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Southeast Asian vegetable production – a vision for the future.

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Southeast Asian vegetable production
– a vision for the future
Hughes, J. d’A.1, Holmer, R.J.2 and Keatinge, J.D.H.1
1
AVRDC – THE WORLD VEGETABLE CENTER, SHANHUA, TAINAN, TAIWAN
2
AVRDC – THE WORLD VEGETABLE CENTER, EAST AND SOUTHEAST ASIA, BANGKOK, THAILAND
Email: jackie.hughes@worldveg.org

ABSTRACT
Global production of common and traditional vegetables is steadily increasing, and
traditional vegetables in particular are attracting the attention of farmers, researchers,
policy makers and the public. Nonetheless, many factors constrain vegetable
production, including climate change and extreme climatic events, increased
urbanization and pressure on arable land, ever-present pests and diseases, an aging
farming population, and adverse policies toward horticulture. Families must have
year-round access to affordable and nutritious food for a balanced, healthy diet, which
must include vegetables as a source of many micronutrients. Southeast Asia must
maximize crop productivity while minimizing losses, wastage and the overall impact
on the environment. Solutions to improve productivity, profitability, and human
nutrition include expansion and mechanization of protected agriculture, better
production and environmentally sensitive management technologies, investment in
research to support traditional vegetables, improving all elements along the vegetable
value chain, better engagement of the private sector (including postharvest value
addition, food preservation technologies, and more efficient marketing performance),
better information flow and management, and improved business skills, particularly
for small-scale growers, distributors and marketers. Future initiatives to increase
production must also emphasize consumer education to raise awareness about the
value of vegetables for a well-balanced, healthy diet for all family members.

Keywords
Healthy diets, production, post-harvest, wastage, future perspective

FUTURE CONSTRAINTS TO PRODUCTION

Production of common (global) and traditional vegetables worldwide is steadily
increasing, and traditional vegetables in particular are attracting enhanced attention
from farmers, researchers, policy makers and consumers. However, it is unfortunate
that national governments and international donors are not yet showing sufficient
investment in research and development for horticulture—a field which significantly
contributes to several dimensions of the post-2015 global development agenda
(Keatinge et al. 2011a; Sustainable Development Solutions Network 2013). Families
must have year-round access to affordable and nutritious food for a balanced, healthy
diet, which must include vegetables as a source of many micronutrients, vitamins and
dietary fiber (Hughes and Keatinge 2013). However, present levels of vegetable
production in Southeast Asia are not sufficient to achieve this goal. Production levels
in the 10 member states of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) plus
Timor-Leste reached 34.2 million tons in 2012, out of which 1.3 million tons were
exported and an estimated 2.7 million tons were lost during postharvest and marketing
processes (FAOSTAT 2014). A further 2.4 million tons were imported into the region
resulting in 32.6 million tons of vegetables available for consumption by a total of
582 million people, which corresponds to an annual average regional per capita intake

Sustaining Small-Scale Vegetable Production and Marketing Systems for Food and Nutrition Security 1
 of 56 kg versus the recommended minimum intake of 146 kg of vegetables and fruits
per capita and year by the World Health Organization and Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations (WHO & FAO 2005). Annual vegetable per
capita intakes, however, vary considerably among countries, from 154.7 kg in Lao
PDR to 33.7 kg in Cambodia and 24.5 kg in Timor-Leste, respectively (FAOSTAT
2014).
With the advent of the ASEAN Economic Community in 2015, the region
now must seek to maximize crop productivity and profitability to ensure sufficient
supply of health-promoting vegetables for its populace while minimizing losses,
wastage and the overall impact of horticultural activities that may impinge upon the
sustainability and resilience of the environment (Holmer 2011).
Many factors currently constrain vegetable production, including climate
change and extreme climatic events, increased urbanization and pressure on arable
land, pests and diseases, an aging farming population, and adverse policies toward
horticulture. Abiotic stresses may have an increasingly potent effect on vegetable
production as horticultural crops are often vulnerable to extreme events of wind and
rain, and global vegetables such as tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) and sweet pepper
(Capsicum spp.) are sensitive to heat damage, waterlogging, drought and increasing
salinity through their individual or combined effects on flowering and fruit set
(Keatinge et al. 2011b). Rising trends in abiotic stresses imposed on horticultural
crops may be inferred to be increasing rapidly in East Asia (Keatinge et al. 2012a),
which will have significant effects on crop production. Biotic stresses are also
expected to respond to these predicted changes in air temperature, precipitation
regime and within-canopy relative humidity, perhaps more rapidly than the general
public and policy makers would expect. For example, the incidence and severity of
bacterial and fungal pathogens responsible for major epidemic diseases in vegetables
such as late blight (Phytophthora infestans), bacterial and Fusarium wilts (Ralstonia
solanacearum and Fusarium oxysporum) are likely to change, probably becoming
more severe, as temperature and rainfall levels increase (Keatinge et al. 2012a).
The incidence and severity of diseases caused by plant viruses is likely to
increase as their vectors become more numerous and more mobile as a result of
increased temperatures. Changing temperatures may also expand the distribution of
viruses, and new viruses may become important in crops in warming areas. For
example, begomoviruses, which infect and cause severe damage to a wide range of
horticultural crops, are likely to become an even more serious constraint to vegetable
production as the number of generations per year of whiteflies (their principal vector,
Bemisia tabaci) increases with warmer temperatures (Hanson et al. 2011). Additional
generations of other highly damaging insect species such as the pod, fruit and shoot
borers (e.g. Leucinoides spp., Maruca spp., and Helicoverpa spp.) may also
potentially mean greater crop losses or additional misuse of insecticides—already a
severe challenge to the safety of vegetables sold in the markets of Southeast Asia that
should not be further exacerbated (Weinberger and Srinivasan 2009; Srinivasan 2012;
Schreinemachers et al. 2012). In addition to the damaging effects of pests and
diseases, the effects of a changing climate on pest natural enemies (e.g. Wolbachia
and Buchnera endosymbionts, two of the major groups of parasitoids or hosts
endosymbionts) and on pollinators are also likely to be severe (Gutierrez et al. 2008;
Hance et al. 2006).
As Asian populations are scheduled to increase markedly in the next 25-50
years and the Asian farming population seems to be starting to follow the Americas
and Europe with a decreasing trend in the size of the agriculturally active population,

2 SEAVEG2014: Families, Farms, Food

and with a higher and higher proportion of the overall population living in urban
areas, horticultural activities, particularly those in the peri-urban fringes, will need to
cope with much greater pressures on land availability, the need for much higher,
better quality and consistent supply of vegetables to markets in the face of an
inexorably aging rural farming population and rapidly increasing land prices
(Midmore and Jansen 2003; Alexandratos and Bruinsma 2012). The predicted
decrease in rural populations, increasing pressure on urban land and the potential
misuse of resources and inputs are constraints that must be overcome, but this will be
a continuing challenge given the continuing and new pressures being placed on the
horticultural industry (Schreinemachers et al. 2012).

ACHIEVING AN EFFECTIVE HORTICULTURAL FUTURE

1. It will be necessary to seek measures to increase vegetable quality/nutrient density,
productivity and cropping intensity per unit of land and labor. Davis and Riordan
(2004) have reported falling nutrient quality in a wide range of temperate vegetables
bred and produced in the USA since 1950. Seed companies have been breeding for
more rewarding characteristics such as appearance and long shelf life, often at the
expense of nutritional content and taste. This trend must be reversed, and consumers
must be knowledgeable and willing to demand produce with better nutritional content
and good taste, rather than unblemished, uniformly shaped and highly colored
vegetables if world malnutrition issues are to be addressed through better balanced
diets. A greater use of traditional green leafy vegetables and legume/pulse-type
vegetables in the future would be sensible as many of these are highly nutrient-dense
(Hughes and Keatinge 2013; Yang et al. 2007). The need for greater intensity of use
of land and a reduction in the use of toxic inputs such as pesticides, or risk of
contaminating groundwater with fertilizer runoff suggests a further rapid expansion of
rain shelter, screenhouse and glass/plastic house production, with a need for both
more skilled labor and greater mechanization in the production of vegetable crops (Jat
et al. 2011).
The current relatively restricted use of grafting for solanaceous and
cucurbitaceous crops will need a substantive novel research effort if the large
potential benefits to be derived from avoidance of soil-borne diseases, excessive
salinity and waterlogging is to be gained. The range of rootstocks conferring
resistance to bacterial wilt and root-knot nematodes must be expanded to ensure the
resistance is not overcome by pests and pathogens. It may also be possible to exploit
grafting multiple scions onto a single rootstock or graft annual plants onto perennial
rootstocks; adaptive research is required but proof of concept is already available.
Likewise, supergrafting, in which two crops such as tomato and potato can be
produced simultaneously, are novelties whose commercial exploitation is feasible, as
are multiple apple or citrus scion grafts onto one apple or citrus rootstock (Fruit Salad
Tree 2012). Opportunities to exploit these possibilities with vegetable crops must still
be explored. AVRDC holds the world’s largest collection of tropical solananceous
plants, and a wide range of Cucurbitaceae in its genebank which will be explored as
an opportunity for grafting research, as the potential for enhanced productivity is
substantial (Ebert 2011).

2. It will require a substantive reduction in crop losses in both the pre- and
postharvest elements of the vegetable market chain. This will require the adoption of
careful, appropriate harvesting practices and procedures, with produce sorting and
collection at the farm gate. Harvesting at cooler times of the day and rapid cooling of

Sustaining Small-Scale Vegetable Production and Marketing Systems for Food and Nutrition Security 3
 many vegetable crops is the key to effective postharvest handling and quality
maintenance (Kader 2013) to minimize the crop losses of 17-42% reported by
Bautista (2001) from Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, Vietnam and the Philippines.
This cooling needs to be maintained along the complete market chain. In all cases
sanitary measures should be mandatory to ensure wholesome produce at the market
and food safety. Proper marketing and care of the products while on sale and
ensuring that the product is attractive and safe for the consumer to buy and eat is
required. Better understanding of the need for a clear link between vegetable
production and industrial processing and the adoption of simple or suitable
postharvest technologies such as solar drying, freeze drying, freezing, canning,
bottling, waxing, and modified atmosphere packaging is required (Kitinoja et al.
2011; Saran et al. 2012).

3. It will require the human population to seek effective ways of reducing presently
excessive levels of food wastage, of understanding the need for a balanced diet to
obtain and maintain good health and to adopt ways of vegetable processing and
cooking that maximizes the bioavailability of the essential vitamins and minerals
present in vegetable crops (Keatinge et al. 2012b, Teng and Trethewie 2012). Food
wastage remains an unsolved issue today with wastage occurring at the
producer/farmer, at market, in the supermarkets, in restaurants and hotels, and in the
home.
One technological solution to reduce waste and increase shelf/refrigerator life
is through irradiation. Gamma irradiation can be used to eliminate harmful bacteria,
potentially retard unwanted product maturation, extends shelf life and reduces
spoilage. This technology is employed on 500,000 t of global food products annually
and is accepted in around 50 countries (Farkas et al. 2011; Kume et al. 2009). As
vegetable shelf life can be increased 3-5 times by gamma irradiation, this technology
needs to be considered and introduced more widely in Southeast Asia. Brazil is
currently a leader in this technology, some South Asian countries also accept some
irradiated products and thus there should be no major impediment to its introduction
into Southeast Asian countries other than the need for better consumer education and
understanding.

4. More information, better business skills and job creation will be needed. While
production of vegetables is a widely promoted activity, production of quality
vegetables is a knowledge-intensive occupation. Information is required to ensure
farmers use the most adapted varieties of vegetables, that they are aware of the most
appropriate production technologies (e.g. rain shelters, glasshouses, integrated pest
management) and the optimum methods to ensure their produce reaches the market in
good condition. Business skills for vegetable production increases profitability and
minimizes losses and wastage. Better information for farmers results in increased
bargaining skills to get produce from the farm to the market at the right time for
increased profitability. The increased marketing information flow will also reduce the
opportunities for cheating or excessive profiteering by middlemen. It can also
minimize risk for farmers by enabling them to locate forwards sales contract
opportunities.
Further consumer education measures need to be actively pursued amongst
householders, particularly women who need to be further empowered with knowledge
so that they understand the need for good nutrition for all members of their family
from the very young to the very old, as well as other vulnerable members of the

4 SEAVEG2014: Families, Farms, Food

community. Likewise, they need to know how to grow and cook vegetables
appropriately and in what combinations (Oluoch et al. 2012) so that they can
maximize nutrient bioavailability and directly help abolish malnutrition amongst their
family, friends and relatives (Keatinge 2013).

5. Vegetables and their products must be of better quality. The use of Good
Agricultural Practices (GAP) such as those published by the Secretariat of the
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN 2006) in the field or greenhouse,
with careful harvesting, sanitary preparation for the market, proper marketing and
care of the produce will result in safe, high quality, and attractive products for the
consumer. There are many different consumer target groups: the household, the rural
wet market, urban wet markets, and supermarkets. Within these consumer groups
there are opportunities for niche markets of traditional vegetables, provided seed of
preferred varieties are available to farmers and that the produce can reach the market
efficiently and effectively. Many traditional vegetables are leafy, green vegetables –
these are a challenge for transport to market as they are particularly prone to wilting
and loss of quality and also due to the concurrent loss in weight, bring in less profit.
Vegetables can also be sold as pre-packed washed and prepared vegetables which
meet the needs of busy urban households. Vegetables can also be grown organically,
often with a premium price tag as organic produce, but similarly village or community
quality labels can be used to convey the focus on food safety. There are also many
opportunities for processing and adding value, ensuring that vegetables (and their
nutritional content) remain available throughout the year.

6. Solutions to improve productivity, profitability, food safety and human nutrition

are required. This may include intensive production, with potentially considerable
expansion and mechanization of protected agriculture. Traditional technologies of rain
shelters, greenhouses and net housing (at the likely expense of open field-style
production) must be expanded, but should also include ways in which energy,
nutrients, and water-use efficiency can be achieved. For example, with the next
generation of more efficient, and probably cheaper, solar cells could be built into
greenhouse design to cope with local power needs for mechanized heating, cooling
and controlled fertigation (Jat et al. 2011). Also, the wide availability of robust, but
with very fine grade mesh, net-housing capable of excluding all undesirable insects
including whiteflies and thrips, as well as pod, fruit and shoot borers. This protected
cultivation will greatly increase the quantity of marketable vegetables and increase
their wholesomeness by largely eliminating pesticide residues (Sidhu et al. 2013). A
parallel reduction in soil-based plant delivery systems in controlled environments for
artificial or sterilized peat/compost based alternatives will help reduce risks to the
sustainability of production systems from the build-up of severe soil-borne diseases
and pests.
Furthermore, consideration of the need for expansion of productivity away
from distant rural farms towards urban and peri-urban environments in order to retain
product postharvest quality by reducing delivery times and transport costs to market
will automatically raise the issue of competition for land and thus the inevitability of
increased land values. Opportunities thus will exist for much more intensive use of
space through better use of the vertical dimension of greenhouses and other vertically
designed and stacked plant growth structures. Examples of such approaches are being
tested currently in locations such as Singapore where land prices are prohibitive but
there is yet a need for local vegetable production (Doucleff 2012; Bee Ling Poh 2013

Sustaining Small-Scale Vegetable Production and Marketing Systems for Food and Nutrition Security 5
 personal communication). Module farming (and plant factories) are opportunities for
production of vegetables where the environment can be well controlled. There is a
requirement for a reliable power supply for lighting and for use of a conveyor-based
system, and also a ready market for the produce which can be grown year-round.
Examples of such module are indoor vertical farms Farmed Here® in Illinois and
Green Farms A&M in Indiana, USA. Other examples of this futuristic type include
fully hydroponic and artificially lit systems designed for use in public areas or the
home (e.g. AeroGarden® hydroponic, Omega Garden® system); if prices of
installation become reasonable these could be widely adopted in urban environments.
Another opportunity is to utilize gamma irradiation as a mechanism to ensure the
quality of fresh vegetables is retained over a longer period after harvest; it is
comparable to pasteurizing milk, in that the product is left fresh, but is much safer.
Gamma irradiation destroys harmful bacteria, extends shelf life, retards maturation of
vegetables, reduces spoilage by organisms that can grow under refrigeration and can
also be used in place of fumigants and other quarantine procedures. Gamma
irradiation of food is currently permitted by over 50 countries and over 500,000 tons
of food is treated annually worldwide (Farkas et al. 2011; Kume et al. 2009).
Although the cost of developing a Cobalt 60 irradiation facility can be high, the final
costs of irradiating foods would eventually be low (low dose applications such as
disinfestation of fruit range between US$0.02 and US$0.18 per kilo, higher dose
applications can cost as much as US$0.44 per kilo (Corrigan 1993) and the increase in
food safety significant.

7. Biotechnology will need to become a useful tool. Biotechnology will ensure that
the range of molecular tools which can be used to increase the rate of production of
improved, adapted vegetable varieties are available as well as the similar tools to test
for and identify pests and pathogens. A range of molecular markers are currently
available and speed up the development of disease resistant crops. This includes for
tomato, for example, the range of Ty gene markers for chromosome loci that convey
resistance to Tomato yellow leaf curl virus (Verlaan et al. 2013). This means that the
appropriate combination of Ty genes can be combined in one variety to confer
resistance to the current strains of the virus. Molecular markers for other genes such
as those conferring resistance to late blight (Ph genes) or against root knot nematodes
(Mi genes) already exist (Foolad 2007), or for pungency (e.g. in chili, the Pun1 genes,
Steward et al. 2007) but new markers are needed for these and an increasingly wide
range of characteristics, pests and diseases.
Conventional breeding of vegetables has developed many new varieties. The
use of biotechnology to enhance the breeding process is particularly useful where
genes for a particular trait are in a different species and where crossing is not feasible.
Several genetically-modified vegetables crops are currently available (courgettes and
sweet pepper with virus resistance, eggplant with insect resistance and tomato with
delayed ripening/fruit softening/senescence and insect resistance) and tomato FLAVR
SAVR™ is commercially approved in Canada, Mexico and USA, while chicory Seed
Link™ is commercially approved in USA. In many countries, genetically-modified
vegetables cannot be grown and the products cannot be approved for release to the
public until the necessary country regulations have been approved. (Gupta et al. 2013)

8. Public-private partners must work towards common goals. It is unlikely that in the
near future public sector investment in horticultural research and development will be
sufficient to provide all the seed and technological answers to some of the questions

6 SEAVEG2014: Families, Farms, Food

posed. This must then require a much closer engagement with the private sector
(including postharvest value addition, food preservation technologies, and more
efficient marketing performance), better information flow and management, and
improved business skills, particularly for small-scale growers, distributors and
marketers. It is also essential for the private sector seed industry to wean itself off its
present “free-rider” dependence on trait specific germplasm and long term breeding
investments provided by the public sector without effective compensatory re-
investment. Many of the private sector seed companies produce only hybrid
vegetables and within this group, a very restricted set of global vegetables, often with
a focus on shelf life, and consistent color and size rather than nutritional content, will
be available in the future to the human population. Many developing country farmers
prefer to use open-pollinated varieties which may allow them to save their own seed.
This is often not considered a good market strategy for the private sector seed
industry. In direct contrast, the need for adequate system resilience and the
requirement for balanced human diets demand that the public-private sector accord
must ensure a continued availability of a wide range of vegetables species with
improved, trait specific, nutrient dense germplasm (Keatinge et al. 2010a; Keatinge et
al. 2010b, Kahane et al. 2013). Crop input suppliers must also recognize the need for
producer and consumer health and minimize the risk to farmers and families when
consuming vegetables that have been treated with chemical inputs; an opportunity
exists to build on integrated pest management products rather than on synthetic
pesticides. In the case of fertilizers, both the public and private sectors must ensure
information is available so that appropriate fertilizers are used and minimizing the
effect on the environment.
Additionally, it is also concomitant on the public sector to ensure that they
adequately address the needs for enhanced consumer education to raise awareness
about the value of vegetables for a well-balanced, healthy diet for all family members
(Hughes and Keatinge 2013). The present prohibitive, ever-rising, cost of the global
health sector, resulting from unwise or uniformed food choices in both developed and
developing countries must soon force governments to recognize the urgent need for
adequate investment in consumer education. It will surely be much cheaper and a
more effective policy in the long run to reduce, and where possible avoid, non-
communicable diseases which are the result of resource-driven or ignorance-driven
malnourishment resulting in unbalanced diets and poor human health.

FUTURE PERSPECTIVE
The perspective of the next 40 years of vegetable production can be viewed
optimistically as the opportunity to render many of the previously intransigent
constraints to on-farm production such as insects and soil-borne diseases can be
considerably diminished if protected horticulture becomes the norm. In addition,
nature has been generous to humankind; copious numbers of digestible nutrient-dense
vegetable species can be valuable in the kitchen if further research can bring them into
the production mainstream.
Influencing populations becomes even more vital, not only influencing what
we eat, but also making sure that different parts of the community interact, that
policy-makers in education, health and agriculture interact to make sure that
vegetables are grown well, that quality produce is available and that the population is
aware that a balanced and diverse diet leads to good health. We also need both a new
generation of agricultural scientists and a new generation of farmers to feed a growing

Sustaining Small-Scale Vegetable Production and Marketing Systems for Food and Nutrition Security 7
 population. We also need to influence policy makers so that these needs become a
reality.
And yet, while we are aware of many of the issues, we are still challenged by
inadequate consumer understanding of the need for effective diets, and the difficulty
in changing mindsets to enhance vegetable and fruit consumption among adults.
Disciplinary silos between agriculture, health and education professionals will need to
be overcome if the public are generally to accept the need for better diets and of what
these might consist. If we can link agriculture, health, education and government
policy together effectively and encourage a new generation of scientists and producers
to take up horticulture...then AVRDC believes we have every chance of bringing
“Prosperity to the Poor and Health for All” in the next 40 years in the Southeast Asian
region.

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