1. Whate are the methods in getting the following and give the principle.

a. Clotting time :It is the time interval in between onset of bleeding and appearance of jelly like
semisolid mass i.e. blood clot. The basis for the test is that whole blood will form a solid clot
when exposed to a foreign surface such as glass tube. It is a rough measure of all intrinsic clotting
factors in the absence of tissue factors. Variations are wide and the test sensitivity is limited.
Clotting time was used as a screening test to measure all stages in the intrinsic coagulation
system and to monitor heparin therapy. These methods are the followig
 capillary method /wrights method
 Slide Method
 Lee-White Clotting Time Blood Test

b. Bleeding time

The bleeding time test is a useful tool to test for platelet plug formation and capillary integrity.
Occasionally, the bleeding time test will be ordered on a patient scheduled for surgery. The
bleeding time is dependent upon the efficiency of tissue fluid in acceleratingthe coagulation
process, on capillary function and the number of blood platelets present and their ability to
form a platelet plug.

 IVY method
 Duke Method

2. What are the diseases associated with

a. Increased/prolonged bleeding
 Thrombocytopenia
 Von Willibrand disease
 Acquired or congenital platelet function abnormalities
 Bernard-Soulier disease
 Glanzmann's thrombasthenia
b. Increased/prolonged clotting time
 Severe hemophilia
 Afibrinogenemia
 severe fibrinolytic states
 circulating anticoagulants ( inhibitors)
 Heparin
c. Diseases that can cause elevated plasma prothrombin level can shorten/decrease clotting time as
well as phenols can accelerate thrombin-fibrinogen intercatiom

1. What will happen to Rh negative patient transfused with Rh positive blood? Explain
People with Rh-negative blood should only get Rh-negative red blood cells except when in extreme
emergencies. The Rh-positive blood transfusion can cause a person with Rh negative blood to make
antibodies against the Rh factor, causing a transfusion reaction. If an Rh-negative woman makes
antibodies like this, it can seriously harm any Rh-positive babies she may have in the future. Her anti-Rh
antibodies can attack Rh-positive blood cells in the fetus.

2. What is the possibility of a woman with blood type O+ marries with a man with blood type A+. Explain
 Parental blood groups with O and A will have children with O or A blood types. Positive Rh parents will
have positive or negative Rh type child. A+, A-, O+ or O- are all possibilities.
Every person has 2 alleles for the A/B/O and the Rh (+/-) traits. Blood group A is dominant, so
having blood group A one either has two A genes, or one A and one O gene, O is recessive. Blood
group O can only be two O genes. The possible combinations are either AO or OO. The Rh gene is
dominant, so the male and the female are either +/+ or +/-, so possible combinations are +/-
and +/+, +/- and +/+ shows as +.

1. What are the factors that affect the ESR determination?

 Some interferences which increase ESR:
 increased level of fibrinogen, gamma globulins
 technical factors: tilted ESR tube, high room temperature
2. What are the diseases associated with
a. Increase ESR - Chronic inflammatory disease (collagen and vascular diseases), acute
inflammation, pregnancy, anemia, autoimmune disorders (such as rheumatoid arthritis
and lupus), infections, some kidney diseases and some cancers (such as lymphoma and
multiple myeloma).
b. Decrease ESR – hyperviscosity, sickle cell anemia, leukemia, low plasma protein (due to liver or
kidney disease) and congestive heart failure
3. What are the other methods used in ESR determination
 Wintrobe method: The Wintrobe method is performed similarly except that the Wintrobe
tube is smaller in diameter than the Westergren tube and only 100 mm long.