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The input resistance of the amplifier with feedback can be defined as,
v vin
RiF in .
Iin Vid Ri
1 AB
Now, vid vo A and v in vo .
A
1 AB vo AR i 1 AB R .
Therefore, R iF i
A vo
Therefore input impedance of the non-inverting amplifier is (1+AB) times that of
an OPAMP without feedback.
The output resistance of a non-inverting amplifier can be calculated using its
Thevenin theorem of dependent source, as shown below (reduce independent
source vin to zero and apply an external voltage vo).
Numerical:
R1 1 1
B
R1 RF 1 10 11
2 105
1 AB 1 18182.8
11
A 2 105
AF 10.99
1 AB 18182.8
R iF R i 1 AB 2 106 18182.8 36.36 109 Ω 36.36 GΩ
Ro 75
R oF 4.12 103 Ω 4.12 mΩ
1 AB 18182.8
fF fo 1 AB 5 18182.8 90.9 103 90.9 kHz
vsat 13
vooT 0.715 103 V 0.715 mV
1 AB 18182.8
For voltage follower R1 = ∞ and RF = 0 Ω. Therefore B 1 and 1 AB A .
Therefore, AF 1 .
R iF R i 1 AB AR i 2 106 2 105 4 1011 Ω 400 GΩ
Ro R 75
R oF o 0.375 103 Ω 0.375 mΩ
1 AB A 2 105
fF fo 1 AB fo A 5 2 105 106 1 MHz
vsat vsat 13
vooT 5
65 106 V 65 μV
1 AB A 2 10
The input voltage drives the inverting terminal. Amplified as well as inverted
output signal is also applied to the inverting input via feedback resistor.
At the node v2, we have iin = iF + iB2.
Since Ri is very large, the bias current is negligibly small and we can write
v v2 v2 vo
iin iF Or, in .
R1 RF
Again, v1 v2 vo A .
Since v1 = 0, we get v2 vo A .
vin vo A vo A vo
vo ARF
Therefore, Or, AF
R1 RF vin R1 RF AR1
Since the internal gain of the OPAMP (A) is very high we can assume
AR1 R1 RF and AF RF R1 .
The negative sign indicates that the input and output signals are 180o out of
phase.
The feedback gain expression can be written as
AR F R1 R F AK
AF .
1 A R1 R1 R F 1 AB
Where “K” is voltage attenuation factor and is given by K R F R1 R F
“B” is gain of feedback circuit and is given by B R1 R1 R F .
The block diagram of inverting amplifier is
K R R1 R F R
If AB 1 then 1 AB AB and A F F F.
B R1 R1 R F R1
Above expression can also be found using virtual ground concept.
Assuming virtual ground iin iF .
vin v2 v2 vo
Therefore, .
R1 RF
vin v vo R
Since v1 = v2 = 0, o or, AF F .
R1 RF vin R1
v
Above equation can be written as, vo in R F iinR F .
R1
This means that if we replace the vin and R1 combination by a current source iin,
as shown below, the output voltage vo becomes proportional to the input voltage.
In other words the figure represents a current to voltage converter that converts
the input current into a proportional output voltage.
Further if R1 = RF the output signal is equal in amplitude but opposite In phase
to that of input signal.
This circuit represents an inverter.
For inverter B = ½ and hence 1 AB A 2 .
The input resistance of an inverting amplifier can be calculated by splitting RF
into two miller components, as shown below.
R
For the circuit, R iF R1 F R i .
1 A
R
Since Ri and A is very large F Ri 0 Ω and we get, RiF R1 .
1 A
Thevenin equivalent circuit for RoF of the inverting amplifier is shown below. The
circuit is exactly the same as non-inverting amplifier. Therefore the output
resistance of inverting amplifier is same to that of the non-inverting amplifier.
Specifically, R oF vo io R o 1 AB .
Afo 1 AB fo 1 AB
Since UGB = Afo = AFfF, or, fF = Afo/AF, we can write fF .
AK K
Total output offset voltage with feedback = Total output offset voltage without
feedback/(1+AB) Or, VooT Vsat 1 AB , where Vsat is the saturation voltage or
maximum voltages the output of an OPAMP can reach.
Numerical
R1 470 1
B
R1 RF 470 4700 11
RF 4700 1
K
R1 RF 470 4700 1.1
2 105
1 AB 1 18182.8
11
AK 2 105
AF 10
1 AB 18182.8 1.1
R
R iF R1 F R i 470
4700 2 10 470 Ω
6
1 A
1 2 10
5
Ro 75
R oF 4.12 103 Ω 4.12 mΩ
1 AB 18182.8
f 1 AB
fF o 5 18182.8 1.1 100 10 3 100 kHz
K
vsat 13
vooT 0.715 103 V 0.715 mV
1 AB 18182.8
Numerical
3. For an OPAMP inverting summing amplifier V1 = + 1 V, V2 = +2 V and V3 = + 3V.
If R1 = R2 = R3 = 3 kΩ and RF = 1 kΩ then calculate the output voltage. Assume
supply voltage is 15 V and OPAMP is initially nulled.
v v vN 1 2 3
v0 R F 1 2 1 2 V
R1 R 2 RN 3 3 3
R V Vb Vc 2 2 3 4
Vo 1 F a 1 3V
R1 3 1 3
The resistance of the resistive transducer (RT) changes when the physical quantity
(such as temperature) changes.
RB Vdc R V R R
For balanced bridge Va = Vb, which implies, A dc Or, C T .
RB RC R A R T RB R A
The bridge is balanced initially at the reference condition. However, as the
physical quantity changes, the resistance of the transducer also changes R ,
which causes the bridge to unbalance Va Vb .
R A Vdc RB Vdc
In unbalance case Va and Vb .
R A R T R RB RC
The voltage difference at the output of the bridge is
R A Vdc R V
Vab Va Vb B dc .
R A R T R R B R C
RVdc
If RA = RB = RC = RT = R, then Vab .
2 2R R
The output voltage is applied to the differential instrumentation amplifier. In the
instrumentation amplifier the voltage followers are used to eliminate the loading
of the bridge circuit.
The gain of the difference amplifier is –RF/R1. Therefore output voltage is
R RVdc
Vo F .
R1 2 2R R
RF RVdc
If R is small then 2R R 2R and we can write Vo .
R1 4R
Above equation indicates that output voltage is proportional to the change in
resistance of the transducer.
Numerical:
At 0oC, R 1 0 25 25 kΩ
RF RVdc 4.7 25 5
Therefore, Vo 1.47 V
R1 4R 1 4 100
At 100oC, R 1100 25 75 kΩ
R F RVdc 4.7 75 5
Therefore, Vo 4.41 V
R1 4R 1 4 100
Numerical
6. For a differential input and differential output amplifier input voltage is 100 mV.
The required output is 3.7 V. Determine RF if R1 is 100 Ω. Assume the OPAMP is
initially nulled.
2RF 3
3.7 1 100 10
100
Which gives, RF = 1.8 kΩ.
Numerical
7. For a voltage to current converter Vin = 5 V, R = 10 kΩ and V1 = 1 V. Find the
load current and output voltage. Assume the OPAMP is initially nulled.
Vin 5
IL 0.5 103 A 0.5 mA
R 10 103
V0 2V1 2 V
where “C” is the integration constant and is proportional to the value of output
voltage vo at time t = 0.
Above equation implies the output voltage is directly proportional to the negative
integral of the input voltage and inversely proportional to the time constant CFR1.
Therefore if the input is a sine wave, the output will be a cosine wave; or if the
input is a square wave, the output will be a triangular wave.
When vin = 0 the integrator works as an open-loop amplifier, because the
capacitor acts as an open circuit to the input offset voltage Vio.
Therefore a practical integrator uses a resistor RF across CF, as shown below.
The RF limits the low frequency gain and hence minimizes the variations in the
output voltage.
5.10 The differentiator
Schematic diagram of a differentiator circuit is shown below.
Since the non-inverting terminal is at ground potential we can assume the node
v2 is at ground potential.
d 0 vo dv
From the circuit we can write C1 vin 0 Or, vo R F C1 in .
dt RF dt
Above equation implies the output voltage is CFR1 times the negative
instantaneous rate of change of vin with time.
Therefore a cosine input will produce a sine wave output, or a triangular input
will produce a square wave output
Numerical:
8. Calculate the output voltage of the following OPAMP circuit.
1
When only the -2 V supply is present, the output is V2V 2 2 V .
1
1
When only the 1+ V supply is present, the output is V1V 1 1 2 V .
1
Since the inverting input of the second OPAMP is at +4 V the non-inverting input
is also at +4 V.
Further since the input impedance is very high we can assume net input current
at the non-inverting terminal is zero.
4 Vo 0 4
Therefore, Or, Vo 8 V .
1 1
9. The OPAMP in the circuit shown below has a slew rate 0.8 V /µS. If the input
signal is vin 0.25sin ωt , calculate the maximum usable frequency.
dvo
Therefore, SR 0.8 106 5.34ωcos ωt max 5.34ω V/S
dt max
0.8 106
Or, fmax 23.85 103 Hz 23.85 kHz .
2π 5.34
VP 0 Vo VP 0 VP
Therefore, at the node P, we have, .
45 55.5 5
Further we can write 0 VP VP 45Iin , where “Iin” is the input current.
Vo
So we get, 13.33 45 103 6 105 Ω 0.6 MΩ .
Iin
When only Vb is present the case is a simple non inverting amplifier (Since V 1 is at
ground potential, V2 will be virtually ground. Further since V2 = 0 both the terminals
of Rd will be at zero potential and no current will flow through it).
Or, Rb Rf 5
R R R R
RcR f f R f f Rf f
Vo R c R R bR d R f R b R f R d 5 3 5 3
2
Va R bR d R a R c R a R R c R R f R f 5R c 5R c
R R R R
5 3 2
c c
2
1 1 1 1 3 5
R c RR 2f 15R
Or, 2 15 5 3 15 18R 2
Rf 5R c 5R 5R c 5R 2R 5R c 7R
Rc R
15 2 2 2
Or, Rc 2R 5
5 5 2R
and R a Rc R
2 2 5
R R R R
RcR f f R f f R f f
Vo R c R R bR d R f R b R f R d 5 3 5 3
2
Va R bR d R a R c R a R R c R R f R f 7R c 7R c
R R R R
5 3 2
c c
2
1 1 1 1 3 5
R c RR 2f 15R
Or, 2 15 5 3 15 18R 2
Rf 7R c 7R 7R c 7R 2R 7R c 9R
Rc R
15 2 2 2
Or, RC = 0 and
Ra = 0
However if RC = 0 and Ra = 0 then from equation (A) and (B) we get both Vo Va and
Vo Vc is equal to zero, which is contradictory.
A similar analysis for gain of Vc greater than zero shows both Rc and Ra becomes
negative, which is impossible.
To get the above output let us consider the following circuit
Rf R R R
For the circuit, Vo 2Va 5Vb 7Vc 3Vd Va f Vb f Vc f Vd
Ra Rb Rc Rd
Comparing the left and right hand side we can write
Ra = Rf/2, Rb = Rf/5, Rc = Rf/7 and Rd = Rf/3.
R2
Voltage at the node Y is, v y v2 .
R1 R2
v1 v x d
At the node X we have, C v x vo
R3 dt
t
1
Or, v x v o
CR 3 v1 v x dt
0
t
R2 1 R2
Since vx = vy, we can write,
R1 R 2
v2 vo v1
CR 3 0
v2 dt
R1 R 2
t
R2 1 R2
Or, vo
R1 R 2
v2 v1
CR 3 0
v2 dt
R1 R 2
R v
Voltage at the node Y is, v x v2 2 .
RR 2
v1 v x v x vP
At the node X we have,
R1 R1
Or, vP 2v x v1 .
v x vP vP vo vP 0
At node P,
R1 R1 R1
Or, vo 3vP v x
Substituting the expression of vP we get, vo 5v x 3v1
5
Substituting the expression of vx we get, vo v2 3v1
2
Since the base non-inverting terminal of the OPAMP is at ground potential, the
inverting terminal, and hence the collector of the transistor is at ground
potential.
Since both the collector and base of the transistor is at ground potential the
transistor acts like a diode and the emitter current can be expressed as
qVE
IE IS e kT 1 .
qVE qVE
IC
Further since IC IE , we can write IC IS e kT 1 , Or, e kT 1
IS
qVE
kT IC
Since IC IS , we can write, e kT IC IS Or, VE ln .
q IS
At the inverting input node of the OPAMP we have, Ii Vin 0 R1 Vin R1 IC .
kT Vin
Therefore, VE ln .
q R1IS
Further at the emitter terminal of the transistor, VE Vo .
kT Vin
Therefore, Vo ln .
q R1IS
Above equation implies that the output voltage is proportional to the logarithmic
of the input voltage.
0.4343kT V
By proper scaling, we can write, Vo log10 in .
q R1IS
An alternative circuit for logarithmic amplifier is shown below:
It may be noted that the emitter saturation current (IS) varies from transistor to
transistor and also with temperature. Thus a stable voltage reference cannot be
obtained.
This can be eliminated with the following circuit
The transistors are kept close together and on sane silicon wafer. Therefore,
IS1 IS2 IS .
kT Vin
So, V1 ln and
q R1IS
kT Vref
V2 ln .
q R1IS
Therefore,
kT Vref kT Vin kT Vin
Vo V2 V1
ln ln ln .
q R1IS q R1IS q Vref
The output voltage Vo still depends on temperature and is directly proportional
to T.
Vo,compR TC
This is compensated by the OPAMP4 for which we can write, Vo .
R 2 R TC
R 2 R TC R
Therefore, Vo,comp Vo 1 2 Vo .
R TC R TC
Above equation implies that the last stage provides a gain where RTC is a
temperature sensitive resistance with positive temperature coefficient.
Another form of temperature compensated logarithmic amplifier, using two
OPAMPS, is shown below:
5.12 Anti-logarithmic amplifier:
An anti-logarithmic amplifier is shown below.
kT Vo kT Vref
For the circuit VQ1,BE ln and VQ2,BE ln .
q R1IS q R1IS
kT Vo
Since the base of Q1 is tied to ground, VA VQ1,BE ln .
q R1IS
R TC
The base voltage of Q2 is, VQ2,B Vin .
R2 R TC
The emitter voltage of Q2 is,
R TC kT Vref
VQ2,E VQ2,B VQ2,EB VQ2,B VQ2,BE Vin ln .
R 2 R TC q R1IS
Since VA VQ2,E , we can write
kT Vo R TC kT Vref
ln Vin ln
q R1IS R 2 R TC q R1IS
R TC kT
Vo Vref
kT Vo
Or, Vin ln ln ln
R2 R TC q R1IS R1IS
q Vref
q R TC Vo
Or, Vin ln
kT R 2 R TC Vref
q R TC Vo Vo
Or, 0.4343 Vin 0.4343 ln log10
kT R 2 R TC Vref Vref
V q R TC
Or, KVin log10 o where K 0.4343
Vref kT R 2 R TC
Or, Vo Vref 10K Vin
Or, Vo Vref 10KVin .