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Chapter 1: Introduction
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CONTENTS
Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Instructional Theories
Chapter 3: Designing Instruction
Chapter 4: E-Learning
Chapter 5: Web Tools and Learning
Chapter 6: Self-Instructional Materials
Chapter 7: Distance Education
Chapter 8: Technology Integration in Schools
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Chapter 1: Introduction
PREAMBLE
Chapter 1: Introduction
In 1994, Seels and Richey with the The Association for Educational
Communication and Technology (AECT) Committee on Definition and
Terminology defined instructional technology as the application of learning
theory and emergent technologies in solving instructional and performance
problems. A major element of this definition is the specification of five basic
domains, which describe the areas of the knowledge base and functions
performed by professionals in the field. These domains are design,
development, utilization, management, and evaluation of processes and
resources for effecting and affecting learning. (see Figure 1.1)
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Design
Development
INSTRUCTIONAL
TECHNOLOGY Evaluation
Utilization
Management
Figure 1.1 The five domains of instructional technology in the ACET definition
Chapter 1: Introduction
LEARNING ACTIVITY
Before tracing the history of instructional technology, let us examine how the
emphasis and focus of instructional has changed in the last 100 years. Tow and
Phillips (1982) traced the changing concept of educational technology using the
archetypes identified by well-known psychologist and instructional technologist, Ivor
Davies (1978). Ivor Davies identified three types of archetypes while Phillips (2001)
added a fourth archetype. Note that „educational technology‟ is used interchangeably
with „instructional technology‟. An archetype is an original pattern or model from
which all things of the same kind are based, i.e. a model or prototype.
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Chapter 1: Introduction
resources and a terminal step of evaluation and output. Feedback is almost always a
part of the process as well. Although historically, ET1 arose after ET2 it cannot be
considered as a phase which succeeded ET1. Both developed independently and
continue to exist to the present day.
Chapter 1: Introduction
most useful when used for strategic purposes in particular contextual settings and
content areas. Additionally such uses of technology are successful when teachers and
students engage in teaching- learning relationships that focus on data-driven decision
making.
Vast amounts of information available on the internet create new opportunities
to learn in a world-wide context. Increased capacity and expanded connectivity makes
learning with this new medium not only possible but also powerful. Computer-
mediated communication brings content experts and community members into the
classroom. They provide real-world examples, model performances, and offer
otherwise unavailable enrichment opportunities for students.
Every business, agency, institution, and school is concerned with performance; that is,
about each individual‟s ability to contribute to the mission of the organisation and
society. Education and training are potent forces to enhance performance because they
help assure that people will have the skills, abilities, and attitudes that they need to do
their jobs. Workers in the field of instructional technology use systematic processes to
meet educational and training needs. As a result, instructional technologists help
people perform more effectively in rapidly changing technical and social
environments.
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LEARNING ACTIVITY
a) ET1 to ET4 provide a useful frame of reference for
examining the role of educational or instructional technology
in schools, universities, colleges and training centres or
institutions. Which archetype would appropriately describe
your institution? Explain.
b) What other kinds of jobs are instructional technologists
involved in?
a) CAVE ART
Ancient people used art as a
way to record stories and
communicate ideas. Since the
practice of writing is not known or
unfamiliar in those days, people
carved, painted the pictures in the
caves, stones and in the walls and
used picture as a communication
medium. The ancient cave art period
prevailed from 250,000 BC, the
period of the lower Paleolithic to
3500 BC the Neolithic or new Stone
Age. Cave art is the earliest form of
art. Pictures of animals, birds, Cave paintings in the Africa
humans, weapons, symbols and maps
are some of the information recorded in the form of cave art. These pictures
communicate specific information to the people. It is the only form of medium used
when written and spoken languages was unavailable. It is interesting to research about
the tools used for drawing the pictures and how they remain intact for thousand of
years. Cave arts can be found all around the world like in China, Australia, Africa and
Europe.
b) EGYPTIAN WRITING
As civilisation grew, technology also evolved with it. Information carved and
painted in the caves and in other stone sculptures was transformed to a written form in
paper. In Egypt, people used a writing method where the picture of an object like
animals, birds and other things will stand for a word or as an alphabet. This method of
Egyptian writing is called hieroglyphs. It is a formal writing system that contained the
combination of logographs, phonetic glyphs and ideographs. The hieroglyphs can be
written in three directions: from top to bottom, from left to right and from right to left.
Hieratic script and Demotic script are the other form of writing which existed in
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Egyptian hieroglyphs
The standard abacus can be used to perform addition, subtraction, division and
multiplication. It can also be used to extract square roots and cubic roots. Before the
abacus, calculations were done by counting using one‟s fingers and later by matching
one set of objects with another set of objects. The Chinese abacus was first developed
about 5000 years ago. The abacus not helps counting or calculations, also keeps track
of numbers as counting is going on.
d) PRINTING PRESS
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LEARNING ACTIVITY
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Chapter 1: Introduction
MARIA MONTESSORI
Maria Montessori (1870-1952) developed a teaching programme that focussed
on enabling children to read and write in pre-school and elementary education.
college education. The philosophy of Montessori education was based on the Piaget‟s
cognitive stages of development. Her emphasis we on the education of the senses,
then the education of the intellect. In the Montessori system of education, each child
is a unique being. The child is encouraged to develop social and emotional skills, in
addition to intellectual ones. In this method; “Looking becomes reading; touching
becomes writing”. She took serious note of Socrates‟ view that “Education is the
kindling of a flame, not the filling of a vessel”. The children were observed, and
according to their interest in the objects in the environment or with the materials
provided to them, a suitable lesson plan or teaching method was developed.
JOHN WATSON
During this time, the psychologist John Watson was actively promoting the
behaviourist movement in which he became known as the „Father of Behaviourism”.
He established an animal research laboratory and the outcomes of his research was
later applied to human behaviour. His works influenced the works of the famous
behaviourist psychologist B.F. Skinner in the 1960s. Behaviourism had a significant
impact and continues to do in the design of instruction. As discussed earlier by Ivor
Davies, it dominated ET1 or the engineering archetype which instruction was seen as
a series of steps to followed rigidly.
EDWARD THORNDIKE
Another psychologist whose works had a significant impact on instructional
technology was Edward Thorndike. His theory on connectionism focussed on
associations forming between stimuli and responses. Such associations or "habits"
become strengthened or weakened by the nature and frequency of the S-R pairings.
The paradigm for S-R theory was trial and error learning in which certain responses
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come to dominate others due to rewards. The hallmark of connectionism (like all
behavioural theory) was that learning could be adequately explained without referring
to any unobservable internal states.
PHONOGRAPH
The phonograph, an instrument for recording and
reproducing sounds was invented by Thomas Edison in 1877.
Some of the instructional purposes of the phonograph were
letter writing, dictation and phonographic books for the blind.
The audio supplement to still images from the photography
was used in education. The phonograph was also used in the
teaching of music related subjects.
LEARNING ACTIVITY
Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter 1: Introduction
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LEARNING ACTIVITY
Chapter 1: Introduction
last few years where individuals shared personal details, interests, opinions, travel
experiences and many other things. Giants in web technology such as Google, MSN
and Yahoo offered optimised search engines by providing keyword search and access
to billions of pages of information.
Many schools during the 1990s started implementing computer education and
labs were transformed with computers. Computer mediated learning played a
prominent role in educating students. Soon many scholars published their research
papers and their articles in various subjects on the internet which formed a prime
resources for others and led to a thriving knowledge base and expansion in the
availability of resources. Many scientific journals, tutoring materials became easily
accessible through the World Wide Web. Many web sites provided free access which
enable more people to access valuable information.
Internet publishing became widespread enabling documents to be scanned and
published in the desired format. With the introduction of email and chat facilities, it
took the usage of the internet and information sharing to a higher level. Instant
chatting facility helped learners to clarify doubts instantaneously. Computer supported
collaborative learning (CSCL) grew with both synchronous learning and
asynchronous learning. Video conferencing enabled students to attend live lectures in
scheduled sessions from a renowned professor. The traditional way of giving seminars
were transformed into webinars which enabled participants from around the world to
attend. Many forms of learning such as e-learning, online-learning i-learning, e-
tutoring, virtual classrooms and virtual schools developed.
LEARNING ACTIVITY
a) How the personal computer influence the field of
instructional technology?
b) How do you think the internet will further influence
instruction and education in schools and institutions of higher
education?
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KEY WORDS:
SUMMARY:
An archetype is an original pattern or model from which all things of the same
kind are based: audio-visual archetype, engineering archetype, problem-
solving archetype and technology-based learning environment.
The printing press brought about a knowledge explosion” with the sharing of
information and making knowledge available to more people.
The term “Audio visual technology” was the common name referred to the
advancement in educational technology during the period the 1920s and 1930s
which was later termed as “Instructional Technology”
In the mid of 1900s the introduction of computers to the school education and
the internet revolutionized the instructional technology field giving wide
exposure to active learning and teaching.
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REFERENCES:
Tow, D. & Phillips, J.A. (1982). Educational Technology and the Social
Sciences in the University of Malaya. Higher Education. 11, pp.657-668.
Seels, B.B. & Richey, R.C. (1994). The 1994 definition of the field‖ In
Instructional Technology: The Definition and Domains of the Field.
Washington, D.C.: Association for Educational Communications and
Technology.
Chapter 1: Introduction