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Module 1
Introduction
Smart materials have been around for many years and they have found a large
number of applications. The use of the terms 'smart' and 'intelligent' to describe
materials and systems came from the US and started in the 1980‟s despite the
fact that some of these so-called smart materials had been around for decades.
Many of the smart materials were developed by government agencies working
on military and aerospace projects but in recent years their use has transferred
into the civil sector for applications in the construction, transport, medical,
leisure and domestic areas.
The first problem encountered with these unusual materials is defining what
the word “smart‟ actually means. One dictionary definition of smart describes
something which is astute or 'operating as if by human intelligence' and this is
what smart materials are.
A smart material is one which reacts to its environment all by itself. The
change is inherent to the material and not a result of some electronics. The
reaction may exhibit itself as a change in volume, a change in colour or a change
in viscosity and this may occur in response to a change in temperature, stress,
electrical current, or magnetic field. In many cases this reaction is reversible, a
common example being the coating on spectacles which reacts to the level of UV
light, turning your ordinary glasses into sunglasses when you go outside and
back again when you return inside. This coating is made from a smart material
which is described as being photo chromic.
There are many groups of smart materials, each exhibiting particular
properties which can be harnessed in a variety of high-tech and everyday
applications. These include shape memory alloys, piezoelectric materials,
magneto-rheological and electro-rheological materials, magnetostrictive
materials and chromic materials which change their colour in reaction to
various stimuli.
The distinction between a smart material and a smart structure should be
emphasized. A smart structure incorporates some form of actuator and sensor
(which may be made from smart materials) with control hardware and software
to form a system which reacts to its environment. Such a structure might be an
aircraft wing which continuously alters its profile during flight to give the
optimum shape for the operating conditions at the time
Smart systems are defined as ensembles whose dynamic can be monitored
or modified by distributed sensors and actuators, in accordance with an
integrated control law, to accommodate time‐varying exogenous inputs or
changing environmental conditions.
Smart Material Based Systems (SMBS) are defined as electro‐mechanical
systems integrated with sensing, actuating, control and computational functions
provided by such materials. Through system integration and compact design,
systems with less complexity, lower cost and higher reliability can be built.
when cured or set-up (paint drying or a mold cooling), they are very impact
resistant and very heat resistant or fire retardant.
hardness,
wear-resistant,
brittleness,
refractory,
thermal insulators,
electrical insulators,
nonmagnetic,
oxidation resistant,
prone to thermal shock, and
Chemically stable.
Shape memory alloys (SMAs) are one of the most well known types of smart
material and they have found extensive uses in the 70 years since their
discovery.
Fig 1.1. Change in structure associated with the shape memory effect.
1. Medical applications
particularly those used in key hole surgery may also be made from SMAs. These
tools are often bent to fit the geometry of a particular patient, however, in order
for them to be used again they return to a default shape upon sterilisation in an
autoclave.
Fig 1.3. This NiTi bone plated has been heat treated
such that the central part changes from its deformed
shape (top) to its memory shape (bottom) when
warmed with saline solution,
thus drawing the two ends of the fracture closer
together. The modulus of this material has also been
closely matched to that of human bone.
Fig 1.4. SMA wire has been used here to close the gap between two teeth. Two parallelograms of NiTi
wire are attached to the teeth using stainless steel brackets which are glued to the teeth (left). After
six months the gap between the teeth has decreased noticeably (right).
2. Domestic applications
SMAs can be used as actuators which exert a force associated with the shape
change, and this can be repeated over many thousands of cycles. Applications
include springs which are incorporated in to greenhouse windows such that
they open and close themselves at a given temperature. Along a similar theme
are pan lids which incorporate an SMA spring in the steam vent. When the
spring is heated by the boiling water in the pan it changes shape and opens
the vent, thus preventing the pan from boiling over and maintaining efficient
cooking. The springs are similar to those shown in Figure 1.5.
Fig 1.5. Showing the two memory shapes of a memory metal wire coil or 'spring'. In (a) the spring is
at room temperature and in (b) the higher temperature state has been activated by pouring on
boiling water.
3. Aerospace applications
A more high tech application is the use of SMA wire to control the flaps on the
trailing edge of aircraft wings. The flaps are currently controlled by extensive
hydraulic systems but these could be replaced by wires which are resistance
heated, by passing a current along them, to produce the desired shape change.
Such a system would be considerably simpler than the conventional hydraulics,
thus reducing maintenance and it would also decrease the weight of the system.
4. Manufacturing applications
SMA tubes can be used as couplings for connecting two tubes. The coupling
diameter is made slightly smaller than the tubes it is to join. The coupling is
deformed such that it slips over the tube ends and the temperature changed to
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activate the memory. The coupling tube shrinks to hold the two ends together
but can never fully transform so it exerts a constant force on the joined tubes.
The martensitic transformation that occurs in the shape memory alloys yields a
thermoelastic martensite and develops from a high-temperature austenite
phase with long-range order. The martensite typically occurs as alternately
sheared platelets, which are seen as a herringbone structure when viewed
metallographically. The transformation, although a first-order phase change,
does not occur at a single temperature but over a range of temperatures that
varies with each alloy system. The usual way of characterizing the
transformation and naming each point in the cycle is shown in Fig 1.6. Most of
the transformation occurs over a relatively narrow temperature range, although
the beginning and end of the transformation during heating or cooling actually
extends over a much larger temperature range. The transformation also exhibits
hysteresis in that the transformation on heating and on cooling does not overlap
(Fig 1.6). This transformation hysteresis (shown as T in Fig 1.6) varies with the
alloy system.
Fig 1.6. Typical transformation versus temperature curve for a specimen under constant load
(stress) as it is cooled and heated. T, transformation hysteresis. Ms, martensite start; Mf, martensite
finish; As, austenite start; Af, austenite finish
Note: In all the above mentioned cases the working principle is the same: the
applied magnetic field regulates the yield stress of the fluid and changes its
apparent viscosity. So the amount of dissipated energy of the system is simply
controllable by acting on the coil current and the system can provide semi-
active behavior.
Fig 1.8. Flow mode Fig 1.9. Shear Mode Fig 1.10 Squeeze Mode
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1. Easy to control.
2. Have higher magnitude of yield stress.
Although smart fluids are rightly seen as having many potential applications,
they are limited in commercial feasibility for the following reasons:
1. High density, due to presence of iron, makes them heavy.
2. High quality fluids are expensive.
3. Fluids are subject to thickening after prolonged use and need replacing.
4. Settling of ferro-particles can be a problem for some applications.
Fig 1.11 Single ended MR damper Fig 1.12 Double ended MR damper
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2. Rotary MR devices
The aim is to obtain a precise control of the braking torque (in case of
brakes) or transmitted torque (in case of clutches) with no moving parts by
simply varying the current in the coils.
In MR based brake, the magnetic flux path passes through the chassis and
the rotating disk and the fluid is sheared between these elements. The
braking force depends on the yield stress of the fluid making the system
controllable as shown in Fig 1.13.
In MR based clutch, the fluid is between the input disk and the output disk
and the amount of transmitted torque is proportional to the yield stress of
the fluid. No moving part are used to change the transmitted torque and the
torque value can be smoothly controlled through the coil current as shown
in Fig 1.14.
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Electrorheological (ER) fluids are fluids which exhibit fast and reversible
changes in their rheological properties under the influence of external electrical
fields. Electrorheological (ER) fluids are a class of smart materials exhibiting
significant reversible changes in their rheological and hence mechanical properties
under the influence of an applied electric field.
ER fluids commonly are composed of polarisable solid particles dispersed in
non conducting oil. Upon the imposition of external electric field, the particles are
polarized and form a chainlike structure along the direction of the field.
The change in apparent viscosity is dependent on the applied electric field,
i.e. the potential divided by the distance between the plates. The change is not a
simple change in viscosity, hence these fluids are now known as ER fluids, rather
than by the older term Electro Viscous fluids.
When activated an ER fluid behaves as a Bingham plastic (a type of
viscoelastic material), with a yield point which is determined by the electric field
strength. After the yield point is reached, the fluid shears as a fluid, i.e. the
incremental shear stress is proportional to the rate of shear (in a Newtonian fluid
there is no yield point and stress is directly proportional to shear). Hence, the
resistance to motion of the fluid can be controlled by adjusting the applied electric
field as shown in Fig 1.15.
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1. Clutch.
2. Brake and damping systems.
3. Actuators.
4. Fuel injections systems.
5. Joints and hands of robotic arms.
6. Photonic crystals.
7. Micro-switches.
8. Mechanical-electronic interfaces.
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1. Conductive Materials
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2. Absorptive Materials
Fig.1.20.Magnetic Circuits
All of them have a magnetic material of regular geometric shape called core.
A coil having a number of turns (= N) of conducting material (say copper)
are wound over the core is called the exciting coil. When no current flows
through the coil, we don’t expect any magnetic field or lines of forces to be
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present inside the core. However in presence of current in the coil, magnetic
flux φ will be produced within the core. The strength of the flux depends on
the product of number of turns (N) of the coil and the current (i) it carries.
The quantity Ni called mmf (magnetomotive force) can be thought as the
cause in order to produce an effect in the form of flux φ within the core.
After going through this topic we will be able to do the following.
1. Distinguish between a linear and non linear magnetic circuit.
2. Draw the equivalent electrical circuit for a given magnetic circuit problem.
3. Calculate mean lengths of various flux paths.
4. Calculate the reluctances of the various flux paths for linear magnetic
circuit problem.
5. Understand the importance of B-H characteristics of different materials.
6. How to deal with a non linear magnetic circuit problem using B-H
characteristic of the materials.
A magnetic circuit is made up of one or more closed loop paths containing
a magnetic flux. The flux is usually generated by permanent
magnets or electromagnets and confined to the path by magnetic
cores consisting of ferromagnetic materials like iron, although there may be
air gaps or other materials in the path. Magnetic circuits are employed to
efficiently channel magnetic fields in many devices such as electric
motors, generators, transformers, relays,lifting electromagnets, SQUIDs, galv
anometers, and magnetic recording heads.
The concept of a "magnetic circuit" exploits a one-to-one correspondence
between the equations of the magnetic field in an unsaturated ferromagnetic
material to that of an electrical circuit. Using this concept the magnetic fields
of complex devices such as transformers can be quickly solved using the
methods and techniques developed for electrical circuits.
Examples:
Horseshoe magnet with iron keeper (low-reluctance circuit)
Horseshoe magnet with no keeper (high-reluctance circuit)
Electric motor (variable-reluctance circuit)
1. Biot-Savart law
(1)
If the shape and dimensions of the conductor carrying current is known then
field at given point can be calculated by integrating the RHS of the above
equation.
(2)
Where, length indicates that the integration is to be carried out over the
length of the conductor. However, it is often not easy to evaluate the integral
for calculating field at any point due to any arbitrary shaped conductor. One
gets a nice closed form solution for few cases such as:
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(3)
For certain problems particularly in magnetic circuit problems Ampere’s
circuital law is used to calculate field instead of the more fundamental Biot
Savart law for reasons going to be explained below. Consider an infinite
straight conductor carrying current i and we want to calculate field at a
point situated at a distance d from the conductor. Now take the closed path
to be a circle of radius d. At any point on the circle the magnitude of field
strength will be constant and direction of the field will be tangential. Thus
LHS of the above equation simply becomes H × 2πd. So field strength is
(4)
Calculate the mean length lm of the flux path from the given geometry of
the magnetic circuit.
Apply Ampere’s circuital law to calculate H = NI / lm
Note, this H may be assumed to be same everywhere in the core.
Calculate the magnitude of the flux density B from the relation B = μoμrH.
Total flux within the core is φ = BA, where A is the cross sectional area of
the core.
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Module 2
Sensing and Actuation
Sensors and actuators are two critical components of every closed loop
control system. Such a system is also called a mechatronics system. A typical
mechatronics system as shown in Fig. 2.1 consists of a sensing unit, a
controller, and an actuating unit. A sensing unit can be as simple as a single
sensor or can consist of additional components such as filters, amplifiers,
modulators, and other signal conditioners. The controller accepts the
information from the sensing unit, makes decisions based on the control
algorithm, and outputs commands to the actuating unit. The actuating unit
consists of an actuator and optionally a power supply and a coupling
mechanism.
.
Fig 2.1.A Typical Mechatronics System
2.1 Sensors
Linear and rotational position sensors are two of the most fundamental of all
measurements used in a typical mechatronics system. In general, the position
sensors produce an electrical output that is proportional to the displacement
they experience. There are contact type sensors such as strain gage, LVDT,
RVDT, tachometer, etc. The noncontact type includes encoders, hall effect,
capacitance, inductance, and interferometer type. They can also be classified
based on the range of measurement. Usually the high-resolution type of sensors
such as Hall Effect, fiber optic inductance, capacitance, and strain gage are
suitable for only very small range (typically from 0.1 mm to 5 mm). The
differential transformers on the other hand, have a much larger range with good
resolution. Interferometer type sensors provide both very high resolution (in
terms of microns) and large range of measurements (typically up to a meter).
However, interferometer type sensors are bulky, expensive, and requires large
set up time.
Among many linear displacement sensors, strain gage provides high
resolution at low noise level and is least expensive. A typical resistance strain
gage consists of resistive foil arranged as shown in the Fig. 2.2. A typical setup to
measure the normal strain of a member loaded in tension is shown in Fig. 2.3.
Strain gage 1 is bonded to the loading member whereas strain gage 2 is bonded
to a second member made of same material, but not loaded. This arrangement
compensates for any temperature effect. When the member is loaded, the gage 1
elongates thereby changing the resistance of the gage. The change in resistance
is transformed into a change in voltage by the voltage sensitive wheatstone
bridge circuit. Assuming that the resistance of all four arms are equal initially,
the change in output voltage (Dvo) due to change in resistance (DR1) of gage 1 is
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Fig 2.2. Bonded Strain Gauge Fig 2.3. Experimental setup to measure using strain gauges.
2. Acceleration Sensors
Measurement of acceleration is important for systems subject to shock and
vibration. Although acceleration can be derived from the time history data
obtainable from linear or rotary sensors, the accelerometers whose output is
directly proportional to the acceleration is preferred. Two common types
include the seismic mass type and the piezoelectric accelerometer. The seismic
mass type accelerometer is based on the relative motion between a mass and
the supporting structure. The natural frequency of the seismic mass limits its
use to low to medium frequency applications. The piezoelectric accelerometer,
however, is compact and more suitable for high frequency applications.
4. Flow Sensors
Flow sensing is relatively a difficult task. The fluid medium can be liquid, gas, or
a mixture of the two. Furthermore, the flow could be laminar or turbulent and
can be a time-varying phenomenon. The venture meter and orifice plate restrict
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the flow and use the pressure difference to determine the flow rate. The pitot
tube pressure probe is another popular method of measuring flow rate. When
positioned against the flow, they measure the total and static pressures. The
flow velocity and in turn the flow rate can then be determined. The rotameter
and the turbine meters when placed in the flow path, rotate at a speed
proportional to the flow rate. The electromagnetic flow meters use noncontact
method. Magnetic field is applied in the transverse direction of the flow and the
fluid acts as the conductor to induce voltage proportional to the flow rate.
Ultrasonic flow meters measure fluid velocity by passing high-frequency sound
waves through fluid. A schematic diagram of the ultrasonic flow meter is as
shown in Fig. 2.4. The transmitters (T) provide the sound signal source. As the
wave travels towards the receivers (R), its velocity is influenced by the velocity
of the fluid flow due to the doppler effect. The control circuit compares the time
to interpret the flow rate. This can be used for very high flow rates and can also
be used for both upstream and downstream flow. The other advantage is that it
can be used for corrosive fluids, fluids with abrasive particles, as it is like a
noncontact sensor.
5. Temperature Sensors
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6. Proximity Sensors
They are used to sense the proximity of an object relative to another object.
They usually provide a on or off signal indicating the presence or absence of an
object. Inductance, capacitance, photoelectric, and hall effect types are widely
used as proximity sensors. Inductance proximity sensors consist of a coil wound
around a soft iron core. The inductance of the sensor changes when a ferrous
object is in its proximity. This change is converted to a voltage-triggered switch.
Capacitance types are similar to inductance except the proximity of an object
changes the gap and affects the capacitance. Photoelectric sensors are normally
aligned with an infrared light source. The proximity of a moving object
interrupts the light beam causing the voltage level to change. Hall effect voltage
is produced when a current-carrying conductor is exposed to a transverse
magnetic field. The voltage is proportional to transverse distance between the
hall effect sensor and an object in its proximity.
7. Light Sensors
Light intensity and full field vision are two important measurements used in
many control applications. Phototransistors, photoresistors , and photodiodes are
some of the more common type of light intensity sensors. A common
photoresistor is made of cadmium sulphide whose resistance is maximum when
the sensor is in dark. When the photoresistor is exposed to light, its resistance
drops in proportion to the intensity of light. When interfaced with a circuit as
shown in Fig. 2.5 and balanced, the change in light intensity will show up as
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change in voltage. These sensors are simple, reliable, and cheap, used widely for
measuring light intensity.
There are many new smart materials that are gaining more applications as
sensors, especially in distributed sensing circumstances. Of these, optic fibers,
piezoelectric, and magnetostrictive materials have found applications. Within
these, optic fibers are most used.
Optic fibers can be used to sense strain, liquid level, force, and temperature with
very high resolution. Since they are economical for use as in situ distributed
sensors on large areas, they have found numerous applications in smart
structure applications such as damage sensors, vibration sensors, and cure-
monitoring sensors. These sensors use the inherent material (glass and silica)
property of optical fiber to sense the environment. Figure 2.6 illustrates the
basic principle of operation of an embedded optic fiber used to sense
displacement, force, or temperature. The relative change in the transmitted
intensity or spectrum is proportional to the change in the sensed parameter.
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2.4 Actuators
Actuators are basically the muscle behind a mechatronics system that accepts a
control command (mostly in the form of an electrical signal) and produces a
change in the physical system by generating force, motion, heat, flow, etc.
Normally, the actuators are used in conjunction with the power supply and a
coupling mechanism as shown in Fig. 2.7.
The power unit provides either AC or DC power at the rated voltage and current.
The coupling mechanism acts as the interface between the actuator and the
physical system.
Typical mechanisms include rack and pinion, gear drive, belt drive, lead screw
and nut, piston, and linkages.
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1. Electrical Actuators
Electrical switches are the choice of actuators for most of the on-off type control
action. Switching devices such as diodes, transistors, triacs, MOSFET , and relays
accept a low energy level command signal from the controller and switch on or
off electrical devices such as motors, valves, and heating elements. For example,
a MOSFET switch is shown in Fig. 2.8. The gate terminal receives the low energy
control signal from the controller that makes or breaks the connection between
the power supply and the actuator load. When switches are used, the designer
must make sure that switch bounce problem is eliminated either by hardware or
software.
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2. Electromechanical Actuators
Where T is torque, J is the total inertia, ѡ is the angular mechanical speed of the
rotor, TL is the torque applied to the motor shaft, and Tloss is the internal
mechanical losses such as friction.
3. Electromagnetic Actuators
The solenoid is the most common electromagnetic actuator. A DC solenoid
actuator consists of a soft iron core enclosed within a current carrying coil.
When the coil is energized, a magnetic field is established that provides the
force to push or pull the iron core. AC solenoid devices are also encountered,
such as AC excitation relay.
A solenoid operated directional control valve is shown in Fig. 2.9. Normally, due
to the spring force, the soft iron core is pushed to the extreme left position as
shown. When the solenoid is excited, the soft iron core will move to the right
extreme position thus providing the electromagnetic actuation. Another
important type is the electromagnet. The electromagnets are used extensively in
applications that require large forces.
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Hydraulic and pneumatic actuators are normally either rotary motors or linear
piston/cylinder or control valves. They are ideally suited for generating very
large forces coupled with large motion. Pneumatic actuators use air under
pressure that is most suitable for low to medium force, short stroke, and high
speed applications. Hydraulic actuators use pressurized oil that is
incompressible. They can produce very large forces coupled with large motion
in a cost-effective manner. The disadvantage with the hydraulic actuators is that
they are more complex and need more maintenance. The rotary motors are
usually used in applications where low speed and high torque are required. The
cylinder/piston actuators are suited for application of linear motion such as
aircraft flap control. Control valves in the form of directional control valves are
used in conjunction with rotary motors and cylinders to control the fluid flow
direction as shown in Fig.2.9. In this solenoid operated directional control valve,
the valve position dictates the direction motion of the cylinder/piston
arrangement.
Shape Memory Alloys (SMA) are alloys of nickel and titanium that undergo
phase transformation when subjected to a thermal field. The SMAs are also
known as NITINOL for Nickel Titanium Naval Ordnance Laboratory. When
cooled below a critical temperature, their crystal structure enters martensitic
phase as shown in Fig. 2.10.
In this state the alloy is plastic and can easily be manipulated. When the alloy is
heated above the critical temperature (in the range of 50–80oC), the phase
changes to austenitic phase. Here the alloy resumes the shape that it formally
had at the higher temperature.
For example, a straight wire at room temperature can be made to regain its
programmed semicircle shape when heated that has found applications in
orthodontics and other tensioning devices. The wires are typically heated by
passing a current (up to several amperes), 0 at very low voltage (2–10 V
typical).
The PZT actuators are essentially piezocrystals with top and bottom conducting
films as shown in Fig. 2.11. When an electric voltage is applied across the two
conducting films, the crystal expands in the transverse direction as shown by
the dotted lines. When the voltage polarity is reversed, the crystal contracts
thereby providing bidirectional actuation.
The interaction between the mechanical and electrical behavior of the
piezoelectric materials can be expressed as:
T = cES – eE
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One application of these actuators is as shown in Fig. 2.12. The two piezoelectric
patches are excited with opposite polarity to create transverse vibration in the
cantilever beam. These actuators provide high bandwidth (0–10 kHz typical)
with small displacement. Since there are no moving parts to the actuator, it is
compact and ideally suited for micro and nano actuation. Unlike the
bidirectional actuation of piezoelectric actuators, the electrostriction effect is a
second-order effect, i.e., it responds to an electric field with unidirectional
expansion regardless of polarity.
magnetic fields. They are available in the form of rods, plates, washers, and
powder. Figure 2.13 shows a typical magnetostrictive rod actuator that is
surrounded by a magnetic coil. When the coil is excited, the rod elongates in
proportion to the intensity of the magnetic field established.
The magnetomechanical relationship is given as:
SH + d H
where, ε is the strain, SH the compliance at constant magnetic filed, ς the stress,
d the magnetostriction constant, and H the magnetic field intensity.
2.7 Magnet
It can be defined as a substance that can attract a metal or iron. This ability is
known as magnetism. Magnet has 2 poles which is north and south.
Magnet has a magnetic field around the magnet itself. Magnetic field is the force
around the magnet which can attract any magnetic material around it. The line
form around the magnet bar is magnetic field which is known as flux magnet as
shown in Fig.2.14.
The flux line of magnetic have a direction and pole. The direction of movement
outside of the magnetic field line is from north to south. The magnetic poles
(north & south) have the strongest magnetic field. It is basic law, in which
different poles will attract each other while the same magnetic poles will reject
each other. It can also be named as magnetic attraction and repulsion law.
The flux will form a complete loop and will never intersect with each other and
will be in smallest form possible as shown in Fig. 2.15.
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1. Pure Magnet
Pure magnet is a magic stone. The stone originally have the natural
magnetic and normally in a form of iron ore.
2. Manufacture Magnet
Two type of manufacture magnet which is permanent magnet and
temporary magnet.
a. The Permanent magnet is manufacture so it can kept its
magnetism. It can be obtained naturally or magnetic induction
and placing a magnet into a coil then supplied with high electrical
current. Normally it is used in speakers and metering devices.
2.8 Electromagnet
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A right handed screw is turn clock wise so that it moves forward in the same
direction as the current. The direction of screw rotation (clockwise)
indicates the direction of magnetic field from south to north.
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Analog signal processing is for signals that have not been digitized, as in
legacy radio, telephone, radar, and television systems. This involves linear
electronic circuits as well as non-linear ones. The former are, for
instance, passive filters, active filters, additive mixers, integrators and delay
lines. Non-linear circuits include compandors, multiplicators (frequency
mixers and voltage-controlled amplifiers), voltage-controlled filters, voltage-
controlled oscillators and phase-locked loops.
Continuous-time signal processing is for signals that vary with the change of
continuous domain (without considering some individual interrupted
points).
The methods of signal processing include time domain, frequency domain,
and complex frequency domain. This technology mainly discusses the
modeling of linear time-invariant continuous system, integral of the system's
zero-state response, setting up system function and the continuous time
filtering of deterministic signals
3. Discrete time signal processing
Discrete-time signal processing is for sampled signals, defined only at
discrete points in time, and as such are quantized in time, but not in
magnitude.
Analog discrete-time signal processing is a technology based on electronic
devices such as sample and hold circuits, analog time-
division multiplexers, analog delay lines and analog feedback shift registers.
This technology was a predecessor of digital signal processing (see below),
and is still used in advanced processing of gigahertz signals.
The concept of discrete-time signal processing also refers to a theoretical
discipline that establishes a mathematical basis for digital signal processing,
without taking quantization error into consideration.
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Module 3
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Light travels down a fiber-optic cable by bouncing repeatedly off the walls.
Each tiny photon (particle of light) bounces down the pipe like a bobsleigh
going down an ice run. Now you might expect a beam of light, traveling in a
clear glass pipe, simply to leak out of the edges. But if light hits glass at a
really shallow angle (less than 42 degrees), it reflects back in again—as
though the glass were really a mirror. This phenomenon is called total
internal reflection. It's one of the things that keeps light inside the pipe as
shown in Fig 3.2.
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The other thing that keeps light in the pipe is the structure of the cable,
which is made up of two separate parts. The main part of the cable—in the
middle—is called the core and that's the bit the light travels through.
Wrapped around the outside of the core is another layer of glass called
the cladding. The cladding's job is to keep the light signals inside the core. It
can do this because it is made of a different type of glass to the core as
shown in Fig.3.3.
3.2.1 Construction
An optical fiber consists of three basic concentric elements: the core, the
cladding and the outer coating (Fig.3.3). The core is usually made of glass
or plastic, although other materials are sometimes used, depending on
the transmission spectrum desired.
length of the fiber so that the light is transmitted down the fiber and does
not escape through the sidewalls. The coating usually comprises one or
more coats of a plastic material to protect the fiber from the physical
environment. Sometimes metallic sheaths are added to the coating for
further physical protection.
Optical fibers usually are specified by their size, given as the outer
diameter of the core, cladding and coating. For example, a 62.5/125/250
would refer to a fiber with a 62.5-µm diameter core, a 125-µm diameter
cladding and a 0.25-mm outer coating diameter.
Fig.3.4. A beam of light passing from one material to another of a different index of refraction
is bent or refracted at the interface.
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nI Sin I = nR SinR
Note: If the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle for the interface
(typically about 82° for optical fibers), the light is reflected back into the
incident medium without loss by a process known as total internal reflection
(Fig.3.5).
Fig.3.5. Total internal reflection allows light to remain inside the core of the fiber
Numerical Aperture
Numerical aperture (NA), shown in Fig.3.6, is the measure of maximum
angle at which light rays will enter and be conducted down the fiber. This
is represented by the following equation:
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Fig.3.6. Numerical aperture depends on the angle at which rays enter the fiber and on the
diameter of the fiber’s core.
Optical fibers carry light signals down them in what are called modes. That
sounds technical but it just means different ways of traveling: a mode is
simply the path that a light beam follows down the fiber. One mode is to go
straight down the middle of the fiber. Another is to bounce down the fiber at
a shallow angle. Other modes involve bouncing down the fiber at other
angles, more or less steep.
1. Single Mode
The simplest type of optical fiber is called single-mode. It has a very thin
core about 5-10 microns (millionths of a meter) in diameter. In a single-
mode fiber, all signals travel straight down the middle without bouncing off
the edges (Dark line in Fig. 3.4). Cable TV, Internet, and telephone signals are
generally carried by single-mode fibers, wrapped together into a huge
bundle. Cables like this can send information over 100 km (60 miles).
2. Multi-Mode
Each optical fiber in a multi-mode cable is about 10 times bigger than one in
a single-mode cable. This means light beams can travel through the core by
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Fig.3.5.Working of Multi-Mode
Example:
Even thicker fibers are used in a medical tool called a gastroscope (a type of endoscope),
which doctors poke down someone's throat for detecting illnesses inside their stomach. A
gastroscope is a thick fiber-optic cable consisting of many optical fibers. At the top end of a
gastroscope, there is an eyepiece and a lamp. The lamp shines its light down one part of the
cable into the patient's stomach. When the light reaches the stomach, it reflects off the
stomach walls into a lens at the bottom of the cable. Then it travels back up another part of
the cable into the doctor's eyepiece. Other types of endoscopes work the same way and can
be used to inspect different parts of the body. There is also an industrial version of the tool,
called a fiberscope, which can be used to examine things like inaccessible pieces of
machinery in airplane engines.
1. Computer Networks
Fiber-optic cables are now the main way of carrying information over long
distances because they have three very big advantages over old-style copper
cables:
Less attenuation: (signal loss) Information travels roughly 10 times
further before it needs amplifying—which makes fiber networks
simpler and cheaper to operate and maintain.
No interference: Unlike with copper cables, there's no "crosstalk"
(electromagnetic interference) between optical fibers, so they
transmit information more reliably with better signal quality
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2. Medicine
Medical gadgets that could help doctors peer inside our bodies without
cutting them open were the first proper application of fiber optics over a half
century ago. Today, gastroscopes (as these things are called) are just as
important as ever, but fiber optics continues to spawn important new forms
of medical scanning and diagnosis.
3. Military
expensive copper metal. Tanks, military airplanes, and helicopters have all
been slowly switching from metal cables to fiber-optic ones. Partly it's a
matter of cutting costs and saving weight (fiber-optic cables weigh nearly 90
percent less than comparable "twisted-pair" copper cables). But it also
improves reliability; for example, unlike traditional cables on an airplane,
which have to be carefully shielded (insulated) to protect them against
lightning strikes, optical fibers are completely immune to that kind of
problem as shown in Fig.3.6.
4. Broadcasting
Back in the early 20th century, radio and TV broadcasting was born from a
relatively simple idea. Cable TV companies pioneered the transition from the
1950s onward, originally using co-axial cables (copper cables with a sheath
of metal screening wrapped around them to prevents crosstalk
interference), which carried just a handful of analog TV signals. As more and
more people connected to cable and the networks started to offer greater
choice of channels and programs, cable operators found they needed to
switch from coaxial cables to optical fibers and from analog to
digital broadcasting. Apart from offering much higher capacity, optical fibers
suffer less from interference, so offer better signal (picture and sound)
quality; they need less amplification to boost signals so they travel over long
distances; and they're altogether more cost effective. In the future, fiber
broadband may well be how most of us watch television, perhaps through
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Turbulence control methods have been developed under the assumption that
the turbulence production cycle could be favorably altered, stabilized, or
reduced in intensity by the manipulation and alteration of low-speed streaks,
quasi-streamwise vortices, the viscous sub layer, or the hairpin-like structures
that populate the near-wall region.
In this work two possible actuation principles for the active skin that can
achieve a surface traveling wave are discussed. The first actuation principle is
depicted as a free body diagram in Fig.3.7. Consider a long plate subjected to
equally spaced external moments that are equal in value but alternate in sign.
This loading pattern can generate a static wave profile, from which a traveling
wave can be realized by shifting the points of application of the moments. The
moment can be realized either by the application of equal and opposite forces
(couple) at those points or by unbalanced lateral forces separated by a lever
arm.
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The appropriate boundary conditions for the Unit Cell would therefore be
Symmetry conditions at the ends
Zero deflection for the point in the middle of the Unit Cell
Note: Ma and Mb are the boundary conditions for the Unit Cell that need to be solved for and are
not the externally applied moments. In the free body diagram of the Unit Cell for the force
based actuation technique, the forces at the ends are half the values of the actual forces at these
points since the effect of these forces are equally shared by two adjoining Unit Cells.
Three different active skin designs that would be capable of creating a traveling
wave form profile using either of the actuation principles have been
considered.
Fig.3.10 presents a cross section and a top view of the first skin design in its
non-actuated state. This design works on the principle of moment based
actuation. The moments that bend the skin are created by lateral forces that
act on the skin through “legs” that are attached to the top surface of the skin.
The legs can slide (left and right) with respect to the bottom surface (which
is the surface attached to the vehicle) while the upper surface is exposed to
the flow. The “legs” are actuated in a manner that induces rotation of the
legs, which in turn results in a deformation of the top surface. When the legs
are actuated in a coordinated manner it results in a wavy deformation
pattern on the upper surface. This coordinated leg actuation/rotation can be
achieved as described below.
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A Shape Memory Alloy (SMA) wire runs through the “legs”, through small
holes on their sidewalls. The direction of the SMA wire is in the spanwise
direction, while the major dimension of the “legs” is along the streamwise
direction. Within each “leg” a circular flat disk is attached to the SMA wire,
with its diameter significantly larger than the diameter of the holes on the
sidewalls of the “legs”. Each SMA-disk joint is electrically connected to the
electrical control circuit, and is powered independently. When a voltage
difference is applied between the leftmost (“joint 1”) and the rightmost SMA-
disk (“joint 5”) joints in Fig.3.10, the negative strain induced in the SMA (on
account of the wire contracting) will cause the disks of joints 1 and 5 to
contact the walls of legs 1 and 5 thus transferring to them the load generated
by the SMA.
Fig.3.10. Cross section and top view of SMA actuated active skin
that the loading takes place at discrete points. But it is assumed that the
deviation would be negligible if the SMA actuators were placed in relatively
small intervals in the streamwise direction.
Fig.3.11. Resulting waveform after actuating SMA sections between legs 1 and 5 and
between legs 9 and 13
A third skin design is shown in Fig.3.13. This design works on the force
based actuation principle. In this design the “legs” are replaced by linear
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Fig.3.13. Skin design with linear piezoceramic stack actuators oriented perpendicular to the
skin.
Fig.3.14. uniform waves of starlight reach Earth they distort due to the temperature
variations in atmospheric cells.
As uniform waves of starlight reach Earth they distort due to the
temperature variations in atmospheric cells. As light travels slightly faster in
less dense warm air, the resultant refraction is non-uniform. This accounts
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for the 'twinkling' of stars when seen from Earth's surface. The Fig.3.15
below shows how what should effectively be a point source from a distant
star is smeared out due to turbulence. Adaptive optics compensates for this,
resulting in a much sharper stellar image as seen on the right.
Fig.3.15. point source from a distant star is smeared out due to turbulence
Adaptive optics systems operate at high frequencies, typically about 1000
Hz. This is too fast for altering a primary mirror so adaptive optic systems
are designed to act via the secondary mirror and additional optical elements
placed in the light path. The need for high speed computer calculations and
special deformable mirrors means that AO is a relatively new field of
development in astronomy. Rapid progress in developing the technology for
telescope use occurred following the end of the Cold War when much of the
military technology for AO systems was declassified.
A schematic of how adaptive optics systems, like Altair on Gemini North,
works to correct distorted starlight is shown in Fig.3.16 & 3.17.
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Vital to all is the need for powerful, fast computer processing and modelling
of the incoming waveforms. Systems either rely on a bright reference star
within the field of view (which is surprisingly hard to find given the narrow
field of view in many large telescopes) or they produce an artificial reference
star using a laser.
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Module 4
Acoustics and Controls
Most sounds that you hear throughout the day are radiated by
vibrating structures. Walls and windows radiate sound into your house and
office building. Windows radiate sound into your automobile, or into other
vehicles, like buses, trains, and airplanes. The cones on the speakers of your
stereo are vibrating structures that radiate sound into the air around you.
However, these structures are usually not the original sources of the sounds
you hear.
For example, the walls and windows in your house are driven by
acoustic pressure waves caused by passing vehicles, noisy neighbors (often
with loud lawn and garden equipment such as leaf blowers), or by the wind
through the trees. The pressures impinge on your windows, which in turn
vibrate and pass some of the incident sound through to the interior.
In airplanes and high-speed trains, tiny pressure waves within
turbulence outside the vehicles drive the walls, which then vibrate and
radiate sound. There are, of course, many other sources of vibration and the
subsequent sound that we hear. Although often the sounds radiated by
vibrating structures are annoying (your neighbor’s leaf blower), sometimes
they are pleasing, like the sounds radiated by musical instruments. Pianos,
violins, guitars, brass instruments, and the air within and around them are
complex structural-acoustic systems.
The sound from musical instruments (including the human voice) is
often reproduced by audio equipment, such as CD players, amplifiers, and
speakers. Speakers, with their multiple pulsating pistons mounted on the
surfaces of boxes filled with air, are also very complex structural-acoustic
systems, and engineers working for speaker companies spend entire careers
trying to design systems that reproduce input signals exactly.
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Structural materials, like metals, plastics, and rubbers, deform in ways far
more complicated than air or water. This is because of one simple fact:
structural materials can resist shear deformation, and fluids cannot. This
means that both dilatational (and compressive) and shear waves can co-
exist in structures. Most structures have one or two dimensions that are very
small with respect to internal wavelengths. We call these structures plates
and beams, and they vibrate flexuraly as flexural waves are dispersive,
which means that their wave speeds increase with increasing frequency.
Dispersive waves are odd to those not familiar with structural
vibrations. Imagine a long plate with two transverse sources at one end
which excite flexural waves in the plate. One source drives the plate at a low
frequency, while the other vibrates at a high frequency. The sources are
turned on at the same time, and somehow the high frequency wave arrives
at the other end of the plate faster than the low frequency wave.
The simplest structural waves are those that deform an infinite
material longitudinally and transversely. Longitudinal waves, sometimes
called compressional waves, expand and contract structures in the same way
acoustic waves deform fluids.
The wave equation and sound speed for a longitudinal wave traveling
in the x direction are:
(1)
(2)
The bulk modulus relates the amount of volumetric contraction (per unit
volume) to an applied pressure:
(3)
Low volumetric changes mean stiffer structures, and faster compressional
waves.
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For audible frequencies, and for most practical structures, one or two
geometric dimensions are small with respect to a wavelength. As a
longitudinal wave expands or contracts a beam or plate in its direction of
propagation, the walls of the structure contract and expand transversely due
to the Poisson effect, as shown in Fig.4.1.
The Poisson’s ratio, which relates in and out of plane strain deformations
according to:
(4)
(5)
(6)
Where cl is defined not by the Bulk Modulus, but by the Young’s Modulus E,
which is related to the volumetric Bulk Modulus according to:
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(7)
For a typical Poisson’s ratio of 0.3, longitudinal wave speeds in plates and
beams are 90% and 86% of those in infinite structural media, respectively.
(8)
For Shear waves, which travel at the speed are slower than longitudinal
waves, since a structure’s shear modulus is smaller than its Bulk and Young’s
Moduli.
(9)
The shear modulus G is related to E and Poisson’s ratio according to:
(10)
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The wave equation and wave speed for flexure in thin beams are:
(11)
(12)
Note: the wave speed does not appear explicitly in the flexural wave
equation, and it depends on frequency
The first control systems were analogue and were later digitalised. In a
perfect situation with no errors Y = X G, but this is not true in real life
because of errors and energy conversion as shown in Fig.4.4.
The concept of a digital feedback control was coin which feedbacks informed
the controller about the errors in the out and some measured were taken by
the controller to address the errors. Errors in the output means the targeted
output will not either be reached or surpass as shown in Fig.4.5.
There are generally two types of feedback controls – (i) negative and (ii)
positive digital feedback controls.
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digital control is one with no errors in the loop; when the systems output is
equal to the targeted output as shown in Fig.4.6.
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shorter the settling time, the better performance the controller will have as
shown in Fig.4.7.
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Module 5
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Modal analysis is the field of measuring and analysing the dynamic response
of structures and or fluids during excitation. Examples would include
measuring the vibration of a car's body when it is attached to
an electromagnetic shaker, or the noise pattern in a room when excited by a
loudspeaker. Modern day modal analysis systems are composed of
1)sensors such as transducers (typically accelerometers, load cells), or non
contact via a Laser vibrometer, or stereo photogrammetric cameras 2) data
acquisition system and an analog-to-digital converter frontend
(to digitize analog instrumentation signals) and 3) host PC (personal
computer) to view the data and analyze it.
Classically this was done with a SIMO (single-input, multiple-output)
approach, that is, one excitation point, and then the response is measured at
many other points. In the past a hammer survey, using a fixed accelerometer
and a roving hammer as excitation, gave a MISO (multiple-input, single-
output) analysis, which is mathematically identical to SIMO, due to the
principle of reciprocity. In recent years MIMO (multi-input, multiple-output)
have become more practical, where partial coherence analysis identifies
which part of the response comes from which excitation source. Using
multiple shakers leads to a uniform distribution of the energy over the entire
structure and a better coherence in the measurement. A single shaker may
not effectively excite all the modes of a structure.[1]
Typical excitation signals can be classed as impulse, broadband, swept sine,
chirp, and possibly others. Each has its own advantages and disadvantages.
The analysis of the signals typically relies on Fourier analysis. The
resulting transfer function will show one or more resonances, whose
characteristic mass, frequency and damping can be estimated from the
measurements.
The animated display of the mode shape is very useful to NVH (noise,
vibration, and harshness) engineers.
The results can also be used to correlate with finite element analysis normal
mode solutions.
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The shape memory effect is the ability of some alloys to remember, and
return to, the form which they had at one temperature after being plastically
deformed into another shape at a lower temperature. This property can be
exploited in many ways, for example, in actuators controlled by heat.Devices
based on shape memory alloys are being developed in fields as far apart as
astronautics and medicine. In order for an alloy to have the shape-memory
property, it must undergo what is called a martensitic transition. This
derives its name from a change in crystal structure when steel is cooled
rapidly to form so-called martensite, which has a variety of characteristic
microstructures.
The transition involves small displacements, or slips, between planes of
atoms in the crystal at a certain temperature. The shape memory alloy is
first formed at a temperature above that of the transition and then deformed
below it. The memory arises because residual stresses in the structure
introduced during the forming process, influence which slips then occur in
the martensitic transformation, and thus which variants of the martensitic
phase are present at the lower temperature. Shape memory alloys scatter
neutrons very effectively, so neutrons are an almost ideal probe with which
to view the martensitic transformation at a microstructural level. Neutron
diffraction can follow the evolution of different martensite variants as the
temperature is changed.
Magnetism:
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Fig.5.9. A 3D representation of the neutron scattering peaks as the crystal of the ferromagnetic
shape memory alloy is cooled through the martensitic transition
1. Actuators
The magnetic shape memory effect can be used for designing actuators
shown in Fig.5.10 where the element elongates based on the presence of a
magnetic field. The elongation can be reversed fully either by the application
of a magnetic field at 90° to the original field, or more effectively by use of a
spring. The change in shape is very quick and cycle times of 1 to 2 kHz have
been shown. During fatigue life testing several million cycles have been
achieved.
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2. Breaker Switch/Fuse
The thermal shape memory property whereby the material elongates more
above 70°C can be used as a safety cut-out. If a safe working temperature is
exceeded, there is further extension cutting the magnetic field generation.
This additional elongation can be reversed fully and below 70°C, normal
functioning of the actuator is observed.
3. Energy Harvestors
4. Vibration Dampers
The same properties used to create energy harvesters can also be used to
dampen mechanical vibration.
5. Sensors
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Data reliability is a state that exists when data is sufficiently complete and
error free to be convincing for its purpose and context. In addition to being
reliable, data must also meet other tests for evidence.
Computer-processed data must meet evidence standards before it can support a
finding:
1. Relevance
Relevant if it has a logical, sensible relationship to the finding it supports. What
data is relevant to answering an audit objective is usually self-evident, presuming
a precise objective written as a question. Timeliness (the age of the evidence)
must be considered, as outdated data is considered irrelevant. As a result,
relevance is closely tied to the scope of the audit work, which establishes what
time period will be covered. Data is relevant if they have a logical, sensible
relationship to the overall audit objective in terms of:
the audit subject
the aspect of performance being examined
the finding element to which the evidence pertains, and
the time period of the issue being audited
2. Sufficient
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3. Competant
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2. Data analysis
For science or engineering, the terms data processing and information
systems are considered too broad, and the more specialized term data
analysis is typically used. Data analysis uses specialized and
precise algorithms and statistical calculations that are less often observed in
a typical general business environment. For data analysis, softwares
like SPSS or SAS, or their free counterparts such as DAP, gretl or PSPP are
often used.
Fig.5.11.Components of MEMS
Microsensors detect changes in the system’s environment by measuring
mechanical, thermal, magnetic, chemical or electromagnetic information or
phenomena.
Microelectronics process this information and signal the microactuators to
react and create some form of changes to the environment.
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MEMS devices are very small and are usually microscopic as Levers, gears,
pistons, as well as motors and even steam engines have all been fabricated
by MEMS as shown in Fig.5.12. MEMS is not just about the miniaturization of
mechanical components or making things out of silicon, it is a manufacturing
technology; a paradigm for designing and creating complex mechanical
devices and systems as well as their integrated electronics using batch
fabrication techniques.
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5.7.6 Miniaturization
1. Photolithography
Fig.5.15.Photolithography Principle
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(a) Substrates
The most common substrate material for micromachining is silicon. It
has been successful in the microelectronics industry and will continue to
be in areas of miniaturization for several reasons:
Silicon is abundant, inexpensive, and can be processed to
unparalleled purity.
Silicon’s ability to be deposited in thin films is very amenable to
MEMS.
High definition and reproduction of silicon device shapes using
photolithography are perfect for high levels of MEMS precision.
Silicon microelectronics circuits are batch fabricated.
(b) Additive Films and Materials
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The range of additive films and materials for MEMS devices is much
larger than the types of possible substrates and includes conductors,
semiconductors and insulators such as:
Silicon - single crystal, polycrystalline and amorphous.
Silicon compounds (SixNy, SiO2, SiC etc.).
Metals and metallic compounds (Au, Cu, Al, ZnO, GaAs, IrOx, CdS).
Ceramics (Al203 and more complex ceramic compounds).
Organics (diamond, polymers, enzymes, antibodies, DNA etc.).
3. Bulk Micromachining
Fig.5.16.Wet etching
(b) Dry Etching
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4. Surface Micromachining
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5. Fusion bonding
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6. High-Aspect-Ratio Micromachining
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7. Laser Micromachining
The laser micromachining (LMM) equipment can be used for engraving and
creating micro-features in metallic substrates. The parts to be removed are
locally vaporized using Nd: YAG laser and that vapor can be sucked with a
vacuum pump.
Upon irradiation by a light beam with a high energy density, materials are
immediately melted or vaporized as shown in Fig.5.21. This is how laser can
effectively machine hard materials like diamond, glass and ceramic. Laser
irradiation of a medium may cause varying thermal effects from simple
heating to melting, evaporation, or ionization of the material. For high power
laser processing, all of these phenomena occur almost simultaneously.
A Neutral network is a set of genes all related by point mutations that have
equivalent function or fitness. Each node represents a gene sequence and
each line represents the mutation connecting two sequences. Neutral
networks can be thought of as high, flat plateaus in a fitness landscape.
During neutral evolution, genes can randomly move through neutral
networks and traverse regions of sequence space which may have
consequences for robustness and evolvability.
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Example: A neural network for handwriting recognition is defined by a set of input neurons
which may be activated by the pixels of an input image. After being weighted and
transformed by a function (determined by the network's designer), the activations of these
neurons are then passed on to other neurons. This process is repeated until finally, the
output neuron that determines which character was read is activated.
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