in Respondent Selection
The selection of reliable informants has various challenges. These

include
clude the following:
 Unwillingness of respondents to share all they know on the
issue with the researcher.
 Language barrier: the interview or questionnaire may have
been written in Kiswahili yet the .respondent can effectively
express him/ herself in English
sh or, say, Dholuo.
 Hostility towards the researcher: some respondents may
personalize the questions asked particularly during
interviews and become hostile towards the researcher.
 Time limitations.
In general, selection of respondents will depend on the nature of the

analysis to be performed, the desired precision of the estimates one
wishes to achieve, the kind and number of comparisons that will.
8.7
.7 Research Instruments
Research instruments include the following: questionnaires,

interview schedule
schedules, observation and focus group discussions.
In formulating research instruments the researcher should ensure

the following:
a) The objectives of the study are clear. This will assist the
researcher to anticipate the type of information needed.
92
b) The population sample. The researcher should be aware that

some types of instruments are unsuitable to some groups of people
due to factors such as the literacy level, profession and culture. A
researcher should determine the literacy level of the study
population in advance. For the illiterate, interview and focus group
discussions should be used. The type of language that will be used
(either English or Bemba)will depend on the literacy level of
respondents.
c) Geographical distribution. The span of the study dictates the type

of instrument to be used. A countrywide study may require the use
of postal questionnaires and telephone interviews.
d) A researcher should be careful about the questions he/she asks.
According to Orodho and Kombo (2002), a researcher should do

the following:
 Begin with a few interesting but non-threatening questions
 Avoid vague questions, for instance, "What do you like?"
 Keep the language simple.
 Limit each question to a single idea. Ensure each item
included has a specific purpose.
 Only include questions that are directly relevant to the
study.
 Have a logical sequence.
 Do not put the key questions at the end of the questionnaire.
It is best to have them in the middle.
 Avoid emotionally charged words.
 Avoid leading questions, for example, "Do you think
students riot because they are unfairly treated?"
 Avoid acronyms and abbreviations.
 Consider the order of questions related to each topic.
 A researcher should vary closed and open ended questions.
Closed questions give the respondent a set of choice or
93
options. Open-ended
ended questions are free response type
questions. They allow the respondent to answer in their own
words.
e) Check the consistency of answers. It may be beneficial to
ask the same question again using different wording. This
ensures validity.
1) Questionnaires
This is a research instrument that gathers data over a large

sample. Questionnaires have various advantages including
the following:
 Information can be collected from a large sample and
diverse regions.
 Confidentiality is upheld.
 Saves on time.
 Since they are presented in paper format there is no
opportunity for interviewer bias.
 However they have their disadvantages in that:
 Response rates can be quite low.
 There is no direct contact so the researcher cannot deal with
any misunderstanding.
 There is no opportunity to ask for further information
related to answers given.
 No clear reason can be given for incomplete responses.
 To ensure the effectiveness of questionnaires a pre-test
pre
should be carried out. Pilot the questionnaire with a small
representative sample. This will enable the researcher to
find out if: ·
 The questions are measuring what they are supposed to
measure.
 The wording is clear.
94
 If all questions are interpreted in the same way by

respondents.
 What response is provoked?
 If there is any research bias.
Steps in Formulating a Questionnaire
The following are essential in the formulation of a

questionnaire:
a) Reflector-Before formulating a questionnaire it is
important for the researcher to reflect on the aim and
objective of the study. The researcher should reflect on
the type of response expected.
b) Formulation of questions-The researcher should write
down questions related to each stated objective. While
constructing the questions the researcher should begin
with a few interesting but non-threatening questions.
The researcher should only include questions that are
relevant to his/her study. The researcher should keep the
key questions in the middle.
c) Pilot-After constructing the questionnaire, the
researcher should try it out on a small sample of the
population. While piloting the researcher should address
the following questions:
 Are the questions measuring what they are
supposed to measure the researcher should
analyse each answer and see if it is supplying the
appropriate information.
 Is the wording clear? The researcher should
analyse the responses to find out if there was any
confusion in the way questions were interpreted
by all the respondents.
95
 Do the questions provoke a response? If some

questions have been omitted, the researcher
re
should find out why.
 Is there researcher bias? The researcher will
analyse whether the questions asked were
skewed towards certain issues more than others.
d) Evaluation- After piloting and making the necessary
amendments, the researcher should carry out an
evaluation of the revised questions. This includes
finding out if the questions are clear and specific, where
the key questions are placed and if the balance of
questions is correct.
Qualities of an Effective Questionnaire
An effective questionnaire has the following qualities:

 It is simple to understand. The language used is clear and
straight forward. This helps reduce misinterpretation.
 Instructions are clearly given. There are a few words of
explanation in each new section.
 The questions
ions are focused and are limited to a single idea.
Sentences are short and precise.
 Each item included has a specific purpose, and contributes
to the study.
 There are no leading questions.
 There is a balance of questions per topic.
Advantages
 Can cover a wide area.
 No bias on the side of the researcher and the respondents.
Disadvantages
Questionnaires have the following disadvantages:

disadvantages
96
 The response rate can be quite low. Since the researcher is

not in direct contact with the respondents they may not feel
the obligation to complete the questionnaire as soon as
possible. This postponement in completion can result in the
questionnaire not being answered at all.
 There are no direct contacts between the researcher and
respondent. The researcher cannot therefore deal with or
clarify any misunderstanding.
 There is no opportunity for the researcher to ask for further
information, or probe deeper into answers given by the
respondent.
 In case some questions are not answered, the researcher
cannot get an explanation from the respondent as to why
some questions are incomplete.
 The researcher is not able to predict if respondents have
answered all the questions until after the collection of the
instrument.
 The researcher has no control over the order in which
questions are answered. Yet in research, the way questions
are answered can pre-determine their validity.
INTERVIEWS
These are questions asked orally. There are various forms of

interviews as follows:
Unstructured interviews
In this approach to interviewing, the researcher has some idea in

mind of the topics to be covered and may use some sort of topic list
as a reminder. There is minimal control over the order in which
topics are covered and over respondents' answers. In unstructured
interviewing, neither the specific questions to be asked nor the
range or type of possible answers are pre-defined. They are
informal and conversational.
97
The aim is to get the informants to open up, and the researcher
should stimulate an informant to produce more information. This
approach aallows
llows the interviewer to be responsive to individual
differences and situational characteristics. This approach builds on
observation. It is useful in studying sensitive topics such as
sexuality or political topics. To effectively achieve the aims of an
open
en-ended
ended interview, one must ask a whole series of secondary
questions such as:
 What do I want to get out of these interviews?
 With whom am I going to conduct these interviews?
 How do I know they will talk to me?
 How many interviews must I do?
As much as ppossible,
ossible, test your methods in advance. Because there
is no set format for conducting these interviews, each interview is
unique. This makes it difficult ttoo systematize and analyse data.
Advantages
Unstructured interviews have the following advantages:

 They are flexible. This is because there are no pre-defined
pre
questions. This allows the respondents to freely respond to
an issue. The researcher can therefore gather a lot of
information.
 The respondent feels part of the team since no rigidity is
displayed. He// she can therefore freely participate in the
research.
 Since it is a free response in a relaxed atmosphere situation,
the answer given are more reliable.
 It allows the interviewer to be responsive to individual
differences and situational characteristics.
 This instrument is useful for studying sensitive topics such
as sexuality and abortion.
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Disadvantages
Unstructured interviews have the following disadvantages:
• They are time consuming since a respondent can dwell on one

issue.
• They are not systematic as a respondent can comment on issues in

a haphazard way. A respondent can comment on issues already
discussed.
• If the researcher is not careful, it can get out of control, with the
respondent getting too emotional or personal.
• Irrelevancies can be displayed by the respondent.
• Since there is no set format for conducting these interviews, it is

difficult to systematize and analyse data.
Semi-structured interviews
These interviews are based on the use of an interview guide. This is

a written list of questions or topics that need to be covered by the
interview. There are several types of semi-structured interviews.
a) Focused interviews -This intensively investigates a particular

topic. They aim at gaining a complete and detailed understanding
of the topic.
b) Case studies-The purpose of case studies is to collect

comprehensive, systematic and in-depth information about
particular cases of interest.
Advantages
Semi-structured interviews have the following advantages:
• They are flexible. This is because they consist of both open and
closed-ended questions.
• In-depth information is gathered by closed ended questions.
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• By using both the open and closed

closed-ended
ended approach, the researcher
gets a complete and detailed understanding of the issue under
research.
Disadvantages
advantages
Semi
Semi-structured
structured interviews have the following disadvantages:
• They can be time consuming due to the open

open-ended
ended questions.
• Analysis of data may be problematic.
• The respondent may be cautious of the answers given in close

ended questions.
Structured interviews
These involve subjecting every informant in a sample to the same

stimuli, for instance, asking each informant similar questions, as in
the case of a survey.
Advantages
Structured interviews have the following advantages:
• The reliabi
reliability
lity of the information gathered is high. This is because
each informant is subjected to similar questions with the others.
• It gives in
in-depth
depth information about particular cases of interest to
the researcher. This is because the researcher seeks informati
information on
specific issues.
• It is systematic. Researchers intensively investigate a particular

issue before moving to the next.
• It is time
time-saving
saving since the respondents simply answer what has
been asked by the researcher.
• The researcher gets a complete and detailed understanding of the

issue from the respondent.
• It is comprehensive and systematic since questions are formulated

before the interview.
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0
• The data collected is quantifiable.
Disadvantages
Structured interviews portray the following disadvantages:
• The rigidity displayed by the researcher can affect the responses

given. The respondent may feel as if he/ she is under investigation
and is being probed. This may affect the response. Some of the
respondents may become hostile.
• It is too formal. Since the researcher does the questioning and the
respondent simply answers, the respondent may be too cautious in
the answer given. The respondent may give answers he/she thinks
are acceptable or will impress the researcher.
• The researcher may miss out on some important points that are
not included in the questions formulated.
3) Focus Group Discussions
This is a special type of group in terms of its purpose, size,

composition and procedures. A focus group is usually composed of
6-8 individuals, who share certain characteristics, which are
relevant for the study. The discussion is carefully planned and
designed to obtain information on the participants' beliefs and
perceptions on a defined area of interest. Special predetermined
criteria are used in selecting focus group participants. This includes
the following:
a) The topics to be discussed are decided beforehand.
b) There is a predetermined list of open ended questions.
c) Focus relies on discussion among participants about the topics

presented.
This method requires thorough .planning and training of group

moderators. Focus groups should usually be composed of
homogeneous members of the target population, for instance,
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1
similar in age, education level, gender, profession. Focus group

discussions can produce a lot of information quickly and are good
for identifying and exploring beliefs, ideas or opinions in a
community. However, the researcher has less control over the flow
of the discussion and results are hard to analyse.
analyse Focus group
discussions are used tto
o assess needs, develop intervention, test new
ideas or programmes or improve existing programmes.
4) Observation
This is a tool that provides information about actual behaviour.

Direct observation is useful because some behaviour involves
habitual routine
routiness of which people are hardly aware. Direct
observation allows the researcher to put behaviour in context and
thereby understand it better. Observation can be made of actual
behaviour patterns. Forms of obs
observation
ervation include the following:
a) Participant obse
observation
The investigator becomes an active functioning member of the

culture under study. An investigator participates in any activity
appropriate to the status which is assumed. However, it can be time
consuming.
b) Unstructured observation
The observer takes the position of an onlooker.
Structured observation
C)Structured
The observer is an onlooker. The focus is on a small number of

specific behaviour patterns, and only those appearing on a pre
pre-
defined observation list are recorded. This requires the researcher
to be clear on the behaviour being observed.
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Group Activity
i. List four research instruments and explain guidelines in

formulating them.
ii. State the advantages and disadvantages of the above
mentioned research instruments.
9.0 DATA COLLECTION, ANALYSIS AND

PRESENTATION
9.1 DATA COLLECTION
Meaning of Data Collection
Data is meaningless information, which is made meaningful

through analysis. In research, the term “data collection” refers to
gathering specific information aimed at proving or refuting some
facts. In data collection the researcher must have a clear
understanding of what they hope to obtain and how they hope to
obtain it. In data collection, the researcher must have a clear vision
of the instruments to be used, the respondents and the selected area.
Data collection is important in research as it allows for
dissemination of accurate information and development of
meaningful programmes.
Purpose of Collecting Data
In research, data is collected for various purposes. This includes the

following:
a) To stimulate new ideas. This is because data collection helps in

identifying areas related to the research topic that need
improvement or further evaluation.
b) To highlight ~ situation and therefore create awareness and

improvement.
c) To influence legislative policies and regulations.
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d) To provide justification for an existing programme or illustrate a

need for a new programme.
e) It is the only reliable way to evaluate the responsiveness and

effectiveness of the study.
f) It promotes decision
decision-making and resource
ource allocation that are
based on solid evidence rather than on isolated occurrences,
assumption, emotion, politics, and so on.
Sources of Data
There are two major sources of data used by researchers. These are
the primary and secondary sources.
Primary ssources: Primary data is information gathered directly

from respondents. This is through questionnaires, interviews,
focused group discussions, observation and experimental studies. It
involves creating "new" data. Data is collected from existing
sources. IInn an experimental study, the variable of interest is
identified.
Secondary sources
sources: Secondary information sources are data neither
collected directly by the user nor specifically for the user. It
involves gathering data that already has been collected by someone
else. This involves the collection and analysis of published
material, and iinformation
nformation from internal sources. Secondary data
collection may be conducted by collecting information from a
diverse source of documents or electronically stored information.
This is often referred to as desk research.
Advantages
The main advantages of us

using
ing secondary data are as follows:
a) It is usually available more cheaply. The collection of secondary

data is generally significantly quicker and easier (and hence less
costly) than collecting the same data "from scratch."
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b) Existing data are likely to be available in a more convenient

form; using secondary data can give the researcher access to
otherwise unavailable organizations, individuals or locations.
c) Secondary data allows the researcher to extend the "time base"

of their study by providing data about the earlier state of the system
being studied.
d) The fact that secondary data are likely to be pre-processed

eliminates the time-consuming (and hence costly) analysis stage.
Disadvantages
The main disadvantages of using secondary data are as follows:
a) The method by which secondary data was collected is often

unknown to the user of the data (apart from major sources like the
Census). This means that the researcher is forced to rely on the
skills and propriety of the collectors- usually, but not always, a safe
proposition.
b) With secondary data the researcher may have little or no direct

knowledge of the processing methods employed, and the researcher
may rarely have access to the original raw data to check the validity
of the findings.
c) The researcher is forced to rely on the skills and integrity of the

people who collected and analysed the data.
Steps in Data Collection
The following are essential steps that a researcher should use in

data collection:
a) Define the sample: Before gathering data, the researcher should

define the target population. This involves identifying the
respondents and their accessibility.
b) Reflect on the research design: The researcher should be clear of

the research design to be used. This is whether it is a survey, a case
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5
study or an experiment. This is critical as it enables the researcher

to be sure of the format in which data will be collected. The
objective of the study and the type of questions raised determines
the research design.
c) Ensure research instrume

instruments are ready: the key data collection
instruments to be used in the study for example questionnaires,
interviews, observations, focus group discussions and experimental
treatments should be in order. This includes finding out if they are
ready and availab
available.
d) Define the data to be collected

collected:: The researcher should make sure
that he/ she and the assistant researchers are clear on the
information that is being sought. Researchers should be clear of the
sample, for instance, the male/female ratio.
e) Request permission to collect data from the relevant authorities:

Before collecting any information, the researcher should ensure
he/she has been granted permission to carry out the study. The
researcher should also send an advance letter to the sample
respondent
respondents,
s, explaining the purpose of the study. After reflecting
on all these components, the researcher should carry out a pre
pre-test.
f) Pre
Pre-testing: Before collecting data, the researcher should pre-test
pre
the research instruments. A pre
pre-test
test is a pilot study. The researcher
should pilot the questionnaire with a small representative sample.
The importance of pre
pre-testing
testing before data collection includes the
following:
 It enables the researcher to find out if the selected questions

are measuring what they are supposed to measure.
 It enables the researcher to find out if the wording is clear

and all questions will be interpreted in the same way by
respondents.
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 It helps the researcher to detect what response is provoked

and find out if there is any research bias.
 It enables the researcher to monitor the context in which the

data will be collected and the topic areas addressed. The
researcher should not use the pre-test sample in the actual
study.
9.2 Collection of Data
The procedure used to collect data will be influenced by the

research instruments used. For example if questionnaires or
interviews are used, the researcher should carry out the following:
Use of Questionnaires
In questionnaires respondents fill in answers in written form and

the researcher collects the forms with the completed information.
There are various methods used to collect the questionnaires, such
as the following:
 The instruments are distributed to the respondents by the

researcher and research assistants. Respondents are given
time to complete answering questionnaires. All the
questionnaires are gathered after the given response time is
over.
 Questionnaires may be distributed to respondents by the

researcher and research assistants. They are later collected
on an agreed upon date.
 Questionnaires are mailed to the respondents. After they

have answered them, they are mailed back. If questionnaires
are administered, respondents should be given sufficient
time to complete the questionnaire. The questionnaires
should then be collected by the researcher or research
assistants or mailed to the researcher.
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Use of Interviews
Collecting data using the interview method requires the researcher

to identify respondents and request them to answer certain
questions. The researcher and research assistants note down the
answers given. In some interviews the response is recorded. Some
interviews are carried out through the telephone and the
information received is recorded by the researcher. The main
requirement for good interviewers during data collection is the
ability to approach identified respondents in person or by telephone
and persuade them to participate in the study. Once a respondent's
cooperation is acquired, the interviewers must maintain it, while
collecting the needed data. This data must be obtained in exac
exact
accordance with instructions.
Focus Group Discussions
In focus group discussions, the researcher should have specific

topics to be discussed. A focus group discussion consists of six to
eight people seated in a group discussing various topics. A
recordin
recordingg list should be made of the discussion. A tape recorder
should also be used to keep the records. Observation: In
observations, the researcher should have a checklist to provide
information about actual behaviour to be observed. The researcher
should note down the observation. In experiments, the observer
should also note down what has been observed. In experimental
studies, where the researcher wants to obtain information under
controlled conditions, subjects may be randomly assigned to
various tests and eexperiences
xperiences then assessed via observation or
standardized scales.
Each data collection method has its strengths and weaknesses.

When designing a research study it is important for the researcher
to decide what outcome (data) the study will produce then sele
select
the best methodology to produce that desired information.
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9.3Importance of Data Analysis
Importance of data analysis includes the following:
 Findings/results are clearly shown.
 Areas/gaps for further research are pointed out.
 Researchers can be able to know the results without wasting

time on primary and secondary data.
 One can be able to know the statistical methods used for

analysing data.
 Transforms meaningless data into meaningful information.
9.4 ETHICAL ISSUES IN DATA COLLECTION
Researchers whose subjects are people or animals must consider

the conduct of their research, and give attention to the ethical issues
associated with carrying out their research. Sometimes a research
project may involve changing the subjects' behaviours or in some
cases, 1 causing the subjects pain or distress for example in
experiments where I the researcher analyses blood samples. Most
research organizations have complex rules on human and animal
experimentation. Some of the rules applicable to data collection are
as follows:
a) The researcher must justify the research via an analysis of the

balance of costs. The researcher's interest alone is not sufficient
justification to carry out research and collect data. In order to carry
out a survey or experiment, there has to be benefits from the study
that outweigh the costs. Researchers are expected to justify beyond
any reasonable doubt, the need for data collection.
b) The researcher must maintain confidentiality at all times. Only

certain people conducting the survey I experiment should know the
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9
identity of the participants. Any subject should generally not know

the identity of other subjects.
c) Researchers are responsible for their own work and for their
contribution to the whole study. Researchers must accept individual
resp
responsibility
onsibility for the conduct of the research and, as far as
foreseeable, the consequences of that research.
d) The researcher must obtain informed consent from any subjects

used in the study and must ensure that all subjects participate
voluntarily.
e)) The researcher must be open and honest in dealing with other
researchers and research subjects
subjects.. The researcher must not exploit
subjects by changing agreements made with them. For example, a
researcher might discover that his/her survey I experiment show
somet
something
hing that he/she would like to further investigate. If the
researcher carries out the investigation secretly but pretends to be
still carrying out the previous study that had been agreed to in the
first place, this is a form of exploitation, and would brea
breach the
principles of informed consent and voluntary participation.
f) The researcher must take all reasonable measures to protect

subjects physically and psychologically. Even voluntary
participants can "get carried away" to the 'point where they have to
bee protected from themselves and each other. The researcher must
be prepared to intervene, even at the cost of the study I experiment
itself, to protect the subjects.
g) The researcher must fully explain the research in advance and

"debrief” subjects afterw
afterwards. Whilst full explanations before the
survey I experiment are essential to gaining informed consent, it is,
unfortunately, a common practice for researchers to complete their
research without telling the participants anything about the results.
Challen
Challenges
ges Faced by Researchers in Data Collection
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a) The researcher failing to carry out a pilot study: Failure to pilot

the study may contribute to haphazard work in the field. This is
mainly because a pre-test helps to identify some of the
shortcomings likely to be experienced during the actual study.
b) Lack of sufficient follow up on non-respondents: A researcher's

failure to follow up non respondents can ruin an otherwise well-
designed study. A low response rate does more damage in
rendering a survey's results questionable than a small sample. To
deal with this possibility, the researcher may have to return to
sample households where no one was home (perhaps at a different
time or on a weekend) or attempt to persuade persons who are
inclined to refuse to participate.
c) Inadequate quality controls: In some field work the researcher

allocates all work to research assistants with minimum supervision.
This can result in guessing the results. The researcher should
during field work, re-examine the sample selection, carry out some
of the interviews, assessing the editing and coding of the responses.
Without proper checking, errors may go undetected.
d) Poor targeting: Errors in defining and selecting the sample

during data collection will bias the results by making the sample
less representative of the target population.
e) Poor implementation: In data collection some errors are caused

by the way data collection is implemented. Some of the errors
include the following:
 Question error - the question is wrongly worded or

misleading.
 Interviewer error - the interviewer makes an error whilst

asking the question.
 Recording error - the interviewer records incorrectly the

answer given by the respondent. ·
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1
 Coding error - the responses are wrongly coded.
Group activity
i. What does the term ‘data’ mean?

ii. Explain the purpose of data collection.
iii. What are the sources of data?
iv. Discuss steps in data collection.
v. Explain the importance of data analysis.
vi. Discuss ethical issues in data collection.
vii. List challenges faced by researchers in data collection.
10.0DATA
DATA ORGANIZATION, ANALYSIS AND
PRESENTATION
Introduction
The term "data organization" in research refers to orderliness in

research data. This is putting the data into some systematic form.
The "raw" data collected, particularly in ssurveys,
urveys, needs to be
processed before it can be subjected to any useful analysis. This
organization includes identifying (and correcting) errors in the data,
coding the data, and storing it in appropriate form. On the other
hand, analysis refers to examinin
examiningg the coded data critically and
making inferences.
The presentation of data refers to ways of arranging data to make it

clearly understood. This sub
sub-unit
unit discusses the organization,
analysis and presentation of data.
10.11 Data Organization
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2
Collected data is known to be "raw" information and not

knowledge by itself. It therefore has to be well organized in various
stages. Data as alluded to earlier on is meaningless information.
The organization from raw data to knowledge is as follows:
• From raw data to information: Data becomes information when it

becomes relevant to the problem identified by the researcher.
• From information to facts: Information becomes facts, when the

data can support it. Facts are what the data reveals.
• From facts to knowledge: Facts therefore lead to new information,

new experiences and views.
• Knowledge is expressed together with some statistical degree of

confidence. Before analysing the collected data, the researcher has
to ensure the data is well organized. The procedure in data
organization involves the following:
a) Pre-processing
After collecting data the researcher has to ensure it is processed in

some manner before carrying out the analysis. The primary purpose
of pre-processing is to correct problems that are identified in the
raw data. This might include differences between the results
obtained by multiple interviewers. The pre-processing stages are as
follows:
• The elimination of unusable data: The researcher may find two or

more questions that really provide the same data. The researcher
must therefore decide which one of the questions is worth coding
and storing, and which one should be discarded.
• Interpretation of ambiguous answers: The more subtle problems

in data analysis are associated with the researcher trying to interpret
ambiguous answers. It could be argued that any complex study is
likely to produce at least some answers of this type. The researcher
needs to develop a strategy for dealing with them.
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3
• Contradictory data from related questions: The researcher may

also receive contradictory data from related questions. The
researcher may have to verify and reject wrong responses.
Many of these problems, if not detec

detected
ted and corrected at the
organization stage, will reflect adversely on the study findings.
b) The Development of a Coding Scheme
After correcting any errors that may influence data analysis, the
researcher should formulate a coding scheme. The core function of
the coding process is to create codes and scales from the responses,
which can then be summarized and analysed in various ways.
wa A
coding scheme is an unambiguous set of prescriptions of how all
possible answers are to be treated, and what (if any) numerical
codes are to be assigned to particular responses. In the coding
scheme the researcher assigns codes to each likely answer, and
specifies how other responses are to be handled. For example, the
researcher might allocate 1 to yes, 2 to no and 0 to do not know.
There are various challenges faced by researchers in the

development of a coding scheme. The major challenge associate
associated
with coding is the treatment of missing data. It is difficult for the
researcher to decide on what action should be taken when the
coding cannot be applied, such as when a question is unanswered.
There are several possible approaches that a researcher ca

can apply to
address these challenges. These include:
• Cross
Cross-reference
reference the missing answer with the answers to related
questions
• Interpolate from other answers to create a "pattern" for the

respondent, and look to see how other respondents of the same
"typ
"type" answered this question.
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• Give missing data its own code, such as "Did not answer"; this is
the most common (and safest) approach.
• Exclude the respondent from the analysis (if the respondent failed
to answer a number of questions, or the responses appear
unreliable).
• Exclude the question from the analysis (if a significant number of

respondents failed to answer it).
c) Deciding on Data Storage
After coding the data, the researcher will have to make a decision
about the short and long-term storage of the information generated.
The short time storage is necessary before data analysis. The

system in which the researcher stores the data will determine (at
least in the early stages) what forms of analysis the researcher will
carry out and how easy it will be to transfer the data into systems
which will do more complicated forms of analysis. There are two
major storage forms, the electronic form and non-electronic (paper)
form.
Paper storage: This is where the coded data is written on paper

before the analysis. Paper storage has the following advantages:
• It has a low cost.It allows for speedy retrieval.It is easy to

distribute.• It is comprehensible.
However, its disadvantages include the following:
• It is not extensible.• It is fragile.• It is bulky.
Electronic storage: The advantages of electronic storage include the

following:
• It is extensible.It is easy to distribute.• It is easy to interchange

options.• It has low volume.
The disadvantages of electronic storage are:
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5
• It has limited access.

access.• Equipmentt costs are high.•
high. It is fragile.
Today, selecting electronic storage is an increasingly significant

decision for a researcher. In electronic storage, the researcher can
transfer the data (or information derived from it) into another
system.
d)) Choosing a Statistical Software Package
After deci
deciding on how data will
ll be stored, the researcher has to
reflect on the statistical software package that will be relevant in
data analysis. When choosing a statistical software package, there
are several things a res
researcher
earcher has to consider. These include the
following:
• Characteristics of the data to be used; for example, is it

descriptive or does it analyse relationships?
• Analyses that will be performed.
• Technical and financial constraints.
There are various typ

types
es of statistical software packages that a
researcher can select from. The software the researcher selects
depends on the overall plan that the researcher has for analysing
and presenting the data. The following are some of the computer
software:
WORD PROCESSOR
The researcher may decide to enter the data in text form straight
into a word processor, include Microsoft Word and Excel.
Advantages
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6
• The obvious advantage of using a word processor is that the

researcher does not waste time on unnecessary processing. This is
because data in text form is entered directly in the processor.
• If the researcher is creating a report from this data to explain and

present it then he/she can directly use the data.
• The researcher might choose to take the data (from survey or

experiment recordings) and put them directly into a word
processor.
SPREADSHEET
This is one of the most versatile analysis and storage combination

tools. Many of the formulae that spread sheets have built-in are
applicable to the data summarization process.
Advantages
• Spread sheets allow a large range of conventional summary

statistics.
• Some also incorporate elements of Exploratory Data Analysis

(EDA).
• It is possible with some spread sheets to form cross-tabulations.
• Most spread sheets offer graphical presentation of the results of

an analysis.
• Spread sheets are also able to interchange data with other

systems.
By using spread sheets, a researcher can take information straight

from a spread sheet and place it into a word processor. Relevant
information from the spread sheet can be copied directly across to
report.
DATABASES
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In research analysis, databases are vital in record keeping. A

researcher may use a database programme where he/ she wants to
take advantage of the record manipulation ooptions of database
management systems.
Advantages
• Databases have high levels of interchange ability with other

systems, such as word processors, spread sheets,
sheets graphic packages
and statistical packages.
• The database is often a good starting point for sstoring raw data
because if a researcher needs to manipulate the data (beyond the
capability of the database), he/ she can do so by transferring the
information into an alternative system.
STATISTICAL SYSTEMS
These are application systems that carry out a w

wide range of
statistical techniques. The simplest statistical packages support data
summarization and basic inferential statistics. The more complex
statistical packages support advanced inferential techniques,
including multivariate methods. What they off
offer
er is advanced data
manipulation. This includes sophisticated data description, and a
range of various statistical tests. Statistical systems interchange
particularly strongly with graphic systems.
GRAPHICAL SYSTEMS
These are not software packages. General

Generally,
ly, the researcher is not
going to actually store data in a graphical system for future
analysis. The assumption is that after the researcher has carried out
the analysis, he/ she generates graphical displays of the results
results.
Reflection
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i. What is the meaning of the following terms in research,

‘data organization’’ data analysis’ and ‘ data presentation’
ii. Explain the stages involved in data organization.
iii. What is a database?
10.2.DATA ANALYSIS. (Transforms meaningless data into

meaningful information)
Data analysis refers to examining what has been collected in a

survey or experiment and making deductions and inferences. It
involves uncovering underlying structures; extracting important
variables, detecting any anomalies and testing any underlying
assumptions. It involves scrutinizing the acquired information and
making inferences.
Statistical data analysis divides the methods for analysing data into
two categories: exploratory methods and confirmatory methods.
Exploratory methods are used to discover what the data seems to be
saying by using simple arithmetic and easy-to-draw pictures to
summarize data. This is used mainly in qualitative research.
Confirmatory methods use ideas from probability theory in the
attempt to answer specific questions. These methods are mainly
applicable in quantitative research. The methods used in data
analysis are influenced by whether the research is qualitative or
quantitative.
10.3Data Analysis in Qualitative Research
Qualitative research involves intensive data collection (of several

variables), over an extended period of time in a natural setting
(variables are studied when and where they naturally occur).
Qualitative data, such as finding out the views of respondents on a
certain issue (for example, abortion) is not always computable by
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arithmetic relations: The responses can be categorized into various

classes which are called categorical variables. The analysis of
qualitative data varies from simple descriptive analysis to more
elaborate reduction and multivariate assoc
associate
iate techniques. The
analysis will vary with the purpose of the research, the complexity
of the research design and the extent to which conclusions can be
reached easily (Orodho and Kombo, 2002:116). In qualitative
research designs, the researcher should ddecide
ecide before going to the
field, how he/she will analyse the data. The analytical technique
will determine the recording style that will be used during the data
collection exercise. The analytic techniques used in qualitative
research are as follows:
A QUICK IMPRESSIONIST SUMMARY
In qualitative research, data can be analysed by a quick

impressionist summary. This involves the following:
• Summarizing key findings. For example in focus group

discussions the researcher notes down the frequent responses of the
participants on various issues.
• Explanation.
• Interpretation and conclusion.
This rapid data analysis technique is mainly used in situations that

require urgent information to make decisions for a programme for
example in places where there is an ou
outbreak
tbreak such as cholera and
vital information is needed for intervention.
THEMATIC ANALYSIS
In qualitative research, data can also be analysed thematically.

Themes refer to topics or major subjects that come up in
discussions. This form of analysis categori
categorizes
zes related topics. In
using this form of analysis major concepts or themes are identified.
In this form of data analysis, the researcher does the following:
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• Peruses the collected data and identifies information that is

relevant to the research questions and objectives.
• Develops a coding system based on samples of collected data.
• Classifies major issues or topics covered.
• Rereads the text and highlights key quotations/insights and

interpretations.
• Indicates the major themes in the margins.
• Places the coded materials under the major themes or topics

identified. All materials relevant to a certain topic are placed
together.
• Develops a summary report identifying major themes and the

associations between them.
• Uses graphics and direct quotations to present the findings.
• Reports the intensity, which refers to the number of times certain

words or phrases or descriptions are used in the discussion. The
frequency with which an idea or word or description appears is
used to interpret the importance, attention or emphasis.
Weaknesses: The thematic method tends to rely heavily on the

judgment of a single analyst. This may lead to high levels of
subjectivity and bias. It may be necessary to have two or more
analysts to code the transcript independently and compare notes.
CONTENT ANALYSIS
Content analysis examines the intensity with which certain words

have been used. Content analysis systematically describes the form
or content of written and/or spoken material. In content analysis a
classification system is developed to record the information. In
interpreting results, the frequency with which a symbol or idea
appears may be interpreted as a measure of importance, attention or
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1
emphasis. The relative balance of favourable attributes regarding a

symbol or aann idea may be interpreted as a measure of direction or
bias. In content analysis, a researcher can be assisted by trained
researchers or a computer programme can be used to sort the data
to increase the reliability of the process. Content analysis is a
tedious
ious process due the requirement that each data source is
analysed along a number of dimensions. It may also be inductive
(identifies themes and patterns) or deductive (quantifies
frequencies of data). The results are descriptive, but will also
indicate tr
trends
ends or issues of interest. In content analysis, the first
step is to select the data source to be studied, and then develop a
classification system to record the information.
In historical research there are various forms of data analysis.

These include:
 Analysis of concepts: Concepts are clarified by describing

the essential and core concepts beginning from the early
developmental stages.
 Interpretative analysis relates one event to another. The

event is studied and described within a broader context to
add meaning and credibility to the data.
 Comparative analysis examines similarities and differences

in events during different time periods.
 Theoretical and philosophical analysis utilizes historical

parallels, past trends, and sequences of events to suggest
sugges the
past, present, and future of the topic being researched.
Findings would be used to develop a theory or philosophy
of leisure. For example, an analysis of public recreation
agency goals and objectives of previous eras can be used to
describe the futuree in the context of social, political,
economic, technological, and cultural changes in society.
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2
10.3 Data Analysis in Quantitative Research
Quantitative data analysis consists of measuring numerical values

from which descriptions such as mean and standard deviations are
made. These data can be put into order and further divided into two
groups: discrete data or continuous data. Discrete data are
countable data, for example, the number of defective items
produced during a day’s production. Continuous data are
parameters (variables) that are measurable and are expressed on a
continuous scale, for example the height of a person. The analysis
of quantitative data varies from simple to more elaborate analysis
techniques. The analysis varies with the objective of the
experiment, its complexity and the extent to which conclusion can
be easily reached. Data analysis in quantitative research depends on
the type of study. This is as follows:
CORRELATION STUDIES
In correlational research studies, data is mainly analysed using the

correlation coefficient. By using this tool the researcher indicates
the degree of relationship between two variables. The correlation
coefficient is a number ranging from 1 (a perfect positive
correlation) through 0 (no relationship between the variables) to -1
(a perfect negative correlation). In analysing the correlation
coefficient, a researcher attempts to indicate the proportion of
sameness between two variables. One of the correlation tools is the
Pearson Product Moment Correlation. This tool is used to analyse
the relationship between isolated independent and dependent
variables.
Another type of correlational analysis is reliability studies (analyses

conducted to provide information about the validity and reliability
of tests). In reliability studies the same group of subjects is given a
test and then at a somewhat later date is given the test again. The
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3
researcher analyses the two scores for each subject (the test score
and the retest score) and the correlation coefficient between the two
sets of scores can be calculated. This kind of correlation coeff
coefficient
is referred to as a reliability coefficient.
The important thing to remember is that in correlational research,

while carrying out analysis, the researcher is only looking at the
degree of relationship between the variables and not the effect of
one variable on another variable.
PREDICTION STUDIES
In predictive correlational studies, while carrying out the analysis,

the researcher uses the degree of relationship that exists between
two variables to predict one variable from the other. For example if
reading and spelling are correlated, then the researcher can use the
information to predict a student's score on the spelling test if the
student has only taken the reading test. Conversely, the researcher
can predict the student's score on the reading tes
test given the
student's score on the spelling test. Prediction studies are widely
used to predict student academic success in college, based on such
measures as secondary school grades in mathematics, and aptitude
test scores.
CAUSAL
CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE RESEARCH
Cau
Causal-comparative
comparative educational research attempts to identify a
causative relationship between an independent variable and a
dependent variable. However, this relationship is more suggestive
than proven as the researcher does not have complete control over
the independent variable. If the researcher had control over the
independent variable, then the research would be classified as true
experimental research. In carrying out analysis based on this
design, the researcher compares two selected groups on the
depen
dependent
dent variable. For example, if in form two, some of the
students in mathematics classes use calculators while others do not,
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4
a researcher may be interested in finding out the effect of calculator

use on mathematics grades at the end of the year. The researcher
therefore selects a group of students from the class that use
calculators and then selects another group of the same size form the
class that do not use calculators and compares the two groups at the
end of the year on their final mathematics grades.
An inferential statistic used to analyse data in both causal-

comparative and experimental research designs is the t-test. ·Where
the subjects in the two groups are independent of one another, that
is no matching of subjects or other control procedures were used.
The independent t-test is used to test the significance of a
difference between the means of the experimental and control
groups in the study. Ln research designs where the influence of an
extraneous variable has been controlled, or in designs utilizing a
pre-test-post-test procedure, the appropriate t-test to use to compare
the two groups would be the dependent t-test. When a researcher
has three or more groups to compare, the appropriate inferential
statistic to use in data analysis would be one-way analysis of
variance. This statistic shows the significance of differences in the
means of three or more groups of subjects.
In cases where the researcher uses frequency counts for the

dependent variable, the appropriate inferential statistic to use in
data analysis would be the chi-square test. Th.is statistic tests the
significance of differences between two or more groups
(independent variable) in frequencies for the dependent variable.
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
The major difference in data analysis between causal-comparative

and experimental research is that the researcher has control over the
independent variable in experimental research and can manipulate
this variable at will. In the case of causal-comparative research, the
independent variable is established by the identity of the groups
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5
chosen and is not under experimental control. In experimental

designs, the observer should decide before carrying out the
experiment the analytical process. The analytical process in
experimental studies mainly involve
involvess the calculation of effect size.
Effect size is the mean of the experimental group minus the mean
of the control group, divided by the standard deviation of the
control group. The idea is to calculate the effect size across a
number of studies to determin
determinee the relevance of the test, treatment,
or method.
Assignment
Discuss statistical software packages and methods used in

analysing data in both qualitative and quantitative research.
10.4
.4 Data Presentation
There are three ways researchers can present data after analysis.
This includes the following:
• Using statistical techniques.
• Using graphical techniques.
• Using a combination of both.
Statistical Techniques
Statistics are a set of mathematical methods used to extract and

clarify information from obse
observed
rved data. Statistics generate simple
numbers to describe distributions, either grouped or ungrouped.
Statistics have two major functions in data presentation. They can
add to our understanding of the data that make up the distribution,
and they can substi
substitute
tute for (be used instead of) the distribution.
With descriptive statistics it is important to define whether the
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6
researcher is calculating values for a population or for a sample: the

results will be different. A sample statistic is any numerical value
describing a characteristic of a sample. The following are some of
the statistical techniques used to present analysed data.
a) FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS.
The values in a set of ungrouped data constitute a distribution. The

values that we have in a set of ordinal data, and the values we
generate by converting ungrouped data into grouped form,
constitute a frequency distributio11. For example, imagine a survey
in which we measure the weight of a sample of pieces of wood
loaded onto a lorry. The values for all the pieces of wood measured
make up a distribution. A researcher can calculate sample statistics
from that distribution, such as a sample mean (for example, 14.56
kg). A frequency distribution of grouped data can also be created as
shown in the table below.
Weight Number
7-9 2
10-12 8
13-15 12
16-18 19
19-21 7
Class Limits: The frequency distribution is made up of the values

(counts) for a set of classes; each class has a frequency (j)
associated with it. The class limits are the upper and lower values
for each class. They should be defined in such a way that no value
is excluded, but no value can fall into two classes. The researcher
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7
can achieve this by using class boundaries with a precision

(meaning in this case number of significant figures) one order
below that of any of the actual data values. In the wood eexample, if
the researcher weighs the pieces to the nearest tenth of a
kilogramme, he/she would set the class boundaries to 7.05, 9.05,
and so on. The class interval is the difference between the upper
class boundary and the lower class boundary; in most fr
frequency
distributions it will be constant across the classes. The point
halfway between the upper and lower class limits is the class
midpoint. These values are used to calculate the mean of a set of
grouped data.
groups: measures of
Statistics can be divided into two groups
centraltendency and measures of dispersion.
b)) MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
Measures of central tendency are numbers that define the location

of a distribution's centre. For example, if we regard all
measurements as being attempts to give us the "true" value of a
particular phenomenon, we can regard the centre of the distribution
of a set of measurements an estimate of that "true" value. The
various sources of error in the measurement process will produce
variability in the measurements, so th
they
ey will not all have the same
value. Measures of dispersion attempt to quantify the extent of this
variability. When dealing with ungrouped data, the researcher can
use several measures of central tendency. These include the mean,
the median and mode. When dealing with grouped data, the
researcher cannot use the arithmetic mean, instead he/she can use
the group mean. Using grouped data the researcher cannot use the
median, but can define the modal class.
MEAN
MEAN- This is the average. It is found by the sum total
tot divided by
the number.
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8
MEDIAN- The median can be defined in a set of ungrouped data.

If the data are arranged in ascending or descending order; in
general, the median is the value that has half of the data values less
than it, and half greater than it. If the sample size (n) is an odd
number, the median is the middle value of the entire distribution. If
n is an even number, the median is the mean of the two "middle"
values. For example, in the following ungrouped data: 12, 14, 16,
18, 19, 22, 24; the median is 18. Whereas for 12, 14, 16, 18, 19, 22,
24, 27 the median is 18.5. So the median is the value that
minimizes the absolute distance to the data points.
MODE- The mode of a set of data is the value that occurs most
often, with certain provisos: It is possible to have no mode (that is,
no value occurs more than once). It is possible to have more than
one mode (a distribution may be bimodal, trimodal or multi-
modal). For grouped data the class with the highest frequency value
is the modal class. There may be two modal classes (bimodal), or
more. For example, for the following frequencies: 12, 18, 13, 13,
22, 12, 14, 13 the mode is 13.
C) MEASURES OF DISPERSION
This type of statistic describes how much the distribution varies

around the central point. The various ways we can describe this
spread are called measures of dispersion. These measures quantify
the variability of the distribution. As they are attempting to
quantify the general shape of a distribution rather than a single
value for its centre most measures of dispersion are numerically
more complex. These measures consist of the following:
RANGE- The simplest measure of dispersion is the range of the

data: the difference between the highest and the lowest values in
the data (maximum- minimum).
12
9
VARIA
VARIANCE- This is a measure that indicates the distribution of
data. It is based upon the idea that each observation differs from the
mean by some amount. This is referred to as the difference from
the mean. The difference between each value and the population
mean is called its deviation. To get the variance, all the values are
taken and summed. Dividing the result by the population size (N)
gives the mean deviation. Unfortunately, this measure does not
give sufficient "weight" to the values on the margins of tthe
distribution. To do so, the sum of the squares of the deviations from
the mean has to be taken. Dividing this value (the sum of squared
deviations) by the population size gives the variance of the
distribution. Standard Deviation: The standard deviation is the
square root of the variance. For example in the example on the
wood weight, if the mean weight was 13.78 kilogrammes, and the
variance was 3.56 kilogrammes, the standard deviation will be 1.89
kilogrammes. Consequently, we cannot compare the varian
variances of
two distributions unless they happen to have the same units. We
cannot use the variance (or the standard deviation) to indicate
which of two or more distributions exhibits greater variability. For
this latter purpose we need a "dimensionless" measur
measure of
dispersion, for which we usually employ the coefficient of
variability.
Coefficient of Variability (or Variation). The coefficient of

variability is calculated by expressing the standard deviation as a
percentage of the mean.
The basic shape of a freq

frequency
uency curve can be described
quantitatively by several measures.
These are measures that explicitly quantify the "balance" of the

distribution (Sec figure 2.). This balance has two components:
• Are the values arranged symmetrically on either side of the

centre?
entre?
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0
• Is the distribution highly "peaked" (must vah1es lit! close to the

centre, and the tails are short) or is the distribution "flat" (long tails
and a low central concentration)?
The measures used to describe the overall symmetry of a

distribution- that is, whether the two tails of the distribution are
equal –is called the skewness. The distribution can be described as
left (positively) or right (negatively) skewed. The coefficient of
skewness can be used to quantify the extent of the asymmetry. We
also define whether the distribution is "peaked" or not; the measure
for this is called the kurtosis. Distributions that are strongly peaked
(that is, most of the values lie close to the centre of the distribution,
with relatively short tails) are termed leptokurtic, whereas those
where the values are broadly spread (the tails are long) are termed
platykurtic. tail
tail
Centre
spread
Figure 2: The major components of distribution shape
PERCENTILES: Percentiles are values that divide a set of

observations into 100 equal parts (P1, P2, P3........ P 99) such that 1%
of all the data points fall below P1, 2% fall below P2 and so on.
DECILES: Deciles are values that divide a set of observations into

ten equal parts (D1, D2, D3 ..... D9) such that 10% of all the data
points faII below D1, 20% fall below D2, and so on.
QUARTILES: Quartiles are values that divide a set of

observations into four equal parts (Q1, Q2, Q3) such that 25% of all
the data points fall below Q1, 50% fall below Q2, and 75% fall
below Q3.
10.5GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION
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1
Whilst the most obvious way of representing grouped data is as a

table, the information can also be represented diagrammatically.
Data can be graphically presented by· a histogram or polygon.
a) His
Histogram- A basic representation of the shape of a frequency
distribution (See figure 3.). This can be shown as a series of
vertical (or horizontal) bars, their length indi
indicating
cating the frequency of
the par
particular class.
b) Polygon
Polygon- Data can also be presented ass polygons. The polygon is
closed by connecting the midpoints of the end classes to the
midpoints of "imaginary" classes on each side, which have a
notional frequency of zero.
Figure 3: Sample Histogram
c) Bars; The cumulative frequency distribution can also be

plotted as a series of bars (see Figure 4), or as a series of
lines joining the midpoints of the classes; this is termed an
13
2
ogive (Figure 5).
Figure 4: Sample bar graph
Figure 5: Cumulative Frequency Curve (Ogive)
13
3
Pie chart - A pie chart can also be used for the purpose of
presenting results. (Figure 6).
Figure 6: Pie chart showing purchasing power of people in Nairobi

city.
At a glance, one can be able to see that the upper class group
dominates the purchasing of goods and services.
Challenges Faced in Data Analysis
In data analysis, the researcher should ensure the following:
• Understands the assumptions of their statistical procedures, and

be sure they are satisfied. In particular, the research
researcher should be
aware of hierarchically organized (non
(non-independent)
independent) data; use
techniques designed to deal with the challenges faced in data
analysis.
• Be sure to use the best measurement tools available. If measures

have errors, then that fact should be cons
considered.
• Beware of multiple comparisons. If one has to do many tests, then

he /she should try to replace or use cross
cross-validation
validation to verify the
results.
• Keep in mind what one is trying to discover. One should look at

the magnitude rather than values.
13
4
• Use numerical notation in a rational way. One should not confuse

precision with accuracy.
• Be sure to understand the conditions for causal inference. If one

needs to make inference, then he/she should try to use random
assignment. If that is not possible, then one should devote a lot of
effort to unearth causal relationships with a variety of approaches
to the question.
• Be sure that the graphs are accurate and reflect the data variation
clearly.
Group discussion
Explain how data can be presented using statistical and graphical

techniques.
11.0 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND

RECOMMENDATIONS
This unit summarizes the whole research process. It first provides a

brief summary of the whole study with particular reference to the
research problem, research methodology, results, the main
contributions of the research and recommendations for future work.
It provides a summary of the main findings of the study,
conclusions and recommendations. This unit should be reasonably
short.
The readers would want to know whether the objectives of the

study were achieved, and whether the work has contributed to
know ledge. Therefore, when compiling this unit, a researcher
should focus on answering these questions.
Any conclusions drawn should be those resulting from the study. A

researcher should make relevant references to chapters that support
13
5
the listed findings and may also refer to the work of others for
comparison. However, one should not discuss the study's results
here.
11.1.
11.1.SUMMARY
SUMMARY OF THE MAIN FINDINGS
In summariz
summarizing,
ing, a researcher should identify the findings of the
study and discuss them briefly. In addition, the methodological
problems encountered should be outlined so that future/ other
researchers may take the relevant precautions. The researcher
should clearly pinpoint if the study objectives were achieved or not.
An effective summary has the following qualities:
• It bases on results from the study.
• It is brief; all statements are concise, and pinpoint to the

contributions that the researcher has made.
• All statements are factual.
One way to present the summary is to use one paragraph for each
idea. Alternatively, the researcher can use a point
point-by-point format.
11.2
11.2CONCLUSION
The conclusion section should be very brief, about half a page. It

should indicate what the study results reaffirm. It should also
briefly discuss some of the strategies highlighted by the
respondents. In this section, the researcher should clearly state how
the study has contributed to knowledge.
11.3
11.3RECOMMENDATIONS
The recommendations section is important in research. This section

often exposes further problems and introduces more questions. As a
researcher, there is a time limit to the research project, so it is
unlikely that the study would have solved all the problems
associated with the area of study. The researcher is therefore
expected to make suggestions about how his/her work can be
13
6
improved, and also based on the study findings, point out whether
there are areas that deserve further investigation. This section will
indicate whether a researcher has a firm appreciation of his/her
work, and whether he/she has given sufficient thought to its
implications, not only within the narrow confines of the research
topic but to related fields. This section reflects the researcher's
foresightedness and creativity.
This unit should be written using a punchy style and should not be
too long. Conclusions and contributions should be presented
concisely and factually.
11.4SAMPLE SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS

AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Ambia (2003): Access and retention of girls in primary

education, Wajir district, North Eastern province, Kenya
From the findings of the study, the following emerged as the main
factors influencing girls' access to and retention in primary schools
in Wajir district; school based factors such as distance and location
of school, category of schools, lack of physical facilities, learning
environment, staffing as well as safety inside and outside the
school. Socio-cultural factors in this concern include gender
stereotyped roles, negative traditional beliefs, attitudes and
practices, patriarchal descent system, religious beliefs, miraa (khat)
trade as well as nomadic way of life. Socio-economic factors
include high poverty level, child labour, home environment,
household chores, parental level of education, occupation and
income levels, lack of employment as well as high cost of
education.
It is evident that the government has the policy that allows equal
access to primary education for boys and girls but due to the
aforesaid factors, enrolment and retention rates differ in Wajir
district.
13
7
There is need to carry out awareness campaigns to sensitize all

stakeholders on the importance of education especially of the girl
child. It is important to create well maintained single gender
boarding schools. There is need to equip existing nomadic boarding
schools. Girls should be targeted in terms of bursary and
sponsorship. There is need to create projects and programmes that
will increase the family income hence a source of economic
empowe
empowerment.
rment. This will help parents to generate more income to
invest in primary education especially for the girl child. There is
need to enforce the laws that prohibit negative practices such as
early marriage, female genital mutilation and sexual harassment.
Group discussion
Discuss the differences and similarities between a research

proposal and a research report.
12.0 REFERENCES
Finalization of the research work is very challenging. This is

mainly because by the time a researcher finalizes the study, ther
there
may be exhaustion and an urgency to complete the study. However
this section is vital and should be completed with seriousness and
uttermost care. This unit discusses referencing, preparing
thec1ppendix and formatting the final work.
References
In resear
research,
ch, the term "reference" applies to materials that have been
referred to or quoted in the study. The reference list is a
compilation of the books and articles referred to. This list is related
closely to the literature review chapter. This is because all
reference
eference material ls used in the literature review should be
13
8
reflected in this section. The reference list should contain the most
relevant and important publications.
12.1 THE REFERENCES IN THE BODY OF THE TEXT
The appropriate point at which to indicate the source of an idea is

as soon as is convenient. When it is at the beginning or middle of a
sentence, the researcher should indicate the surname of the author
and year of publication. The year of publication should be enclosed
inside brackets, for instance, "Orodho (2003) pointed out that ...,"
"Kombo (2005) indicated that.... " At the end of a sentence or
paragraph, one needs to enclose the surname of the author and year
of publication in brackets. The name and year should be separated
by a comma, for example (Orodho, 2003); (Kombo, 2005).
Direct Quotations
Direct quotations should be accurate. If there is need to omit some

words within a quotation, the writer should use three ellipses (...) to
indicate the omissions. If the quotation is short, that is, a maximum
of three sentences then use quotation marks within the text. Longer
quotations are usually indented and typed in single spacing, without
quotation marks. In both cases, the pages from which the quotation
comes must be indicated at the end of the quotation (Kombo,
2004:69).
Paraphrase
The use of another author's idea, but expressed in the writer's words
is referred to as paraphrasing. In this case the writer indicates the
source author and year, for example (Kombo, 2004).
Citation Styles
One of the challenges experienced by researchers is how to cite

references. The two most common methods for citing published
work are:
• the number system
13
9
• the name
name-year system
THE NUMBER SYSTEM
With this system, references to published work are by use of

numbers, for example:
There are many undergraduate texts on Process Control [1

[1-4]. The
most popular seems to be the book by Kombo [2). However, the
only one to deal with process design and process control in an
integrated manner is that by Orodho[4].
or
There are m
many
any undergraduate texts on Process Control1-4.
Control1 The
most popular seems to be the book by Kombo 2. However, the only
one to deal with process design and process control in an integrated
manner is that by Orodho 4.
In both examples above, three citations wer

were made. The first
referred to publication numbers 1, 2, 3 and 4; the second citation
referred to publication number 2, while the last citation referred to
publication number 4. The fact that the numbers relate to items in
the reference list is indicated by the square parentheses [...] or by
the superscripts. The convention a researcher follows will depend
on the guidelines and regulations of one's institution.
When using the number

number-system
system citation style, the order of the
corresponding reference list is impo
important.
rtant. By convention, the first
cited publication will be the first on the list and assigned the
number "1." The second cited publication will be the second on the
list and assigned the number "2" and so on. That is, the publications
in the reference list are presented in the order that they were cited.
However, the reference list must not contain duplicates. This means
that the researcher will have to keep track of the publications that
have been cited and their associated order in the reference list, so
14
0
that he/she can use the appropriate number when he/she citing a
publication more than once, as in the above examples.
12.2 THE NAME-YEAR SYSTEM
Using the name-year citation style, the above example becomes:
There are many undergraduate texts on Process Control (Kombo,

1991; Orodho, 1990; Paul, 1995; Wamahiu, 1988). The most
popular seems to be the book by Kombo (1991). However, the only
one to deal with process design and process control in an integrated
manner is that by Orodho (1995).
The first citation named 4 authors using their surname. Associated

with each surname is the year of the publication. Notice that they
are presented in alphabetical order, within round parentheses,
(...).The author is separated from the year by a comma. Author-year
pairs are separated by semi-colons. The next two citations named
the authors using their surnames with the publication year of the
cited publications enclosed in parentheses. Therefore, there are two
ways to use the name-year citation style. When using this citation
style, the reference list is presented in alphabetical order.
How a publication is cited also depends on the number of authors.

If there are two authors, then cite as follows: "Orodho and Kombo
(2002) modified the Minimum Variance objective function to
include ...”
or
"The Generalized Minimum Variance self-tuning algorithm was

proposed in the late 1970s (Orodho and Kombo, 2002)." When a
publication has more than two authors, cite as follows:
"Montague et al. (1987) considered ...”
At the point at which a source is cited in the text, indicate the

author's surname, followed by the year of publication. In a sentence
simply indicate the surname and put the year of publication of the
14
1
document in brackets, that is, Kombo (2004). However, if the

source is indicated at the end of a sentence or paragraph, then
include both the author and year of publication in brackets
(Kombo, 2004).
A comma separates the author's name and year of publication. If an

author has published several works in the same year and one is
using more than one of these, then lower case letters are used after
the year for identification, that is, Orodho (2003a, 2003b, 2003c
and so on).
If several sources are being referred to at the same time, then the
authors should be organized alphabetically and the sources
separated using semi colons (Kombo, 2004; Orodho, 2003). If
quotations are used, indicate the author, year of publication and
page(s) of the quotation. Page(s) can be indicated by using p. (pp. if
many) or using colon i.e. (Orodho, 2003, p.69) or (Orodho, 2003:
69) If many pages (Orodho, 2003: pp. 69
69-71)
71) or (Orodhn, 2003: 69-
69
71).
12.3
.3 LISTING OF REFERENCES
There are a number of types of publications used in research. These

materials include articles, magazines, journals, conference
proceedings, books, dissertations, theses and research reports. Each
category of materials requires a different presentation format.
However the general order of organizing the references is as
follows:
1. Surname of the author
2. Initials of the author
3. Date of publ
publication
4. Title of the material
5. Place of publication
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2
6. Publishers
Author's surname, initials, (year of publication). Title of material.

Place of Publication : Publishers.
12.1.4 Presentation Format
There are various presentation formats for different materials. This

is as follows:
a) Journal Articles- These are the most common sources of cited

material and include specialist technical journals as well as trade
journals. They are presented in the following format:
1. Surname of the author.
2. Initials of the author.
3. Year (date) of publication.
4. Title of article: The first letter of the title is capitalized while the
rest are in lower case.
5. Name of journal (underlined or italicized). You may use an

abbreviated form for the journal name, but make sure that it is the
recognized one. Most journals will have the "official" abbreviated
title printed at the top of its pages.
6. Volume, followed by number of issue. Instead of issue numbers,

some journals have a month of issue. In such cases, substitute the
month for the issue number.
7. Pages in the journal where the article appears.
Author's surname, initials. (Year of publication). Title of article.

Name of Journal, Volume (number, pages).
For example:
Johnson, U.W., Johnson, H., Stanne, M, and Garibaldi, A. (1990).

Impact of group processing on achievement in cooperative groups.
Journal of Social Psychology, 130, 507-516.
14
3
Garner, R. (1990). When children and adults do not use learning

strategies: Towards a theory of settings. Review of Educational
Resear
Research, 60, 517-529.
b) Conference Proceedings
Proceedings- Papers presented at conferences are
also common sources of research information. The format is as
follows; Author(s), (year). Article title, Name of conference,
Location of conference, page range. For example:
Dore,
ore, S.D., Perkins, J.D. and Kershenbaum, L.S. (1994).
Application of geo mrtric nonlinear control in the process
industries: a case study, Proc. IFAC Symposium, ADCHEM '94,
Kyoto, Japan, pp 501
501-506.
The author(s) surname appears first, followed by initial

initials. The year
is enclosed in parentheses and terminated with a full
full-stop. The first
letter of the title is capitalized while the rest are in lower case. You
may use abbreviations to indicate the type of publication and the
name of the conference. For example "Proc." is usually used in
place of "Proceedings"; "Pre." for "Preprints"; "Conf." for
"Conference"; "Symp." for "Symposium" and so on.
c) Books
Books- To list books, use the following format:
Surname of the author, initials of the author. (year of publication.

publication.)
title of book. edition number, place of publication, publishers. For
example:
Awuondo, C.O. (1993

(1993). Introduction to Sociology. Nairobi: Basic
Books Limited. Kombo, D. and Waiyaki, M. (2002). Sociology of
Education. Nairobi: Kenyatta University Press.
Oro
Orodho,
dho, A.J. (2003). Essentials of Educational and Social Science
Research Methods. Nairobi: Masola Publishers.
Gay, L.R. (1992). Educational Research: Competence for Analysis

and Applications. 4'h Edition, New York: Macmillan Publishers.
14
4
In referencing books, the first letters of keywords in the main title

are in capitals, and the title is in italics. There is no need to indicate
the edition of the book if it is the first edition.
Some books are compilations of articles from different authors. For

such cases, the format used is a cross between that for journal
articles and books. This is as follows:
Author(s), (year). Title of article in book, In: Name of book,

Edition number, Chapter number, Name(s) of editors, Name of
publisher, place of publication.
For example:
Rumelhart IJ.E., Hinton G.E. and Williams, R.J. (1987). Learning

internal representations by error propagation, In: Parallel
Distributed Processing: Vol. 1, Ch. H. D. E. Rumelhart and J.L.
McClelland [editors], MIT Press: Cambridge MA.
Note the use of the word "In:" and the difference in which the
names of the authors and the names of the editors are presented:
editors' names are listed with their initials first. However, when you
list the book without reference to authors of particular chapters,
editors are considered the authors, in which case the item will be
listed as:
Rumelhart, D.E. and McClelland, J.L. [editors]. (1987). Parallel

Distributed Processing: Vol. 1, MIT Press: Cambridge MA.
J) Dissertations, Theses and Research Reports
Dissertations, theses and academic research reports are listed using

the format below:
Author(s), (year). Title in italics. Type of publication, Research

Group, Name of institution, Country. For example:
Peel, C. (1995). Aspects of Neural Networks for Modeling and

Control. PhD Thesis, University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, UK.
14
5
Bloggs, J. and Other, A.N. (1998). The Effects of Vodbull on Class

Attendance. Research Report No. 123, Social Impact Research
Group, Smirnoff Institute of Technology. Vladivostok, Russia.
Kombo, D.K. (1988). Factors influencing student's poor

performance in the K.C.E Examination among Harambee
Secondary schools in Kathiani Division, Machakos District,
Kenyatta University, Kenya.
When listing a research report, include the report number where

applicable
applicable.
e) Company Reports oon Manuals
Sometimes, a researcher may need to cite material contained in

publications by companies and from manuals. In such cases there
are no named individuals for authors. Use the format below:
Name of company or organization, (yea

(year).
r). Title in italics. Place of
publication. For example:
Mathsoft Inc., (1999). Mathcad 2000 Reference Manual.

Cambridge, MA.
f) Information from the World Wide Web (www)
Nowadays, much information can be obtained from the Internet,

typically websites but sources include newsgroups and on-line
on
forums. The format to use for such publications is:
Name of Author(s) or company or organization, (year), Title of

article, URL, date found.
The URL (Uniform Resource Locator) is the full Internet address

of the artic
article. Due to the transient nature of on--line information, it
is important to include the date when one found the information.
For example:
Tham, M.T. (1997). Distillation: an introduction, http: / /

lorien.ncl.ac.uk /ming /distil/distil0.htm, 30 May 2001.
14
6
g) Personal Communications
Sometimes, a researcher may have used information passed on to

him/her by a colleague or another person, via a phone conversation,
letter, email or other forms of communication. The researcher can
include this information in the reference list. The format to use is:
Name, (year). Personal communication, Affiliation of named

person.
For example:
Blogg, J. (1996). Personal communication, University College

London, UK.
The reference list should be compiled as a researcher writes the

chapters. The references should be organized alphabetically using
surnames. If the author has several publications listed, they should
be organized using the date (year) order. If there is more than one
author, the names and initials of all the other authors should appear.
All authors should be given credit. AU the materials cited should
be referenced.
The reader should note that the material presented here is not
exhaustive; there are many variations. However, in the absence of
other instructions, and as long as you are consistent, the guidelines
presented above should be sufficient.
12.4Numbering
In a research proposal or thesis, there is a specific format for

numbering. There is specific numbering for the following:
• Chapters and sections in chapters
• Figures and diagrams
• Tables and lists
• Equations
14
7
Each chapter of the proposal/thesis should be assigned a number.
For example:
Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION
Chapter 2. LITERATURE REVIEW
Chapter sections and subsections should also be assigned a

numerical index. For example, the second section of Chapter 1
could be: 1.2 Statement of the Problem, while a subsection of
Section 4 in Chapter 4 could be: 4.4. 1 Simulation results.
Notice the use of different cases in the 3 heading categories. The

title of chapte
chapterr is in upper case (capitalized); the heading of a
section has the first letter of keywords in upper case; while only the
first letter of the first word in a subsection is capitalized. These
styles are used as visual cues to indicate the different levels oof
headings. Avoid having more than 3 levels, for instance, 2.1.3.2, as
they can make the text messy especially when referring to them. If
you need to categorize further, the contents of a subsection, use a
different font style. Bold and underlined text is a popular format.
To refer to a particular chapter, use the formats given by the

following examples:
"Chapter 2 provides a review of work in this area. The reason for

this modification, stated in Chapter 3.... “Notice that the word
"Chapter" is written in full with a capital "C." The following
examples show how references are made to sections or subsections:
"The procedure outlined in Section 5.3 was employed to ...”
"Section 3.2.2 discussed the implication of..."
Here, the word "Section" with a capital "S" is used to refer to both
sections and subsections; the latter being obvious from the
numerical index.
14
8
12.5FIGURES AND DIAGRAMS
In proposals and theses, all figures and diagrams must be captioned

and given a numerical index. Captions should appear below the
figure or diagram, and should be sufficiently descriptive without
being too long. Simply state what the illustration is showing and do
any explaining in the main text. Captions for figures and diagrams
have the format: Chapter number. Figure number.
Description
Figure 2.4. The Physiotherapy Strategy.
The word "Figure" is used generically to cover all illustrations,

such as drawings, flow charts, sketches, and so on. Spell out the
word in full. Note too, the positions of the full-stops. The numerical
index is composed of the chapter number, a full stop, followed by
the figure number, terminated with another full stop. Thus, the third
illustration appearing in Chapter 4 would have the caption:
Figure 4.3. Schematic of control system for the methanol-water

column.
You may use the abbreviated form, "Fig.", when referring to

illustrations if the reference appears in the middle of a sentence.
For example:
"The control scheme, shown in Fig. 4.3, is quite common."
Otherwise, write the word "Figure" in full, for instance, "Figure 4.3
shows a common control scheme for a distillation column."
12.6TABLES AND LISTS
All tables and lists, must be captioned and given a numerical index,
and the numbering style is identical to that used for figures and
diagrams. The captions should be placed below each table and list.
So, for example, the second table in Chapter 3 would have the
caption:
14
9
"Table 3.2. Performance measures obtained using the proposed

procedure." Abbreviations should not be used when referring to
tables and lists
lists- write out the word "Table" in full, with a capital
"T."
15
0
REFERENCES
Books and Journal Articles
Bliss, J., Monk, M., &Ogborn, J. (1983). Qualitative data analysis

for educational research: A guide to users of systemic networks.
Canberra: Croom Helm.
Elliott, A. (2001). "Professor of global optimism." The Australian,

1 August, pp. 37-38.
Goetz, J. P., and LeCompte, M. D. (1984). Ethnography and

qualitative design in educational research. San Diego: Harcourt
Brace Jovanovich.
Mason,J., and Waywood, A. (1996). "The role of theory in

mathematics education and research." In: A. J. Bishop, K.
Clements, C. Keitel, J. Kilpatrick and C Laborde (eds),
International handbook of mathematics education. Dordrecht:
Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1055-1089.
J Miles, M. B., and Huberman, M. A. (1994). Qualitative Data

Analysis: An Expanded Sourcebook (seconded.). Beverley Hills:
Sage.
Orodho (2003). Essentials of Educational and Social Sciences

Research Method. Nairobi: Masola Publishers.
Orodho, A. J. and Kombo, D. K. (2002). Research Methods.

Nairobi: Kenyatta University, Institute of Open Learning.
Tuchman, M. S. (1987). Scientific Methods and Social Research

(revised edition). New York: Sterling.
Webster, S. (1985). Educational Research: Competence for

Analysis and Applications, 6th Edition. New Jersey: Macmillan.
15
1

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Important note: If you have not yet done so, please review the sections

CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION

[Add institute name here]

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Mr. K. Moono ( Editor)

About this [DOCUMENT TYPE] 1

Getting around this [DOCUMENT TYPE] 7

About this [DOCUMENT TYPE]

CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION

How this [DOCUMENT TYPE] is structured

The course overview

We strongly recommend that you read the overview carefully

The course content

Welcome toCURRICULUM STUDIES AND

[Add a general description of the course here]

CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION

Upon completion ofCURRICULUM STUDIES AND

 Demonstrate knowledge of the terms, concepts, processes

[What is the expected duration of this course?]

As an adult learner your approach to learning will be different to

study tips”, “self-study skills” or similar.

Is there a course web site address?

[How many assignments are there for this course?]

How many assessments will there be in this course?

Getting around this [DOCUMENT TYPE]

While working through this [DOCUMENT TYPE] you will notice

Activity Assessment Assignment Case study

Discussion Group Help Note it!

Outcomes Reading Reflection Study skills

Summary Terminology Time Tip

 Define education and curriculum

[Term]: [Term description]

[Term]: [Term description]

[Term]: [Term description]

[Term]: [Term description]

Farrant(1980) education is the total process of human learning by which knowledge

1.3 WHAT IS CURRICULUM?

examination. It is typically a list of content areas. A syllabus is clearly a subsection

d) The entitlement Curriculum: it refers to what society believes,

humanism in all schools and colleges inculcated certain values and

VIII. Teachers in partnership with parents and community members

not implicit in any curriculum document. This may produce either

3. To help learners establish values through acquaintance with the

PRINCIPLES FOR CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

perspectives of the interpreter. True knowledge is derived from evidence

window. Rather, improvement in our schools will be accomplished by active

1.9.2APPROACHES TO CURRICULUM STUDIES

1) THE BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH:

coincide with the objectives and learning outcomes are evaluated in

subjects and so more time is allocated to science and maths subjects

In this unit the curriculum was explained with emphasis on the

Discuss the six approaches to curriculum studies and clearly show

i. Discuss five principles for curriculum development.

Welcome to unit 2. At this stage you are expected to define and

[Term]: [Term description]

[Term]: [Term description]

[Term]: [Term description]

[Term]: [Term description]

[Term]: [Term description]

[Term]: [Term description]

[Term]: [Term description]

PATTERN OF CURRICULUM DESIGN

A design in this case may be referred to as a model. This is an