I. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 3.
Thyroid gland –It releases thyroid hormon which is
1. The Nervous System controls and coordinates all
essential functions of the human body.
2. The Nervous System RECEIVES and RELAYS
information about activities within the body and
Monitors and Responds to INTERNAL and
EXTERNAL CHANGES.
3. The Nervous System has TWO Major Divisions.
A. The Central Nervous System (CNS) consist of
the Brain and the Spinal Cord. The Spinal Cord carries
messages from the body to the Brain, where they are
analyzed and interpreted.
B. The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) consists
of the neurons NOT Included in the Brain and Spinal
Cord.
4. The Neuron is the Basic Functional Unit of the
Nervous System.
5. Neurons can be classified into THREE TYPES:
a. sensory (receptor) neurons- carry impulses from
the sense organs (receptors) to the brain and spinal
cord.
b. motor neurons - carry impulses from the brain
and spinal cord to muscles or glands.
c. interneurons - connect sensory and motor
neurons and carry impulses between them. 8.
whatever their specific function, all neurons have the
same physical parts: the cell body, dendrites and one
axon.
a. cell body - the largest part, contains the nucleus
and much of the cytoplasm
b. dendrites – picked stimulus (action potentials)
and impulses from the environment or from other
neurons and carry them toward the cell body.
c. axon - a long fiber that carries impulses away
from the cell body.
II. THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
1. The endocrine system is a collection of ductless
glands that secrete chemical messages, known as
hormones.
2. Pituitary gland – is inside the brain. It can bring
about a change in hormone production somewhere
else in the system by releasing its own ‘stimulating’
hormones.
a. follicle-stimulating hormone(FSH), and
luteinizing hormone (LH) affect the gonads by
stimulating gamete formation and production of sex
hormones
b. Prolactin is secreted near the end of pregnancy and
prepares the breasts for milk production.
c. Oxytocin maintains lining of the uterus necessary for
successful pregnancy
d. Growth hormone (GH): GH is essential in early
years to maintaining a healthy body composition and
for growth in children.
e. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH): TSH
stimulates the thyroid gland to produce hormones.
f. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH): ACTH
stimulates the adrenal glands to produce hormones.
required for metabolism and body homeostasis.
4. Parathyroid gland have the sole purpose of
secreting parathyroid hormone to regulate the
calcium level in our bodies.
5. Adrenal glands – The adrenal glands are two
glands that sit on top of your kidneys that are made up
of two distinct parts.
a. The adrenal cortex—the outer part of the gland—
produces hormones that are vital to life, such as
cortisol (which helps regulate metabolism and helps
your body respond to stress) and aldosterone (which
helps control blood pressure).
b. The adrenal medulla—the inner part of the gland—
produces nonessential (that is, you don’t need them to
live) hormones, such as adrenaline (which helps your
body react to stress).
6. Pancreas – an organ of digestion which is inside the
abdomen. Insulin lowers the amount of sugar in the
bloodstream while Glucagon raises your blood
glucose levels.
7. Ovaries – are inside the female pelvis. They make
female sex hormones like estrogen which stimulates
development of sex characteristics, preparation of
uterus for fertilization and fetal development and
stimulates bone growth. It has also progesterone
which prepares the endometrium for the potential of
pregnancy after ovulation.
8. Testes – they hang in the male scrotal sack. They
secrete male sex hormones like testosterone which
stimulates development of secondary sex
characteristics, spermatogenesis
9. ANDROGENS promotes growth spurt in
adolescence, secondary characteristics and libido in
both sexes.
10. Puberty- the period of becoming first capable of
reproducing sexually that is brought on by the
production of sex hormones and making active
reproductive cell
11. Homeostasis – Maintaining a near-constant
internal environment
11. Negative feedback – It leads to a stable
homeostatic system.
12. Positive feedback - is a process in which the end
products of an action cause more of that action to occur
in a feedback loop
13. To restore a high body temperature, we can do
the following : shivering thermogenesis, sweating,
flattening of skin hair and redistribution of blood flow to
the periphery.
III. Menstrual Cycle
1. Seminiferous tubules – produced male hormone,
testosterone.
2. Fallopian tube – fertilization of human egg by
sperms takes place.
3. Uterus - is the hollow organ in the female
reproductive system that holds a fetus during
pregnancy
4. Menstruation – shedding of the inner lining of the
uterus
5. Ovulation – occurs after about 14 days. This
period is the most hospitable environment for
sperm passage.
IV DNA replication
1. DNA contains a DEOXYRIBOSE sugar while RNA
contains a RIBOSE sugar, while both nucleic acids
contains phosphate. DNA has the following
nitrogenous bases, cytosine paired with guanine,
thymine paired with adenine while RNA has the
following nitrogenous bases, cytosine paired with
guanine, uracil paired with adenine. In terms of
strands DNA has double strands while RNA has
single strand. DNA is found only in nucleus while
RNA is found in nucleus, cytoplasm, and some part
of ribosome. There is only one type of DNA while there
are 3 types of RNA namely mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA.
DNA is replicated DNA while RNA is transcribed from
DNA.
2. RNA: is a nucleic acid used is various body
functions that uses Uracil instead of thymine to
save energy to manufacture.
3. DNA replicates by making a complementary strand
to each original strand.
4. DNA helicase is an enzyme that breaks down the
hydrogen bonds during replication process
IV. Transcription and Translation and Mutation
1. The central Dogma is DNA  RNA  Protein
2. The genetic code is initially transferred from DNA to
RNA, in the process of transcription. Once transferred
to RNA, the genetic code exists as triplet codons, which
are sets of three nucleotides in which each nucleotide
is one of the four kinds of ribonucleotides composing
RNA.
3. Transcription results in the production of mRNA by
using DNA as a template and occurs only in the
nucleus.
4. The Process of translation decodes the information
in mRNA, leading to the synthesis of polypeptide
chains, or protein.
5. Mutation is a change in the base sequence of DNA.
Mutations may affect only one gene, or they may affect
whole chromosomes
6. Mutations in eggs or sperm may affect future
generations by transmitting these changes in the
offsprings. Mutations in non-sex (somatic) cells only are
not hereditary.
7. Substitution mutations are situations where a single
nucleotide is changed into another. In organisms
having double-stranded DNA or RNA, this usually
means that the corresponding base pair is also altered.
For example, an A:T base pair could be mutated into a
G:C base pair or even a T:A base pair.
8. Insertions are mutations in which extra base pairs
are inserted into a new place in the DNA. For example
CTGGAG  CTGGGAG
9. Deletions are mutations in which a section of DNA
is lost, or deleted. For example CTGAG  CTAG
10. “Cri du chat” is caused by the deletion of part of
the short arm of chromosome 5.
11. Down’s syndrome is usually caused by an extra
copy of chromosome 21(trisomy 21). Characteristics
include decreased muscle tone, stockier build,
asymmetrical skull, slanting eyes and mild to moderate
mental retardation.
12. Jacobsen syndrome is also called terminal 11q
deletion disorder.
VI. Biodiversity and Evolution
1. Evolution is the change in the characteristics of a
species over several generations and relies on the
process of natural selection.
2. Patterns in animal development suggest that some
organisms may have one common ancestor.
3. Evidence in structure and molecular studies
suggests that organisms are related with one another.
4. Fossils are the remains of plants and animals. These
are impression of dead plants and animals in rocks in a
form of mold or cast. Most of the fossils found on
sedimentary rocks.
5. Jean Baptiste de Lamarck proposed The Theory of
Need, The Theory of Use and Disuse and The Theory
of Acquired Characteristics.
6. Charles Darwin presented the Theory of Evolution
based on natural selection.
7. FIVE evidences for evolution
a. Fossil records - The remains of an organism
preserved in petrified form.
b. Homologous Structures- Having similar structure
and anatomical position in different organisms
suggesting a common ancestor
c. Analogous Structures - Structures having a similar
appearance, but not coming from a common ancestor
d. Vestigial structures - A structure on the body that is
greatly reduced in size from the original ancestor
e. Embrylogical structures - A structure found during
the development stage of the embryo
VII. Ecosystem - Biodiversity
• Biodiversity benefits people in many ways. It can be
of economic, ecological or aesthetic value.
• Greater biodiversity promotes a more stable
ecosystem.
• The more recent loss of biodiversity has been
attributed primarily to human activities such as
overfishing, overhunting, and loss of habitat.
• Population growth gives us an idea on how fast a
population changes over time.
• Population growth can be affected by density-
dependent or density independent limiting factors.
• Changes in the habitat may cause an increase or
decrease in biodiversity.
• Humans are obliged to take responsibility in
maintaining a clean and healthy state of the ecosystem.