Biophysics

Practical works
04 Evalution of carbohydrates metabolism
18.03 – 22.03.2019
Digestion, absorption and metabolism of carbohydrates
■ DIET CARBOHIDRATES
■ DIGESTION
■ ABSORPTION
■ METABOLISM
1) Carbohydrates in the human diet.
CARBOHYDRATES IN THE HUMAN DIET
In the human diet one finds three types of carbohydrates:
■ 1. POLYSACCHARIDES
High polysaccharides are glycogen, amylose and amylopectin, which
are in the form of starch (glucose polymers).
 Glycogene is available in the non-vegetarian diet.
 Amylose and amylopectin are available in the vegetarian diet.
■ 2. DISACCHARIDES
Two types of disaccharides are found in the diet.
i. Sucrose (glucose + fructose), which is called sugar or cane sugar.
ii. Lactose (glucose + galactose), which is the sugar available in milk.
■ 3. MONOSACCHARIDES
Monosaccharides from the human diet are the glucose and the
fructose.
Other carbohydrates in the diet are:
i. Alcohol;
ii. Lactic acid;
iii. Pyruvic acid;
iv. Pectins;
v. Dextrins;
vi. Carbohydrates of meat.
The diet also contains a large amount of cellulose that can not be
digested in the human gastrointestinal tract, so it is not considered as
a food for human beings.
2) Carbohydrates digestion. Final products of
metabolism
DIGESTION OF CARBOHYDRATES
■ IN THE ORAL CAVITY
The enzymes involved in carbohydrate digestion are known as
amylolytic enzymes. The only amylolytic enzyme present in saliva
is salivary amylase or phthaline.
■ IN THE STOMAC
Gastric juice contains a weak amylase, which plays a minor role in
carbohydrate digestion.
■ IN THE SMALL INTESTINE
Amylolytic enzymes present in the small intestine are derived from
pancreatic juice and intestinal digestive juices.
 Amylolytic enzyme of pancreatic juice
 Amylolytic enzymes in intestinal digestive juice
 The enzymes present in the intestinal digestive juice are maltase,
sucrase, lactase, dextrinase and trehalase.
■ FINAL PRODUCTS OF CARBOHIDRATES DIGESTION
The final products of carbohydrate digestion are monosaccharides,
which are the glucose, the fructose and the galactose.
 Glucose represents 80% of the final products of carbohydrate
digestion.
 Galactose and fructose are the rest of 20%.
3) Enzymatic digestion of carbohydrates
according to the digestion zone.
 Carbohydrates digestion
Area Juice Enzyme Substrate Final product
Oral Salivary Polysaccharides - Disaccharides -
Saliva
cavity amylase boiled starch dextrin and maltose
Gastric The action is
Stomach Gastric juice Low amylase
amylase negligible
disaccharides
Pancreatic Pancreatic
Polysaccharides - Dextrin, maltose and
juice amylase
maltriose
Sucrase Sucrose Glucose and fructose
Small Maltose and
Maltase Glucose
intestine Intestinal maltriose
digestive Lactase Lactose Glucose and galactose
juice Dextrin, maltose
Dextrinase Glucose
and maltriose
Trehalase Trehalose Glucose
4) Absorption of carbohydrates by structure.
ABSORBTION OF CARBOHIDRATES
Carbohydrates are absorbed from the small intestine, mainly as
monosaccharides, glucose, galactose and fructose.
■ ABSORBTION OF GLUCOSE
 Glucose is transported from the lumen of the small intestine into the
epithelial cells of the mucous membrane of the small intestine by
means of the sodium co-transport.
 The energy for this is obtained by the process of binding the sodium
ion and the glucose molecule to the transport protein.
 From the epithelial cell, glucose is absorbed into the portal vein by
facilitated diffusion .
 Sodium ion moves laterally into the intercellular space.
 From here, it is transported into the blood through active transport,
using the energy released by ATP decomposition.
■ ABSORBTION OF GALACTOSE
Galactose is also absorbed from the small intestine by the same
mechanism as glucose.
■ ABSORBTION OF FRUCTOSE
 Fructose is absorbed into the blood by facilitated diffusion.
 Some fructose molecules are converted into glucose which is
absorbed as described above.
5) Carbohydrate Metabolism: Catabolism and
Anabolism.
METABOLISM OF CARBOHYDRATES
 Metabolism is the process in which food substances undergo
chemical and energy transformation.
o After digestion and absorption, food substances should be
used by the body.
o They are involved into oxidative processes in which
carbohydrates, proteins and lipids are slowly decomposed to
release energy.
o This process is known as catabolism.
 Part of the released energy is used by tissues for physiological
processes, and the rest of the energy is stored as energy-rich
phosphate bonds and in the form of proteins, carbohydrates and
lipids in tissues.
 This process is called anabolism.
6) The basic principle of blood glucose level
measurement.
The basic concept of the glucose biosensor is based on the fact that
immobilized glucose oxidase (GOx) catalyses β-D-glucose
oxidation by producing molecular oxygen together with gluconic
acid and hydrogen peroxide.
To act as a catalyst, GOx requires a dinucleotide as a redox cofactor
- flavin adenine (flavin adenine dinucleotide, FAD).
FAD works as an initial acceptor of electrons and is is reduced
further to FADH2.

Glucolactone
The cofactor is regenerated by reaction with oxygen,
leading to the formation of hydrogen peroxide.

Hydrogen peroxide is oxidized to a catalytic anode,

classic platinum (Pt). The electrode easily recognizes
the number of transfer electrons and this electron
flow is proportional to the number of glucose
molecules present in the blood.
Three general strategies for electrochemical glucose detection are
used;
 by measuring oxygen consumption;
 by measuring the amount of hydrogen peroxide produced by the
enzymatic reaction;
 by using a diffusible or immobilized mediator to transfer
electrons from GOx to the electrode.
Exercise 1
Simplified model of carbohydrates absorption
Initial Parameters
Parameter Meaning Units; definitions
SUBJECT PARAMETERS
M the weight of the subjects kg
Vsg the subject blood volume

în L
FOOD JOURNAL
mi mass of food i g
xi the amount of carbohydrate in the food i g/100 g aliment
() hour of food (i) intake hh:mm
time of measurement hh:mm
Parameter Meaning Units; definitions
PHYSIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS
() the time to evacuate the stomach 1,5 - 3,0 h
(depends of type of food: liquid or solid, slow or
rapid sugar)
() the time of carbohydrate metabolism in the food i () ()
* +

în min
glucose metabolism time în min
G glycemia at the time t mmol/L
g/L
mg/L
G0 baseline glycemia 0,8 – 1,2 g/L
1.2. Define the conditioning parameters.
Conditioning
conditioning parameter for entering metabolism 0 if
()

or
()

1 if
()

or
()

conditioning parameter for exiting metabolism 1 if

()
<
0 if
()
>
1.3. Express the absorption rate
Balance of blood sugar
() the amount of ingested carbohydrate (in grams)
Time
Time the amount of carbohydrate that goes into metabolism
∑( )

Blood glucose change

( )

( )

∑ ( )
()
Glucose absorption rate
∑ ( )
()

– is not known!!!
Experimental evaluation
Determination of the glucose metabolism time
 Glucose tolerance test
 Initial blood glucose is measured
 Administer 75 g of glucose (dissolved in water)
 The subject drinks it in 10 minutes in small swallows
 Blood glucose is measured at 15, 30, 45, 60, 75 and 90 minutes filling in the
following table
Time (min) Blood sugar (mg/dl)
0
15
30
45
60
75
90
2.1. Plot the blood sugar level against time.
2.2. What type of function could be used to
approximate the evolution over time of blood
glucose through a continuous curve? How to
determine the parameters of this function?
2.3. Using the above curve, graphically evaluate
the time after which your blood sugar returns to
its original value ( ).
Determination of absorption rate
2.4. Make an eating diary from the last meal, and
record the snacks taken until the measurement
 Time of
measurement Glicemia (G)
( )
Food diary
Time of Food Food CH Stomach Time of Param. Param.
ingestion mass content/ evacuation metabolism 1 2
100 g time
() () ()
i

ABSORBTION RATE
2.5. List the limits of this model.