Conduction Phenomena PDF

CHAPTER 9
Conduction Phenomena
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9.1 INTRODUCTION flow are important under a variety of circumstances. A
coupled flow is a flow of one type, such as hydraulic,
Virtually all geotechnical problems involve soil or rock driven by a potential gradient of another type, such as
deformations and stability and/or the flow through
dM electrical.
earth materials of fluids, chemicals, and energy in var- This chapter includes a review of the physics of di-
ious forms. Flows play a vital role in the deformation, rect and coupled flow processes through soils and their
volume change, and stability behavior itself, and they quantification in practical form, an evaluation of rele-
may control the rates at which the processes occur. vant parameters, their magnitudes, and factors influ-
Descriptions of these flows, predictions of flow quan- encing them, and some examples of applications.
tities, their rates and changes with time, and associated
changes in the properties and composition of both the
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permeated soil and the flowing material are the sub-

9.2 FLOW LAWS AND INTERRELATIONSHIPS
jects of this chapter.
Water flow through soil and rock has been most ex- Fluids, electricity, chemicals, and heat flow through
tensively studied because of its essential role in prob- soils. Provided the flow process does not change the
lems of seepage, consolidation, and stability, which state of the soil, each flow rate or flux Ji (as shown in
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form a major part of engineering analysis and design. Fig. 9.1) relates linearly to its corresponding driving
As a result, much is known about the hydraulic con- force Xi according to
ductivity and permeability of earth materials. Chemi-
cal, thermal, and electrical flows in soils are also Ji ⫽ Lii Xi (9.1)
important. Chemical transport through the ground is a
py
major concern in groundwater pollution, waste dis- in which Lii is the conductivity coefficient for flow.
posal and storage, remediation of contaminated sites, When written specifically for a particular flow type and
corrosion, leaching phenomena, osmotic effects in clay using familiar phenomenological coefficients, Eq. (9.1)
layers, and soil stabilization. Heat flows are important becomes, for cross section area A
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relative to frost action, construction in permafrost ar-

eas, insulation, underground storage, thermal pollution,
Water flow qh ⫽ khih A Darcy’s law (9.2)
temporary ground stabilization by freezing, permanent
ground stabilization by heating, underground transmis- Heat flow qt ⫽ ktit A Fourier’s law (9.3)
sion of electricity, and other problems. Electrical flows Electrical flow I ⫽ eie A Ohm’s law (9.4)
are important to the transport of water and ground sta-
bilization by electroosmosis, insulation, corrosion, and Chemical flow JD ⫽ Dic A Fick’s law (9.5)
subsurface investigations.
In addition to the above four flow types, each driven In Eqs. (9.2) to (9.5) qh, qt, I, and JD are the water,
by its own potential gradient, several types of coupled heat, electrical, and chemical flow rates, respectively.
251
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252 9 CONDUCTION PHENOMENA
9.3 HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY

Darcy’s law1 states that there is a direct proportionality
between apparent water flow velocity vh or flow rate
qh and hydraulic gradient ih, that is,
vh ⫽ kh ih (9.6)
qh ⫽ kh ih A (9.7)
where A is the cross-section area normal to the direc-

tion of flow. The constant kh is a property of the ma-
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terial. Steady-state and transient flow analyses in soils
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are based on Darcy’s law. In many instances, more
attention is directed at the analysis than at the value of
kh. This is unfortunate because no other property of
importance in geotechnical problems is likely to ex-
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hibit such a great range of values, up to 10 orders of
magnitude, from coarse to very fine grained soils, or
show as much variability in a given deposit as does
the hydraulic conductivity. Some soils exhibit 2 or 3
orders of magnitude variation in hydraulic conductivity
dM as a result of changes in fabric, void ratio, and water
content. These points are illustrated by Fig. 9.2 in
which hydraulic conductivity values for a number of
soils are shown.
Figure 9.1 Four types of direct flow through a soil porous Different units for hydraulic conductivity are often
mass. A is the total cross-section area normal to flow; n is used by different groups or agencies; for example, cen-
porosity. timeters per second by geotechnical engineers, feet per
year by groundwater hydrologists, and Darcys by pe-
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troleum technologists. Figure 9.3 can be used to con-

vert from one system to another. The preferred unit in
the SI system is meters/second.
Coefficients kh, kt, e, and D are the hydraulic, thermal, Theoretical Equations for Hydraulic Conductivity
electrical conductivities, and the diffusion coefficient,
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respectively. Typical ranges of values for these prop- Fluid flow through soils finer than coarse gravel is lam-
erties are given later. The driving forces for flow are inar. Equations have been derived that relate hydraulic
conductivity to properties of the soil and permeating
given by the respective hydraulic, thermal, electrical,
fluid. A usual starting point for derivation of such
and chemical gradients, ih, it, ie, and ic, respectively.
equations is Poiseuille’s law for flow through a round
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The terms in Eqs. (9.2) through (9.5) are identified capillary, which gives the average flow velocity, vave,
in Fig. 9.1 and in Table 9.1, which also shows analogs according to
between the various flow types. As long as the flow
rates and gradients are linearly related, the mathemat- p R2
vave ⫽
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ical treatment of each flow type is the same, and the i (9.8)
8 h
equations for flow of one type may be used to solve
problems of another type provided the property values where is viscosity, R is tube radius, and p is unit
and boundary conditions are properly represented. Two
well-known practical illustrations of this are the cor-
respondence between the Terzaghi theory for clay con- 1
This ‘‘law’’ was established empirically by Darcy based on the re-
solidation and one-dimensional transient heat flow, and sults of flow tests through sands. Its general validity for the descrip-
tion of hydraulic flow through most soil types has been verified by
the use of electrical analogies for the study of seepage many subsequent studies. Historical accounts of the development of
problems. Darcy’s law are given by Brown et al. (2003).

HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY 253
Table 9.1 Conduction Analogies in Porous Media
Fluid Heat Electrical Chemical

Potential Total head h (m) Temperature T Voltage V (volts) Chemical potential or
(C) concentration c (mol
m⫺3)
Storage Fluid volume W Thermal energy u Charge Q (Coulomb) Total mass per unit total
(m3 /m3) (J/m3) volume, m (mol/m3)
Conductivity Hydraulic Thermal Electrical conductivity Diffusion coeff. D
conductivity kh conductivity kt (siemens/m) (m2 /s)
(W/m/ C)
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(m/s)
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Flow qh (m3 /s) qt (J/s) Current I (amp) jD (mol/s)
Flux qh /A (m3 /s/m2) qt /A (J/s/m2) I/A (amp/m2) JD ⫽ jD /A (mol s⫺1 m⫺2)
h T V c
Gradient ih ⫽ ⫺ (m/m) it ⫽ ⫺ (C/m) ie ⫽ ⫺ (v/m) ic ⫽ ⫺ (mol m⫺4)
x x x x
Conduction Darcy’s law Fourier’s law Ohm’s law Fick’s law
ate
h T V V c
qh ⫽ ⫺kh A qt ⫽ ⫺kt A I ⫽ ⫺e A⫽ JD ⫽ ⫺D A
x x x R x
Capacitance Coefficient of Volumetric heat Capacitance C (farads ⫽ Retardation factor, Rd
volume change C(J/ C/m3) coul/volt) (dimensionless)
dW a dQ
M⫽ dM⫽ w v ⫽ C⫽
dh 1⫹e dT
kh
cv
Continuity
W
t 冉冊 q
⫹ h ⫽0
A
u
t 冉冊
q
⫹ t ⫽0
A
Q
t
⫹ 冉冊
I
A
⫽0
(m)
t
⫹ JD ⫽ 0
Steady state 2qh ⫽ 0 2qt ⫽ 0 2I ⫽ 0 2JD ⫽ 0
h k 2h T k 2T V 2V c D* 2c
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Diffusion ⫽ h 2 ⫽ t 2 ⫽ ⫽
t M x t C x t C x2 t RD x2
冉 k
M
⫽ cv 冊冉冊
k
C
⫽a
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weight of the flowing fluid. Because the flow channels 1 p 2

qcir ⫽ R ia (9.10)
in a soil are of various sizes, a characteristic dimension 2 Hh
is needed to describe average size. The hydraulic ra-
py
dius RH
where a is the cross-sectional area of the tube. For
other shapes of cross section, an equation of the same
flow channel cross-section area form will apply, differing only in the value of a shape
RH ⫽
wetted perimeter coefficient Cs, so
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is useful. p RH2
For a circular tube flowing full, q ⫽ Cs ia (9.11)
h
R2 R
RH ⫽ ⫽ (9.9) For a bundle of parallel tubes of constant but irreg-
2R 2 ular cross section contributing to a total cross-sectional
area A (solids plus voids), the area of flow passages Aƒ
so Poiseuille’s equation becomes filled with water is

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Figure 9.2 Hydraulic conductivity values for several soils. Soil identification code: 1, com-
pacted caliche; 2, compacted caliche; 3, silty sand; 4, sandy clay; 5, beach sand; 6, compacted
Boston blue clay; 7, Vicksburg buckshot clay; 8, sandy clay; 9, silt—Boston; 10, Ottawa
sand; 11, sand—Gaspee Point; 12, sand—Franklin Falls; 13, sand–Scituate; 14, sand–Plum
dM
Island; 15, sand–Fort Peck; 16, silt—Boston; 17, silt—Boston; 18, loess; 19, lean clay; 20,
sand—Union Falls; 21, silt—North Carolina; 22, sand from dike; 23, sodium Boston blue
clay; 24, calcium kaolinite; 25, sodium montmorillonite; 26–30, sand (dam filter) (From
Lambe and Whitman (1969). Copyright 1969 by John Wiley & Sons. Reprinted with
permission from John Wiley & Sons.
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Figure 9.3 Hydraulic conductivity and permeability conversion chart.

Aƒ ⫽ SnA (9.12) (LT⫺1), and the absolute or intrinsic permeability K has
units of area (L2).
where S is the degree of saturation and n is the poros- The effects of permeant properties are accounted for
ity. For this condition the hydraulic radius is given by by the / p term, provided the fabric of the soil is the
same in the presence of different fluids. The pore shape
Aƒ Aƒ L volume available for flow factor k0 has a value of about 2.5 and the tortuosity
RH ⫽ ⫽ ⫽ factor has a value of about 兹2 in porous media con-
P PL wetted area
taining approximately uniform pore sizes.
Vw For equal size spheres, S0 becomes 6/D (⫽surface
⫽ (9.13) area/volume of a sphere), where D is the diameter. If
Vs S0
a soil is considered to consist of spheres of different
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where P is the wetted perimeter, L is the length of flow sizes, an effective diameter Deff can be computed from
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channel in the direction of flow, Vs is the volume of the particle size distribution (Carrier, 2003) according
solids and S0 is the wetted surface area per unit volume to
of particles. The wetted surface area depends on the
100%
particle sizes and the soil fabric and may be considered Deff ⫽ (9.19)
兺(ƒi /Dave,i)
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as an effective surface area per unit volume of solids.
It is less than the total specific surface area of the soil
where fi is the fraction of particles between two sizes
since flow will not occur adjacent to all particle sur-
(Dli and Dsi) and Dave,i is the average particle size be-
faces.
tween two sizes (⫽D0.5 0.5
li Dsi ); S0 can also be estimated
For void ratio e and volume of solids Vs, the volume
from the specific surface area. Methods for nonplastic
of water Vw is
soils and clayey soils are given in Chapter 3 and also
dM
Vw ⫽ eVs S (9.14)
are summarized by Chapuis and Aubertin (2003). Var-
ious modifications for S0 are available to take irregular
particle shapes (Loudon, 1952; Carrier, 2003) into ac-
Equation (9.11) becomes count.
冉冊冉冊冉冊
The Kozeny–Carman equation accounts well for the
p e dependency of permeability on void ratio in uniformly
q ⫽ Cs RH2 Snih A ⫽ Cs p RH2 S i A
1⫹e h graded sands and some silts; however, serious discrep-
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ancies are often found when it is applied to clays. The

(9.15)
main reasons for these discrepancies are that most clay
soils do not contain uniform pore sizes and changes in
and substitution for RH using Eqs. (9.13) and (9.14) pore fluid type are often accompanied by changes in
gives the clay fabric. Particles in clays are grouped in clus-
冉冊冉冊冉冊
ters or aggregates that have large intercluster pores and
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1 p 3 e3 small intracluster pores. The influences of fabric and

q ⫽ Cs S i A (9.16)
S 02 1⫹e h nonuniform pore sizes on the hydraulic conductivity of
fine-grained soils are discussed further later in this sec-
By analogy with Darcy’s law, tion.
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If comparisons are made using materials having the

kh ⫽ Cs 冉冊冉冊 p 1 e3
S0 1 ⫹ e
2
S3 (9.17)
same fabric, the influence of permeant on hydraulic
conductivity is quite well accounted for by the p /
term. If, however, a fine-grained soil is molded or com-
pacted in different permeants, then the fabrics may be
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For full saturation, S ⫽ 1, and denoting Cs by 1/

quite different, and the hydraulic conductivities for
(k0T 2), where k0 is a pore shape factor and T is a tor-
samples at the same void ratio can differ greatly.
tuosity factor, Eq. (9.17) becomes
If Cs in Eq. (9.17) is taken as a composite shape
冉冊冉冊
factor, and noting that total surface area per unit vol-
1 e3 ume is inversely proportional to particle size, then
K ⫽ kh ⫽ (9.18)
p k0 T S 0 1 ⫹ e
2 2
This is the Kozeny–Carman equation for the permea- kh ⫽ CD2s 冉冊

w e3
1⫹e
S3 (9.20)
bility of porous media (Kozeny, 1927; Carman, 1956).
The hydraulic conductivity kh has units of velocity where Ds is a characteristic grain size.

Like the Kozeny–Carman equation, Eq. (9.20) de- and clays (Khalifa et al., 2002). These nonsteady and
scribes the behavior of cohesionless soils reasonably turbulent flow conditions are not treated herein.
well, but it is inadequate for clays. For a uniform sand As early as 1898, instances were cited in which hy-
with bulky particles and a given permeant, Eqs. (9.17) draulic flow velocity in fine-grained materials in which
and (9.20) indicate that kh should vary directly with laminar flow can be expected increased more than pro-
e3 /(1 ⫹ e) and D2s , and experimental observations sup- portionally with increases in gradient (King, 1898).
port this. The absence of water flow at finite hydraulic gradients
Despite the inability of the theoretical equations to in ceramic filters of 0.1-m average pore diameter
predict the hydraulic conductivity accurately in many was reported by Derjaguin and Krylov (1944). Oakes
cases, they do reflect the overwhelming importance of (1960) found no detectable flow through a 30-cm-long
pore size. Flow velocity depends on the square of pore suspension of 6 percent Wyoming bentonite subjected
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radius, and hence the flow rate depends on radius to to a 50-cm head of water. Experiments by Miller and
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the fourth power. The specific surface in the Kozeny– Low (1963) led to the conclusion that there was a
Carman equation and the representative grain size term threshold gradient for flow through sodium montmo-
in Eq. (9.20) are both measures of pore size. All other rillonite. Flow rates through clay-bearing sandstones
factors equal, the hydraulic conductivity depends far were found to increase more than directly with gradi-
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more on the fine particles than on the large. A small ent up to gradients of 170 by von Englehardt and Tunn
percentage of fines can clog the pores of an otherwise (1955). Deviations from Darcy’s law in pure and nat-
coarse material and result in a manyfold lower hydrau- ural clays up to gradients of 900 were measured by
lic conductivity. On the other hand, the presence of Lutz and Kemper (1959). Apparent deviations from
fissures, cracks, root holes, and the like can result in Darcy’s law for flow in undisturbed soft clay are shown
enormous increases in the rate of water flow through
dM in Fig. 9.4.
an otherwise compact soil layer. The reported deviations from linearity between flow
Equation (9.20) predicts that the hydraulic conduc- rate and hydraulic gradient are most significant in the
tivity should vary with the cube of the degree of sat- lower range of gradients. Hydraulic gradients in the
uration, and some, but not all, experimental data field are seldom much greater than one. Thus, de-
support this, even in the case of fine-grained soils. viations from Darcy’s law, if real, could have very
Consideration of flow through unsaturated soils is important implications for the applicability of
given in Section 9.4. steady-state and transient flow analyses, including con-
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solidation, that are based on it. Furthermore, gradients

typically used in laboratory testing are high, commonly
Validity of Darcy’s Law more than 10, and often up to several hundred. This
A basic premise of Darcy’s law is that flow is laminar brings the suitability of laboratory test results as indi-
and steady through saturated porous media. If particle cators of field behavior into question.
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and pore sizes and flow rates are sufficiently great, then Three hypotheses have been proposed to account for
flow is turbulent, and Darcy’s law no longer applies. nonlinearity between flow velocity and gradient: (1)
Turbulent flow conditions are likely in flows through non-Newtonian water flow properties, (2) particle mi-
gravel and rockfill (Ahmed and Sunada, 1969; Ar- grations that cause blocking and unblocking of flow
bhabhirama and Dinoy, 1973; George and Hansen, passages, and (3) local consolidation and swelling that
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1992; Hansen et al., 1995; Li et al., 1998).2 Some mod- is inevitable when hydraulic gradients are applied
ification of Darcy’s law is needed also to account for across a compressible soil. The apparent existence of
nonsteady and wave-induced flows through sands, silts, a threshold gradient below which flow was not de-
tected was attributed to a quasi-crystalline water struc-
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ture. It is now known, however, that many of the

effects interpreted as resulting from unusual water
2
Flow transitions from laminar to turbulent flow when the Reynolds properties can be ascribed to undetected experimental
number Re, defined as the ratio of inertial to viscous forces, exceeds errors arising from contamination of measuring sys-
a critical value. For flow through soils the critical value of interstitial
flow Re is in the range of 1 to 10, with Re defined as (Khalifa et al.,
tems (Olsen, 1965), local consolidation and swelling,
2002) and bacterial growth (Gupta and Swartzendruber,
4 v
1962). Additional careful measurements by a number
Re ⫽ of investigators (e.g., Olsen, 1969; Gray and Mitchell,
(1 ⫺ n)Avd
1967; Mitchell and Younger, 1967; Miller et al., 1969;
in which is fluid density, is tortuosity (ratio of flow path mean
length to thickness), v is flow velocity, n is porosity, and Avd is the Chan and Kenney, 1973) failed to confirm the exis-
ratio of pore surface area exposed to flow to the volume of solid. tence of a threshold gradient in clays. Darcy’s law was

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dM
Figure 9.4 Dependence of flow velocity on hydraulic gradient. Undisturbed soft clay from
Skå Edeby, Sweden (from Hansbo, 1973).
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obeyed exactly in several of these studies. Thus it is electrolyte concentration was changed from 0.6 to 0.1
unlikely that unusual water properties are responsible N NaCl are shown in Fig. 9.5. The cumulative through-
for non-Darcy flow behavior. put is the ratio of the total flow volume at any time to
On the other hand, particle migrations leading to the sample pore volume. The hydraulic conductivities
void plugging and unplugging, electrokinetic effects, for these materials ranged from more than 1 ⫻ 10⫺7 to
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and chemical concentration gradients can cause appar- less than 1 ⫻ 10⫺9 m/s.
ent deviations from Darcy’s law. Analysis of interpar- Practical Implications Evidence indicates that
ticle bond strengths in relation to the magnitude of Darcy’s law is valid, provided that all system variables
seepage forces shows that particles that are not partic- are held constant. However, unless fabric changes, par-
ipating in the load-carrying skeleton of a soil mass can ticle migrations, and internal void ratio redistributions
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be moved under moderate values of hydraulic gradient. caused by effective stress and chemical changes can
Soils with open, flocculated fabrics and granular soils be shown to be negligible, hydraulic conductivity mea-
with a relatively low content of fines appear particu- surements in the laboratory should be made under con-
larly susceptible to the movement of fine particles dur- ditions of temperature, pressure, hydraulic gradient,
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ing permeation. and pore fluid chemistry as closely approximating

Internal swelling and dispersion of clay particles those in the field as possible. This is particularly im-
during permeation can cause changes in flow rate and portant in connection with the testing of clays as po-
apparent non-Darcy behavior. Tests on illite–silt tential waste containment barriers, such as slurry walls
mixtures showed that the hydraulic conductivity de- and liners for landfills and impoundments (Daniel,
pends on clay content, sedimentation procedure, 1994). Microbial activities may be important as well,
compression rate, and electrolyte concentration. Sub- as they can lead to formation of biofilms, pore clog-
sequent behavior was quite sensitive to the type and ging, and large reductions in hydraulic conductivity as
concentration of electrolyte used for permeation and shown, for example, by Dennis and Turner (1998).
the total throughput volume of permeant. Changes in Unfortunately, duplication of field conditions is not
relative hydraulic conductivity that occurred while the always possible, especially as regards the hydraulic

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Figure 9.5 Reduction in hydraulic conductivity as a result of internal swelling (from Hard-
castle and Mitchell, 1974).
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gradient. If hydraulic gradients are low enough to du- u0
i⫽ p (9.24)
plicate those in most field situations, then the labora-
dM wH
tory testing time usually becomes unacceptably long.
In such cases, tests over a range of gradients are de- The real gradient for any layer thickness or loading
sirable in order to assess the stability of the soil struc- intensity can be obtained by using actual values of u0
ture against changes due to seepage forces. and H and the appropriate value of p from Fig. 9.6.
Similarly, the gradients that are developed in labo- For small values of u0 / w H, as is the case in the
ratory consolidation tests on thin samples are many field, for example, for u0 ⫽ 50 kPa, H ⫽ 5m, then
times greater than exist in thick layers of the same clay u0 / w H ⫽ 1, and the field gradients are low throughout
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in the field. The variation of hydraulic gradient i with most of the layer thickness during the entire consoli-
time factor T during one-dimensional consolidation ac- dation process. On the other hand, for a laboratory
cording to the Terzaghi theory is shown in Fig. 9.6. sample of 10 mm thickness and the same stress in-
The solution of the Terzaghi equation gives excess crease, u0 / w H is 500, and the hydraulic gradients are
pore pressure u as a function of position (z/H) and very large. In this case a gradient-dependent hydraulic
time factor conductivity could be the cause of significant differ-
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ences between the laboratory-measured and field val-

冘 2uM 冉sin MzH 冊e
⬁
⫺M2T
ues of coefficient of consolidation. Constant rate of
u⫽ 0
(9.21) strain or constant gradient consolidation testing of such
m⫽0
soils is preferable to the use of load increments be-
py
cause lower gradients minimize particle migration ef-

where M ⫽ (2m ⫹ 1)/2. Thus, the hydraulic gradient fects.
is
冉冊冉冊
Anisotropy
冘
⬁

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u 2u0 Mz ⫺M2T
i⫽ ⫽ cos e (9.22) Anisotropic hydraulic conductivity results from both
z w wH m⫽0 H preferred orientation of elongated or platy particles and
stratification of soil deposits. Ratios of horizontal-to-
If a parameter p is defined by vertical hydraulic conductivity from less than 1 to
more than 7 were measured for undisturbed samples
冘 cos冉MzH 冊e
⬁ of several different clays (Mitchell, 1956). These ratios
⫺M2T
p⫽2 (9.23) correlated reasonably well with preferred orientation of
m⫽0
the clay particles, as observed in thin section. Ratios
of 1.3 to 1.7 were measured for kaolinite consolidated
Eq. (9.22) becomes one dimensionally from 4 to 256 atm, and 0.9 to 4.0

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Figure 9.6 Hydraulic gradients during consolidation according to the Terzaghi theory.
were measured for illite and Boston blue clay consol- drains are used. On the other hand, lateral drainage
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idated over a pressure range up to more than 200 atm beneath a loaded area may not be greatly influenced
(Olsen, 1962). A ratio of approximately 2 was mea- by a high ratio of horizontal to vertical conductivity if
sured for kaolinite over a range of void ratios corre- the width of loaded area is large compared to the thick-
sponding to consolidation pressures up to 4 atm ness of the drainage layer.
(Morgenstern and Tchalenko, 1967b). Thus, an average
hydraulic conductivity ratio of about 2 as a result of
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microfabric anisotropy may be typical for many clays. Fabric and Hydraulic Conductivity
Large anisotropy in hydraulic conductivity as a re- The theoretical relationships developed earlier in this
sult of stratification of natural soil deposits or in earth- section indicate that the flow velocity should depend
work compacted in layers is common. Varved clays on the square of the pore radius, and the flow rate is
have substantially greater hydraulic conductivity in the proportional to the fourth power of the radius. Thus,
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horizontal direction than in the vertical direction owing fabrics with a high proportion of large pores are much
to the presence of thin silt layers between the thin clay more pervious than those with small pores. For ex-
layers. The ratio of horizontal values to vertical values ample, remolding several undisturbed soft clays re-
determined in the laboratory, rk, is 10 5 for Con- duced the hydraulic conductivity by as much as a
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necticut Valley varved clay (Ladd and Wissa, 1970). factor of 4, with an average of about 2 (Mitchell,
Similar values were measured for the varved clay in 1956). This reduction results from the breakdown of a
the New Jersey meadows. Values less than 5 were mea- flocculated open fabric and the destruction of large
sured for New Liskeard, Ontario, varved clay (Chan pores.
and Kenney, 1973). An illustration of the profound influence of com-
The practical importance of a high hydraulic con- paction water content on the hydraulic conductivity of
ductivity in the horizontal direction depends on the dis- fine-grained soil is shown in Fig. 9.7. All samples were
tance to a drainage boundary and the type of flow. For compacted to the same density. For samples compacted
example, the rate of groundwater flow will clearly be using the same compactive effort, curves such as those
affected, as will the rate of consolidation when vertical in Fig. 9.8 are typical. For compaction dry of optimum,

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Figure 9.8 Influence of compaction method on the hydraulic

conductivity of silty clay. Constant compactive effort was
used for all samples.
Figure 9.7 Hydraulic conductivity as a function of compac-

py
tion water content for samples of silty clay prepared to con- Three levels of fabric are important when consid-
stant density by kneading compaction. ering the hydraulic conductivity of finer-grained soils.
The microfabric consists of the regular aggregations of
particles and the very small pores, perhaps with sizes
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clay particles and aggregates are flocculated, the resis- up to about 1 m, between them through which very
tance to rearrangement during compaction is high, and little fluid will flow. The minifabric contains these ag-
a fabric with comparatively large pores is formed. For gregations and the interassemblage pores between
higher water contents, the particle groups are weaker, them. The interassemblage pores may be up to several
and fabrics with smaller average pore sizes are formed. tens of micrometers in diameter. Flows through these
Considerably lower values of hydraulic conductivity pores will be much greater than through the intraag-
are obtained wet of optimum in the case of kneading gregate pores. On a larger scale, there may be a ma-
compaction than by static compaction (Fig. 9.8) be- crofabric that contains cracks, fissures, laminations, or
cause the high shear strains induced by the kneading root holes through which the flow rate is so great as
compaction method break down flocculated fabric to totally obscure that through the other pore space
units. types.

These considerations are of particular importance in aggregates or clusters as shown schematically in Fig.
the hydraulic conductivity of compacted clays used as 9.10. These aggregates of N particles each have an
barriers for waste containment. The controlling units intracluster void ratio ec. The spaces between the ag-
in these materials are the clods, which would corre- gregates comprise the intercluster voids and are
spond to minifabric units. Acceptably low hydraulic responsible for the intercluster void ratio ep. The total
conductivity values are obtained only if clods and in- void ratio eT is equal to the sum of ec and ep. The
terclod pores are eliminated during compaction (Ben- clusters and intracluster voids comprise the microfa-
son and Daniel, 1990). This requires that compaction bric, whereas the assemblage of clusters comprises the
be done wet of optimum using a high effort and a minifabric. Fluid flow in such a system is dominated
method that produces large shear strains, such as by by flow through the intercluster pores because of their
sheepsfoot roller. larger size.
l
The wide range of values of hydraulic conductivity The sizes of clusters depend on the mineralogical
ria
of compacted fine-grained soils that results from the and pore fluid compositions and the formational proc-
large differences in fabric associated with compaction ess. Conditions that favor aggregation of individual
to different water contents and densities is illustrated clay plates produce larger clusters than deflocculating,
by Fig. 9.9. The grouping of contours means that se- dispersing environments. There is general consistency
lection of a representative value for use in a seepage with the interparticle double-layer interactions de-
ate
analysis is difficult. In addition, if it is required that scribed in Chapter 6. When a fine-grained soil is
the hydraulic conductivity of earthwork not exceed a sedimented in or mixed with waters of different
certain value, such as may be the case for a clay liner electrolyte concentration or type or with fluids of dif-
for a waste pond, then specifications must be carefully ferent dielectric constants, quite different fabrics result.
drawn. In so doing, it must be recognized also that
dM This explains why the / term in Eqs. (9.18) and
other properties, such as strength, also vary with com- (9.20) is inadequate to account for pore fluid differ-
paction water content and density and that the com- ences, unless comparisons are made using samples
paction conditions that are optimal for one property having identical fabrics. This will only be the case
may not be suitable for the other. A procedure for the when a pore fluid of one type replaces one of another
development of suitable specifications for compacted type without disturbance to the soil.
clay liners is given by Daniel and Benson (1990). The cluster model developed by Olsen (1962) ac-
The primary reason equations such as (9.18) and counts for discrepancies between the predicted and
hte
(9.20) fail to account quantitatively for the variation of measured variations in flow rates through different
the hydraulic conductivity of fine-grained soils with soils. The following equation can be derived for the
change in void ratio is unequal pore sizes (Olsen, ratio of estimated flow rate for a cluster model, qCM to
1962). A typical soil has a fabric composed of small the flow rate predicted by the Kozeny–Carman equa-
tion (9.18) qKC:
rig
py
Co
Figure 9.9 Contours of constant hydraulic conductivity for Figure 9.10 Cluster model for permeability prediction (after Ol-
silty clay compacted using kneading compaction. sen, 1962).

qCM (1 ⫺ ec /eT)3 found reasonable for compacted fine-grained soils and

⫽ N2/3 (9.25)
qKC (1 ⫹ ec)4 / 3 degrees of saturation greater than about 80 percent.
Similarly to Eq. (9.7), the unsaturated flow equation
Application of Eq. (9.25) requires assumptions for in the direction i can be written as
冉冊
the variations of ec with eT that accompany compres-
sion and rebound. Olsen (1962) considered the relative z
vi ⫽ ⫺k(S) ⫹ (9.26)
compressibility of individual clusters and cluster as- xi xi
semblages. The compressibility of individual clusters
is small at high total void ratios, so compression is where k(S) is saturation-dependent hydraulic conduc-
accompanied by reduction in the intercluster pore tivity, is the matric suction equivalent head (L), and
sizes, but with little change in intracluster void ratio. z/ xi is the unit gravitational vector measured upward
l
This assumption is supported by the microstructure in direction z (1.0 if xi is the direction of gravity z).
ria
studies of Champlain clay by Delage and Lefebvre When percolating water infiltrates vertically into dry
(1984) Thus, the actual hydraulic conductivity de- soil, the hydraulic gradient near the sharp wetting front
creases more rapidly with decreasing void ratio during can be very large because of a large value of the /
compression than predicted by the Kozeny–Carman x term. However, the wetting front becomes less sharp
ate
equation until the intercluster pore space is comparable as the infiltration proceeds and the gravity term then
to that in a system of closely packed spheres, when dominates. The hydraulic gradient then is close to one
the clusters themselves begin to compress. Further de- and the magnitude of flux is equal to the hydraulic
creases in porosity involve decreases in both ec and eT. conductivity k(S).
As the intercluster void ratio now decreases less rap- Using Eq. (9.26), the equation of mass conservation
idly, the hydraulic conductivity decreases at a slower
dM becomes
rate with decreasing porosity than predicted by the
Kozeny–Carman equation. During rebound increase in
porosity develops mainly by swelling of the clusters,
whereas the flow rate continues to be controlled pri-
(nS)
t
⫽

xi 冋冉
k(S)

xi
⫹
z
xi 冊册 ⫹
R
w
(9.27)
marily by the intercluster voids.

where n is the porosity, w is the density of the water,
Recent attempts to quantify saturation and hydraulic
and R is a source or sink mass transfer term such as
conductivity of fine-grained soils containing a distri-
water uptake by plant roots (ML⫺3).
hte
bution of particle sizes and fabric elements in terms of

If the soil is assumed to be incompressible and there
pore-scale relationships have given promising results
is no sink/sources (R ⫽ 0), Eq. (9.27) becomes
(Tuller and Or, 2003). Expressions for clay plate spac-
冋冉冊册
ing in terms of surface properties and solution com-
S z
position derived using DLVO theory (see Chapter 6), n ⫽ k() ⫹
combined with assumed geometrical representations of t xi xi xi
rig
clay aggregates and pore space in combination with

silt and sand components, are used in the formulation. or C()

t
⫽

xi 冋冉
k()

xi
⫹
z
xi 冊册 (9.28)
where C() ⫽ n(S/ ) and k(S) is converted to k()

py
9.4 FLOWS THROUGH UNSATURATED SOILS

using the soil–water characteristic curve (S– relation-
Darcy’s law [Eq. (9.7)] also applies for flow through ships). Equation (9.28) is called the Richards equation
unsaturated soils such as those in the vadose zone (Richards, 1931). For given S– and k() relationships
above the water table where pore water pressures are and initial/boundary conditions, the nonlinear govern-
Co
negative. However, the hydraulic conductivity is not ing equation can be solved for (often numerically by
constant and depends on the amount and connectivity the finite difference or finite element method).
of water in the pores. For instance, Eq. (9.20) predicts The hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soils can
that hydraulic conductivity should vary as the cube of be a function of saturation, water content, matric suc-
the degree of saturation.3 This relationship has been tion, or others. Measured hydraulic conductivities of
well-graded sand and clayey sand as a function of (a)
matric suction and (b) saturation ratio are shown in
3
The hydraulic conductivity can also be a function of volumetric Fig. 9.11. Both figures are related to each other, as the
moisture content or matric suction . These variables are related
to each other by the soil–water characteristic curve as described in matric suction is a function of saturation ratio by the
Chapter 7. soil moisture characteristic curve as described in Sec-

FLOWS THROUGH UNSATURATED SOILS 263
1.E+01 1.E+01
1.E-01 Sand 1.E-01 Sand
Clayey Sand
Hydraulic Conductivity (m/s)

1.E-03 Clayey Sand
Hydraulic conductivity (m/s)

1.E-03
1.E-05 1.E-05
1.E-07 Clayey Sand > Sand 1.E-07
1.E-09 1.E-09
1.E-11 1.E-11
1.E-13 1.E-13
1.E-15 1.E-15
1.E-17 1.E-17
1.E-19 Sand > Clayey Sand
1.E-19
1.E-21 1.E-21
1.E-01 1.E+00 1.E+01 1.E+02 1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05 0 20 40 60 80 100
l
Matric Suction (kPa) Saturation (%)
ria
(a) (b)
1.E+00
1.E+00
Sand 1.E-02
Relative Permeability kr
1.E-02
Relative Permeability kr
Clayey Sand
1.E-04
ate
1.E-04
1.E-06
1.E-06
1.E-08 1.E-08
1.E-10 1.E-10
1.E-12 1.E-12 Sand

1.E-14
1.E-16
dM
1.E-01 1.E+00 1.E+01 1.E+02 1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05
1.E-14
1.E-16
0 20 40 60
Clayey Sand
80 100
Matric Suction (kPa) Saturation (%)
(c) (d)
Figure 9.11 Hydraulic conductivity of partially saturated sand and clayey sand as a function
of matric suction and degree of saturation (from Stephens, 1996).
hte
tion 7.12. Various methods to measure the hydraulic meability, no interconnected path for the permeating
conductivity of unsaturated soils are available (Klute, fluid) to 1 (⫽ permeating fluid at full saturation). The
1986; Fredlund and Rahardjo, 1993). However, the equation can be used for a nonwetting fluid (e.g., air)
rig
measurement in unsaturated soils is more difficult to by substituting the values of and of the nonwetting
perform than in saturated soils because the hydraulic fluid.
conductivity needs to be determined under controlled The data in Fig. 9.11a and 9.11b can be replotted
water saturation or matric suction conditions. as the relative permeability against matric suction in
A general expression for the hydraulic conductivity Fig. 9.11c and against saturation ratio in Fig. 9.11d.
py
k of unsaturated soils can be written as The two different curves in Fig. 9.11d clearly show
that kr ⫽ S3 derived from Eq. (9.20) is not universally
g applicable. At very low water contents, the water in
k ⫽ krK ⫽ kr ks (9.29)
the pores becomes disconnected as described in Chap-
Co
ter 7. Careful experiments show that the movement of

where ks is the saturated conductivity, K is the intrinsic water exists even at moisture contents of a few percent,
permeability of the medium (L2) such as given by Eq. but vapor transport becomes more important at this dry
(9.18), is the density of the permeating fluid (ML⫺3), state (Grismer et al., 1986). Therefore, Eq. (9.20) is
g is the acceleration of gravity (LT⫺2), is the dynamic not suitable for low saturations. One reason for this
viscosity of the permeating fluid (MT⫺1L⫺1), and ks is discrepancy is that soil contains pores of various sizes
the conductivity under the condition that the pores are rather than the assumption of uniform pore sizes used
fully filled by the permeating fluid (i.e., full saturation). to derive Eq. (9.20).
The dimensionless parameter kr is called the relative Considering that the soil contains pores of random
permeability, and the values range from 0 (⫽ zero per- sizes, Marshall (1958) derived the following equation

for hydraulic conductivity as a function of pore sizes in which k(i) is the calculated hydraulic conductivity
for an isotropic material: for a specified water content i; is i the last water con-
tent class on the wet end, for example, i ⫽ 1 denotes
n2 r 21 ⫹ 3r 22 ⫹ 5r 23 ⫹ ⫹ (2m ⫺ 1)r 2m the pore class corresponding to the saturated water
K⫽ content S, and i ⫽ l denotes the pore class correspond-
m2 8
ing to the lowest water content L for which hydraulic
(9.30) conductivity is calculated; ks /ksc is the matching factor,
defined as the measured saturated hydraulic conductiv-
in which K is the specific hydraulic conductivity (per- ity divided by the calculated saturated hydraulic con-
meability) (L2), n is the porosity, m is the total number ductivity; and l is the total number of pore classes (a
of pore classes, and ri is the mean radius of the pores pore class is a pore size range corresponding to a water
l
in pore class i. Pore sizes can be measured from data content increment) between ⫽ L and S. Thus
ria
on the amount of water withdrawn as the suction on
the soil is progressively increased. Using the capillary m S
equation, the radius of the largest water-filled pore un- ⫽ (9.35)
l S ⫺ L
der a suction of (L) is given by
ate
A constant value of l is used at all water contents, and
2
r⫽ (9.31) the value of l establishes the number of pore classes
wg for which ⫺2 terms are included in the calculation at
j
saturation. Other pore size distribution models for un-
in which is the surface tension of water, w is the saturated soils are available, and an excellent review
density of water, and g is the acceleration of gravity.
dM of these models is given by Mualem (1986).
As it is usually more convenient to use moisture suc- Equation (9.34) can be written in an integration form
tion than pore radius, Eq. (9.29) can be rewritten as as (after Fredlund et al., 1994)
K⫽
2 n2 ⫺2
[ ⫹ 32⫺2 ⫹ 5⫺2
22wg2 m2 1 3 k() ⫽
ks 2 Sp
ksc 2wg
冕

L
⫺x
2(x)
dx (9.36)
⫹ ⫹ (2m ⫺ 1)⫺2
m ] (9.32)
hte
where suction is given as a function of volumetric

The permeability K can be converted to the hydraulic water content , and x is a dummy variable. The hy-
conductivity k by multiplying the unit weight (wg) di- draulic conductivity for fully saturated condition is cal-
vided by the dynamic viscosity of water . This gives culated by assigning ⫽ S. For generality, the term
2S in Eq. (9.34) is replaced by ps , where p is a constant
2 n2 ⫺2 that accounts for the interaction of pores of various
rig
k⫽ [ ⫹ 3⫺2
2 ⫹ 53
⫺2
sizes (Fredlund et al., 1994).
2wg m2 1
From Eq. (9.36), the relative permeability kr is a
⫹ ⫹ (2m ⫺ 1)⫺2
m ] (9.33) function of water content as follows:
冒冕 S
py
Following Green and Corey (1971), the porosity n ⫺x ⫺x

equals the volumetric water content of the saturated kr() ⫽ dx dx (9.37)
r 2(x) r 2(x)
condition S, and m is the total number of pore classes
between S and zero water content ⫽ 0.
A matching factor is usually used in Eq. (9.33) to Herein, the lowest water content L is assumed to be
Co
equate the calculated and measured hydraulic conduc- the residual water content r. If the moisture content
tivities. Matching at full saturation is preferable to –suction relationship (or the soil–water character-
matching at a partial saturation point because it is sim- istic curve) is known, the relative permeability kr can
pler and gives better results. Rewriting Eq. (9.33) and be computed from Eq. (9.37) by performing a numer-
introducing a matching factor gives ical integration. The hydraulic conductivity k is then
estimated from Eq. (9.29) with the knowledge of sat-
冘 [(2j ⫹ 1 ⫺ 2i)
ks 2 2S l urated hydraulic conductivity ks.
k(i) ⫽ ⫺2
] The use of the soil–water characteristic curve to es-
ksc 2wg m2 j⫽1
j
timate the hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soils
(i ⫽ 1, 2, . . . , l) (9.34) is attractive because it is easier to determine this curve

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY 265
in the laboratory than it is to measure the hydraulic larger than the vertically infiltrating water flow. How-
conductivity directly. Apart from Eq. (9.37), the fol- ever, if the matric suction is reduced by large infiltra-
lowing relative permeability function proposed by Mu- tion, the barrier breaks and water enters into the
alem (1976) is often used primarily because of its initially dry coarse layer. Solutions are available to
simplicity: evaluate the amount of water flowing laterally across
the capillary barrier interface at the point of break-
kr() ⫽ 冉
⫺ r
s ⫺ r 冊冉冕 d()冒冕
q
r
s
r
d
() 冊
2
(9.38)
through for a given set of fine and coarse soil hydraulic
properties and interface inclination (Ross, 1990; Steen-
huis et al., 1991; Selkar, 1997; Webb, 1997).
Capillary barriers have received increased attention
where q describes the degree of connectivity between as a means for isolating buried waste from ground-
l
the water-conducting pores. Mualem (1976) states that water flow and as part of landfill cover systems in dry
q ⫽ 0.5 is appropriate based on permeability measure-
ria
climates (Morris and Stormont, 1997; Selkar, 1997;
ments on 45 soils. van Genuchten et al. (1991) substi- Khire et al., 2000). The barrier can be used to divert
tuted the soil–water characteristic equation (7.52) into the flow laterally along an interface and/or to store
Eq. (9.38) and obtained the following closed-form so- infiltrating water temporarily in the fine layer so that
lution4: it can be removed ultimately by evaporation and tran-
ate
冉冊再冋冉冊册冎
p 1/m m 2
spiration. Capillary barriers are constructed as simple
⫺ r ⫺ r two-layer systems of contrasting particle size or mul-
kr() ⫽ 1⫺ 1⫺
S ⫺ r S ⫺ r tiple layers of fine- and coarse-grained soils. If the
(9.39) thickness of the overlying fine layer is too small, cap-
dM illary diversion is reduced because of the confining
flow path in the fine layer. The minimum effective
Both Eq. (9.39) as well as Eq. (9.37) using the soil– thickness is several times the air-entry head of the fine
water characteristic curve by Fredlund and Xing soil (Warrick et al., 1997; Smersrud and Selker, 2001).
(1994) give good predictions of measured data as Khire et al. (2000) stress the importance of site-specific
shown in Fig. 9.12. metrological and hydrological conditions in determin-
The two hydraulic conductivity–matric suction ing the storage capacity of the fine layer. The soil for
curves shown in Fig. 9.11a cross each other at a matric the underlying coarse layer should have a very large
hte
suction value of approximately 50 kPa (or 5 m above particle size contrast with the fine soil, but fines
the water table under hydrostatic condition). Below migrations into the coarse sand should be avoided.
this value, the hydraulic conductivity of sand is larger Smesrud and Sekler (2001) suggest the d50 particle size
than that of the clayey sand. However, as the matric ratio of 5 to be ideal. The thickness of the coarse sand
suction increases, the water in the sand drains rapidly layer does not need to be great, as the purpose of the
toward its residual value, giving a very low hydraulic layer is simply to impede the downward water migra-
rig
conductivity. On the other hand, the clayey sand holds tion.

the pore water by the presence of fines and the hy-
draulic conductivity becomes larger than that of the
sand at a given matric suction.
9.5 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
If the sand is overlain by the clayey sand, then the
py
matric suction at the interface is larger than 50 kPa, Heat flow through soil and rock is almost entirely by
and the water infiltrating downward through the finer conduction, with radiation unimportant, except for sur-
clayey sand cannot enter into the coarser sand layer face soils, and convection important only if there is a
because the underlying sand layer is less permeable high flow rate of water or air, as might possibly occur
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than the overlying clayey sand. The water will instead through a coarse sand or rockfill. The thermal conduc-
move laterally along the bedding interface. This phe- tivity controls heat flow rates. Conductive heat flow is
nomenon is called a capillary barrier (e.g., Zaslavsky primarily through the solid phase of a soil mass. Values
and Sinai, 1981; Yeh et al., 1985; Miyazaki, 1988). of thermal conductivity for several materials are listed
The barrier will be maintained as long as the lateral in Table 9.2. As the values for soil minerals are much
discharge along the interface (preferably inclined) is higher than those for air and water, it is evident that
the heat flow must be predominantly through the sol-
ids. Also included in Table 9.2 are values for the heat
4
m ⫽ 1 ⫺ 1 / n is assumed (van Genuchten et al., 1991). See Eq. capacity, volumetric heat, heat of fusion, and heat of
(7.52). vaporization of water. The heat capacity can be used

10
Hydraulic Conductivity, k × 10(m/s)
Hydraulic Conductivity, k (cm/day)

1
0.1 Predicted coefficient

of permeability
(drying)
Predicted coefficient
0.01 of permeability
(wetting)
l
Measured coefficient
ria
of permeability
(drying)
0.001
Measured coefficient
of permeability
(wetting)
0.0001
ate
20 30 40 50 60
Volumetric Water Content
(a)
Figure 9.12 Comparisons of predicted and measured relationships between hydraulic con-
ductivity and volumetric water content for two soils. (a) By Eq. (9.37) with the measured
data for Guelph loam (from Fredlund et al., 1994) and (b) by Eq. (9.39) with the measured
dM
data for crushed Bandelier Tuff (van Genuchten et al., 1991).
to compute the volumetric heat using the simple rela- to carry heat away from buried electrical transmission
tionships for frozen and unfrozen soil given in the ta- cables, or as an insulating material, for example, for
ble. Volumetric heat is needed for the analysis of many underground storage of liquefied gases. The water con-
hte
types of transient heat flow problems. The heat of fu- tent below which the thermal resistivity begins to rise
sion is used for analysis of ground freezing and thaw- with further drying is termed the critical water content,
ing, and the heat of vaporization applies to situations and below this point the system is said to have lost
where there are liquid to vapor phase transitions. thermal stability (Brandon et al., 1989).
The denser a soil, the higher is its composite thermal The following factors influence the thermal resistiv-
conductivity, owing to the much higher thermal con- ity of partly saturated soils (Brandon and Mitchell,
rig
ductivity of the solids relative to the water and air. 1989).

Furthermore, since water has a higher thermal conduc-
tivity than air, a wet soil has a higher thermal conduc- Mineralogy All other things equal, quartz sands
tivity than a dry soil. The combined influences of soil have higher thermal conductivity than sands con-
unit weight and water content are shown in Fig. 9.13, taining a high percentage of mica.
py
which may be used for estimates of the thermal con- Dry Density The higher the dry density of a soil,
ductivity for many cases. If a more soil-specific value the higher is the thermal conductivity.
is needed, they may be measured in the laboratory us- Gradation Well-graded soils conduct heat better
ing the thermal needle method (ASTM, 2000). More than poorly graded soils because smaller grains
Co
detailed treatment of methods for the measurement of can fit into the interstitial spaces between the
the thermal conductivity of soils are given by Mitchell larger grains, thus increasing the density and the
and Kao (1978) and Farouki (1981, 1982). mineral-to-mineral contact.
The relationship between thermal resistivity (inverse Compaction Water Content Some sands that com-
of conductivity) and water content for a partly satu- pacted wet and then dried to a lower water content
rated soil undergoing drying is shown in Fig. 9.14. If have significantly higher thermal conductivity
drying causes the water content to fall below a certain than when compacted initially at the lower water
value, the thermal resistivity increases significantly. content.
This may be important in situations where soil is used Time Sands containing high percentages of silica,
as either a thermally conductive material, for example, carbonates, or other materials that can develop ce-

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY 267
Table 9.2 Thermal Properties of Materials a
Thermal
Conductivity Material Btu/h/ft2 / F/ft W/m/K
Air 0.014 0.024
Water 0.30 0.60
Ice 1.30 2.25
Snow
(100 kg m⫺3) 0.03 0.06
(500 kg m⫺3) 0.34 0.59
l
Shale 0.90 1.56
ria
Granite 1.60 2.76
Concrete 1.0 1.8
Copper 225 389
Soil 0.15–1.5 (⬇1.0) 0.25–2.5 (⬇1.7)
Polystyrene 0.015–0.035 0.03–0.06
ate
Heat Capacity Material Btu/lb/ F kJ/kg/K
Water 1.0 4.186
Ice 0.5 2.093
dM Snow
(100 kg m⫺3) 0.05 0.21
(500 kg m⫺3) 0.25 1.05
Minerals 0.17 0.710
Rocks 0.20–0.55 0.80–2.20
Volumetric Heat Material Btu/ft3 / F kJ/m3 /K
Unfrozen Soil d (0.17 ⫹ w/100) d (72.4 ⫹ 427w/100)
hte
Soil
Frozen soil d (0.17 ⫹ 0.5w/100) d (72.4 ⫹ 213w/100)
Snow
(100 kg m⫺3) 3.13 210
(500 kg m⫺3) 15.66 1050
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Heat of Fusion Water 143.4 Btu/lb 333 kJ/kg

Soil 143.4(w/100) d Btu/ft3 3.40 ⫻ 104(w/100) d kJ/m3
Heat of Vaporization Water 970 Btu/lb 2.26 MJ/kg
Soil 970(w/100) d Btu/ft3 230(w /100) d MJ/m3
d ⫽ dry unit weight, in lb/ft3 for U.S. units and in kN/m3 for SI units; w ⫽ water content in percent.
py
mentation may exhibit an increased thermal con- 9.6 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY

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ductivity with time.

Temperature All crystalline minerals in soils have Ohm’s law, Eq. (9.4), in which e is the electrical con-
decreasing thermal conductivity with increasing ductivity, applies to soil–water systems. The electrical
temperature; however, the thermal conductivity of conductivity equals the inverse of the electrical resis-
water increases slightly with increasing tempera- tivity, or
ture, and the thermal conductivity of saturated
pore air increases markedly with increasing tem- 1 L
e ⫽ (siemens/meter; S/m) (9.40)
perature. The net effect is that the thermal con- RA
ductivity of moist sand increases somewhat with
increasing temperature. where R is the resistance ( ), L is length of sample

fects particle size, shape, and surface conductance, soil

structure, including fabric and cementation, and tem-
perature.
Electrical measurements found early applications in
the fields of petroleum engineering, geophysical map-
ping and prospecting, and soil science, among others.
The inherent complexity of soil–water systems and the
difficulty in characterizing the wide ranges of particle
size, shape, and composition have precluded develop-
ment of generally applicable theoretical equations for
electrical conductivity. However, a number of empiri-
l
cal equations and theoretical expressions based on
ria
simplified models may provide satisfactory results,
depending on the particular soil and conditions. They
differ in assumptions about the possible flow paths for
electric current through a soil–water matrix, the path
lengths and their relative importance, and whether
ate
charged particle surfaces contribute to the total current
flow.
Nonconductive Particle Models

Figure 9.13 Thermal conductivity of soil (after Kersten,
1949). Formation Factor The electrical conductivity of
dM clean saturated sands and sandstones is directly propor-
tional to the electrical conductivity of the pore water (Ar-
chie, 1942). The coefficient of proportionality depends on
porosity and fabric. Archie (1942) defined the formation
factor, F, as the resistivity of the saturated soil, T, divided
by the resistivity of the saturating solution, W, that is,
hte
T
F⫽ ⫽ W (9.41)
W T
where W and T are the electrical conductivities of the

pore water and saturated soil, respectively.
rig
An empirical correlation between formation factor and

porosity for clean sands and sandstones is given by
F ⫽ n⫺m (9.42)
py
where n is porosity, and m equals from 1.3 for loose sands

to 2 for highly cemented sandstones. An empirical relation
Figure 9.14 Typical relationship between thermal resistivity between formation factor at 100 percent water saturation
Co
and water content for a compacted sand. and ‘‘apparent’’ formation factor at saturation less than
100 percent is
(m), and A is its cross-sectional area (m2). The value W

FatSw⫽1 ⫽ (Sw)p (9.43)
of electrical conductivity for a saturated soil is usually T
in the approximate range of 0.01 to 1.0 S/m. The spe-
cific value depends on several properties of the soil, where p is a constant determined experimentally. Archie
including porosity, degree of saturation, composition suggested a value of p ⫽ 2; however, other published val-
(conductivity) of the pore water, mineralogy as it af- ues of p range from 1.4 to 4.6, depending on the soil and

whether a given saturation is reached by wetting or by tance of clayey particles to the total current flow would
drainage. be small.
Capillary Model In this and the theoretical models
that follow, direct current (DC) conductivity is as- Conductive Particle Models
sumed, although they may apply to low-frequency al-
ternating current (AC) models as well. Consider a In conductive particle models the contribution of the
saturated soil sample of length L and cross-sectional ions concentrated at the surface of negatively charged
area A. If the pores are assumed to be connected and particles is taken into account. Two simple mixture
can be represented by a bundle of tubes of equal radius models are presented below; other models can be
and length Le and total area Ae, where Ae ⫽ porosity found in Santamarina et al. (2001).
⫻ A, and Le is the actual length of the flow path, then Two-Parallel-Resistor Model A contribution of sur-
face conductance is included, and the soil–water sys-
l
an equation for the formation factor as a function of
ria
the porosity n and the tortuosity T ⫽ Le /L is tem is equivalent to two electrical resistors in parallel
(Waxman and Smits, 1968). The result is that the total
electrical conductivity T is
T2
F⫽ (9.44)
n
T ⫽ X(W ⫹ s) (9.49)
ate
For S ⬍ 1, and assuming that the area available for
electrical flow is nSA, then F ⫽ T 2 /nS. In principle, if in which s is a surface conductivity term, and X is a
F is measured for a given soil and n is known, a value constant analogous to the reciprocal of the formation
of tortuosity can be calculated to use in the Kozeny– factor that represents the internal geometry.
Carman equation for hydraulic conductivity.
dM This approach yields better fits of T versus W data
Cluster Model As discussed earlier in connection for clay-bearing soils. However, it assumes a constant
with hydraulic conductivity, the cluster model (Olsen, value for the contribution of the surface ions that is
1961, 1962) shown in Fig. 9.10 assumes unequal pore independent of the electrolyte concentration in the pore
sizes. Three possible paths for electrical current flow water, and it fails to include a contribution for the sur-
can be considered: (1) through the intercluster pores, face conductance and pore water conductance in a se-
(2) through the intracluster pores, and (3) alternately ries path.
through inter- and intracluster pores. On this basis the Three-Element Network Model A third path is in-
hte
following equations for formation factor as a function cluded in this formulation that considers flow along
of the cluster model parameters can be derived (Olsen, particle surfaces and through pore water in series in
1961): addition to the paths included in the two-parallel-
resistor model. The flow paths and equivalent electrical
冉冊冉冊
circuit are shown in Fig. 9.15. Analysis of the electrical
1 ⫹ eT 1
F ⫽ T2 (9.45) network for determination of T gives
rig
eT ⫺ ec 1⫹X
aWs
X⫽Y⫹Z (9.46) T ⫽ ⫹ bs ⫹ cW (9.50)
(1 ⫺ e)W ⫹ es
py
[(1 ⫹ eT)/(eT ⫺ ec)]2

Y⫽ (9.47) If the surface conductivity s is negligible, the sim-
1 ⫹ (Tc /T)2 [(1 ⫹ ec)2 /ec(eT ⫺ ec)]
ple formulation proposed by Archie (1942) for sands
冉冊冉冊 2 is obtained; that is, T ⫽ constant ⫻ W. Some of the

ec T geometric parameters a, b, c, d, and e can be written
Z⫽a (9.48)
Co
eT ⫺ ec Tc as functions of porosity and degree of saturation; oth-

ers are obtained through curve regression analysis of
in which T is the intercluster tortuosity, Tc is the intra- T versus W data.
cluster tortuosity, and a is the effective cluster ‘‘contact Soil conductivity as a function of pore fluid con-
area.’’ The cluster contact area is very small except for ductivity is shown in Fig. 9.16 for a silty clay. The
heavily consolidated systems. three-element model fits the data well over the full
This model successfully describes the flow of cur- range, the two-element model gives good predictions
rent in soils saturated with high conductivity water. In for the higher values of conductivity, and the simple
such systems, the contribution of the surface conduc- formation factor relationship is a reasonable average

l
ria
ate
Figure 9.15 Three-element network model for electrical conductivity: (a) current flow paths
and (b) equivalent electrical circuit.
dM
for conductivity values in the range of about 0.3 to 0.6 frequency, and 0 is the permittivity of vacuum [8.85
S/m. ⫻ 10⫺12 C2 /(Nm2)]. The frequency-dependent effective
conductivities of deionized water and kaolinite–water
Alternating Current Conductivity and Dielectric mixtures at two different water contents (0.2 and 33
Constant percent) are shown in Fig. 9.18a. The complicated in-
teractions of different polarization mechanisms are re-
The electrical response of a soil in an AC field is fre-
hte
sponsible for the variations shown.

quency dependent owing to the polarizability proper-
A material is dielectric if charges are not free to
ties of the system constituents. Several scale-dependent
move due to their inertia. Higher frequencies are
polarization mechanisms are possible in soils, as
needed to stop polarization at smaller scales. The di-
shown in Fig. 9.17. The smaller the element size the
electric constant (or the real relative permittivity !5)
higher the polarization frequency. At the atomic and
decreases with increasing frequency; more polariza-
rig
molecular scales, there are polarizations of electrons

tion mechanisms occur at lower frequencies. The
[electronic resonance at ultraviolet (UV) frequencies],
frequency-dependent dielectric constants of deionized
ions [ionic resonance at infrared (IR) frequencies], and
water and kaolinite–water mixtures are shown in Fig.
dipolar molecules (orientational relaxation at micro-
9.18b. The value for deionized water is about 79 above
wave frequencies). A mixture of components (like wa-
py
10 kHz. Below this frequency, the values increase with

ter and soil particles) having different polarizabilities
decrease in frequency. This is attributed to experimen-
and conductivities produces spatial polarization by
tal error caused by an electrode effect in which charges
charge accumulation at interfaces (called Maxwell–
Wagner interfacial polarization). The ions in the Stern
Co
layer and double layer are restrained (Chapter 6), and 5

hence they also exhibit polarization. This polarization To describe the out-of-phase response under oscillating excitation,
the electrical properties of a material are often defined in the complex
results in relaxation responses at radio frequencies. plane:
Further details of the polarization mechanisms are ⫽ ⫺ jⴖ
given by Santamarina et al. (2001).
The effective AC conductivity eff is expressed as where is the complex permittivity, j is the imaginary number
(兹⫺1), and and ⴖ are real and imaginary numbers describing the
electrical properties. The permittivity is often normalized by the
eff ⫽ ⫹ !ⴖ"0 (9.51) permittivity of vacuum 0 as

!⫽ ⫽ ! ⫺ j!ⴖ
where is the conductivity, !ⴖ is the polarization loss 0
(called the imaginary relative permittivity), " is the where ! is called the relative permittivity.

100
Deionized Water
10–2
σeff (S/m)
33%
10–4 No Data
Available
0.2%
10–6
100 102 104 106 108 1010
Frequency (Hz)
(a)
l
ria
Electrode Effect
106 33% Deionized Water
104 0.2% No Data

Figure 9.16 Soil electrical conductivity as a function of pore κ Available
fluid conductivity and comparisons with three models.
102
ate
100
accumulate at the electrode–specimen interface (Klein 100 102 104 106 108 1010
and Santamarina, 1997). Similarly to the observations Frequency (Hz)
made for the effective conductivities, the real permit-
dM (b)
tivity values of the mixtures show complex trends of
Figure 9.18 (a) Conductivity and (b) relative permittivity as
frequency dependency.
a function of frequency for deionized water and kaolinite at
For analysis of AC conductivity and dielectric con- water contents of 0.2 and 33 percent (from Santamarina et
stant as a function of frequency in an AC field, Smith al., 2001).
and Arulanandan (1981) modified the three-element
model shown in Fig. 9.15 by adding a capacitor in
parallel with each resistor. The resulting equations can
hte
be fit to experimental frequency dispersions of the con-

rig
py
Co
Figure 9.17 Frequency ranges associated with different polarization mechanisms (from San-
tamarina et al., 2001).

ductivity and apparent dielectric constant by computer Table 9.3 Self-Diffusion Coefficients for Ions at
optimization of geometrical and compositional param- Infinite Dilution in Water
eters. The resulting parameter values are useful for
characterizing mineralogy, porosity, and fabric. More Anion D0 ⫻ 1010(m2 /s) Cation D0 ⫻ 1010(m2 /s)
detailed discussions on electrical models, data inter- (1) (2) (3) (4)
pretation, and correlations with soil properties are
given by Santamarina et al. (2001). OH⫺ 52.8 H⫹ 93.1
F⫺ 14.7 Li⫹ 10.3
Cl⫺ 20.3 Na⫹ 13.3
Br⫺ 20.8 K⫹ 19.6
9.7 DIFFUSION I⫺ 20.4 Rb⫹ 20.7
HCO3⫺ Cs⫹
l
11.8 20.5
ria
Chemical transport through sands is dominated by ad- NO3⫺ 19.0 Be2⫹ 5.98
vection, wherein dissolved and suspended species are SO42⫺ 10.6 Mg2⫹ 7.05
carried with flowing water. However, in fine-grained CO32⫺ 9.22 Ca2⫹ 7.92
soils, wherein the hydraulic flow rates are very small, — — Sr2⫹ 7.90
for example, kh less than about 1 ⫻ 10⫺9 m/s, chemical — — Ba2⫹ 8.46
ate
diffusion plays a role and may become dominant when — — Pb2⫹ 9.25
kh becomes less than about 1 ⫻ 10⫺10 m/s. Fick’s law, — — Cu2⫹ 7.13
Eq. (9.5), is the controlling relationship, and D(L2T⫺1), — — Fe2⫹a 7.19
the diffusion coefficient, is the controlling parameter. — — Cd2⫹a 7.17
Diffusive chemical transport is important in clay — — Zn2⫹ 7.02
barriers for waste containment, in some geologic — — Ni2⫹a 6.79
dM
processes, and in some forms of chemical soil — — Fe3⫹a 6.07
stabilization. Comprehensive treatments of the diffu- — — Cr3⫹a 5.94
sion process, values of diffusion coefficients and — — Al3⫹a 5.95
methods for their determination, and applications, a
Values from Li and Gregory (1974). Reprinted with
especially in relation to chemical transport and waste
permission from Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, Vol.
containment barrier systems, are given by Quigley et
38, No. 5, pp. 703–714. Copyright 1974, Pergamon
hte
al. (1987), Shackelford and Daniel (1991a, 1991b),

Press.
Shincariol and Rowe (2001) and Rowe (2001).
Diffusive flow is driven by chemical potential gra-
dients, but for most applications chemical concentra-
tion gradients can be used for analysis. The diffusion 4. Retardation of some species as a result of ion
coefficient is measured and expressed in terms of exchange and adsorption by clay minerals and
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chemical gradients. Maximum values of the diffusion organics or precipitation

coefficient D0 are found in free aqueous solution at 5. Biodegradation of diffusing organics
infinite dilution. Self-diffusion coefficients for a num- 6. Osmotic counterflow
ber of ion types in water are given in Table 9.3. Usu- 7. Electrical imbalance, possibly by anion exclusion
ally cation–anion pairs are diffusing together, thereby
py
slowing down the faster and speeding up the slower. The diffusion coefficient could increase with time of
This may be seen in Table 9.4, which contains values flow through a soil as a result of such processes as
of some limiting free solution diffusion coefficients for (Quigley, 1989):
some simple electrolytes. 1. K⫹ fixation by vermiculite, which would decrease
Co
Diffusion through soil is slower and more complex the cation exchange capacity and increase the
than diffusion through a free solution, especially when free water pore space
adsorptive clay particles are present. There are several 2. Electrical imbalances that act to pull cations or
reasons for this (Quigley, 1989): anions
3. The attainment of adsorption equilibrium, thus
1. Reduced cross-sectional area for flow because of eliminating retardation of some species
the presence of solids
2. Tortuous flow paths around particles In an attempt to take some of these factors, espe-
3. The influences of electrical force fields caused by cially geometric tortuosity of interconnected pores,
the double-layer distributions of charges into account, an effective diffusion coefficient D* is

DIFFUSION 273
Table 9.4 Limiting Free Solution Diffusion transient diffusion, that is, the time rate of change of
Coefficients for Some Simple Electrolytes concentration with distance:
Electrolyte D0 ⫻ 1010(m2 /s) c 2c

⫽ D* 2 (9.53)
(1) (2) t x
HCl 33.36
For transient diffusion with constant effective diffusion
HBr 34.00
coefficient D*, the solution for this equation is of ex-
LiCl 13.66
actly the same form as that for the Terzaghi equation
LiBr 13.77
for clay consolidation and that for one-dimensional
NaCl 16.10
transient heat flow.
l
NaBr 16.25
An error function solution for Eq. (9.53) (Ogata,
ria
NaI 16.14
1970; Freeze and Cherry, 1979), for the case of one-
KCl 19.93
dimensional diffusion from a layer at a constant source
KBr 20.16
concentration C0 into a layer having a sufficiently low
KI 19.99
initial concentration that it can be taken as zero at t ⫽
CsCl 20.44
ate
0, is
CaCl2 13.35
BaCl2 13.85
C x x
⫽ erfc ⫽ 1 ⫺ erf (9.54)
Reported by Shackelford and Daniel, 1991a after Rob- C0 2兹D*t 2兹D*t
inson and Stokes, 1959. Reprinted from the Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering, Vol. 117, No. 3, pp. 467–484.
dM where C is the concentration at any time at distance ⫻
Copyright 1991. With permission of ASCE. from the source.
Curves of relative concentration as a function of
depth for different times after the start of chloride dif-
used. Several definitions have been proposed (Shack- fusion are shown in Fig. 9.19a (Quigley, 1989). An
elford and Daniel, 1991a) in which the different factors effective diffusion coefficient for chloride of 6.47 ⫻
are taken into account in different ways. Although 10⫺10 m2 /s was assumed. Also shown (Fig. 9.19b) is
the migration velocity of the C/C0 front within the soil
hte
these relationships may be useful for analysis of the

importance of the factors themselves, it is sufficient for as a function of time. As chloride is one of the more
practical purposes to use rapidly diffusing ionic species, Fig. 9.19 provides a
basis for estimating maximum probable migration dis-
D* ⫽ a D0 (9.52) tances and concentrations as a function of time that
result solely from diffusion.
rig
in which a is an ‘‘apparent tortuosity factor’’ that takes When there are adsorption–desorption reactions,
several of the other factors into account, and use values chemical reactions such as precipitation–solution, ra-
of D* measured under representative conditions. The dioactive decay, and/or biological processes occurring
effective coefficient for diffusion of different chemicals during diffusion, the analysis becomes more complex
through saturated soil is usually in the range of about than given by the foregoing equations. For adsorption–
py
2 ⫻ 10⫺10 to 2 ⫻ 10⫺9 m2 /s, although the values can desorption reactions and the assumption that there is
be one or more orders of magnitude lower in highly linearity between the amount adsorbed and the equi-
compacted clays and clays, such as bentonite, that can librium concentration, Eq. (9.53) is often written as
behave as semipermeable membranes (Malusis and
Co
Shackelford, 2002b). Values for compacted clays are c D* 2c

⫽ (9.55)
rather insensitive to molding water content or method t Rd x2
of compaction (Shackelford and Daniel, 1991b), in
stark contrast to the hydraulic conductivity, which may where Rd is termed the retardation factor, and it is
vary over a few orders of magnitude as a result of defined by
changes in these factors. This suggests that soil fabric
differences have relatively minor influence on the ef- d
Rd ⫽ 1 ⫹ K (9.56)
fective diffusion coefficient. d
Whereas Fick’s first law, Eq. (9.5), applies for
steady-state diffusion, Fick’s second law describes in which d is the bulk dry density of the soil, is the

tailed discussions of distribution coefficients and their

determination are given by Freeze and Cherry (1979),
Quigley et al., (1987), Quigley (1989), and Shackel-
ford and Daniel (1991a, b).
9.8 TYPICAL RANGES OF FLOW

PARAMETERS
Usual ranges for the values of the direct flow conduc-
tivities for hydraulic, thermal, electrical, and diffusive
l
chemical flows are given in Table 9.5. These ranges
ria
are for fine-grained soils, that is, silts, silty clays,
clayey silts, and clays. They are for full saturation;
values for partly saturated soils can be much lower.
Also listed in Table 9.5 are values for electroosmotic
ate
conductivity, osmotic efficiency, and ionic mobility.
These properties are needed for analysis of coupling
of hydraulic, electrical, and chemical flows, and they
are discussed further later.
dM 9.9 SIMULTANEOUS FLOWS OF WATER,
CURRENT, AND SALTS THROUGH
SOIL-COUPLED FLOWS
Usually there are simultaneous flows of different types
through soils and rocks, even when only one type of
hte
driving force is acting. For example, when pore water

containing chemicals flows under the action of a hy-
draulic gradient, there is a concurrent flow of chemical
through the soil. This type of chemical transport is
Figure 9.19 Time rate of chloride diffusion (from Quigley, termed advection. In addition, owing to the existence
1989). (a) Relative concentration as a function of depth after of surface charges on soil particles, especially clays,
rig
different times and (b) velocity of migration of the front hav- there are nonuniform distributions of cations and ani-
ing a concentration C / C0 of 0.5. ons within soil pores resulting from the attraction of
cations to and repulsion of anions from the negatively
charged particle surfaces. The net negativity of clay
particles is caused primarily by isomorphous substitu-
py
volumetric water content, that is, the volume of water tions within the crystal structure, as discussed in Chap-
divided by the total volume (porosity in the case of a ter 3, and the ionic distributions in the pore fluid are
saturated soil), and Kd is the distribution coefficient. described in Chapter 6. Because of the small pore sizes
The distribution coefficient defines the amount of a in fine-grained soils and the strong local electrical
Co
given constituent that is adsorbed or desorbed by a soil fields, clay layers exhibit membrane properties. This
for a unit increase or decrease in the equilibrium con- means that the passage of certain ions and molecules
centration in solution. Other reactions influencing the through the clay may be restricted in part or in full at
amount in free solution relative to that fixed in the soil both microscopic and macroscopic levels.
(e.g., by precipitation) may be included in Kd, depend- Owing to these internal nonhomogeneities in ion
ing on the method for measurement and the conditions distributions, restrictions on ion movements caused by
being modeled. Distribution coefficients are usually de- electrostatic attractions and repulsions, and the de-
termined from adsorption isotherms, and they may be pendence of these interactions on temperature, a vari-
constants for a given soil–chemical system or vary ety of microscopic and macroscopic effects may be
with concentration, pH, and temperature. More de- observed when a wet soil mass is subjected to flow

SIMULTANEOUS FLOWS OF WATER, CURRENT, AND SALTS THROUGH SOIL-COUPLED FLOWS 275
Table 9.5 Typical Range of Flow Parameters for Fine-Grained Soilsa
Parameter Symbol Units Minimum Maximum

Porosity n — 0.1 0.7
Hydraulic kh m s⫺1 1 ⫻ 10⫺11 1 ⫻ 10⫺6
conductivity
Thermal kt W m⫺1 K⫺1 0.25 2.5
conductivity
Electrical e siemens m⫺1 0.01 1.0
conductivity
m2 s⫺1 V⫺1 1 ⫻ 10⫺9 1 ⫻ 10⫺8
l
Electro osmotic ke
ria
conductivity
Diffusion D m2 s⫺1 2 ⫻ 10⫺10 2 ⫻ 10⫺9
coefficient
Osmotic " — 0 1.0
efficiencyb
ate
Ionic mobility u m2 s⫺1 V⫺1 3 ⫻ 10⫺9 1 ⫻ 10⫺8
a
The above values of flow coefficients are for saturated soil. They may be
much less in partly saturated soil.
b
0 to 1.0 is the theoretical range for the osmotic efficiency coefficient. Values
greater than about 0.7 are unlikely in most fine-grained materials of geotechnical
dM
interest.
gradients of different types. A gradient of one type Xj flow is developed later. Electroosmosis has been used
can cause a flow of another type Ji, according to for many years as a means for control of water flow
and for consolidation of soils. Chemicalosmosis, the
hte
Ji ⫽ Lij Xj (9.57) flow of water caused by a chemical gradient acting

across a clay layer, has been studied in some detail
The Lij are termed coupling coefficients. They are prop- recently, owing to its importance in waste containment
erties that may or may not be of significant magnitude systems.
in any given soil, as discussed later. Types of coupled Isothermal heat transfer, caused by heat flow along
flow that can occur are listed in Table 9.6, along with with water flow, has caused great difficulties in the
rig
terms commonly used to describe them.6 creation of frozen soil barriers in the presence of flow-
Of the 12 coupled flows shown in Table 9.6, several ing groundwater. Electrically driven heat flow, the Pel-
are known to be significant in soil–water systems, at tier effect, and chemically driven heat flow, the Dufour
least under some conditions. Thermoosmosis, which is effect, are not known to be of significance in soils;
py
water movement under a temperature gradient, is im- however, they appear not to have been studied in any
portant in partly saturated soils, but of lesser impor- detail in relation to geotechnical problems.
tance in fully saturated soils. Significant effects from Streaming current, the term applied to both hydrau-
thermally driven moisture flow are found in semiarid lically driven electrical current and ion flows, has im-
and arid areas, in frost susceptible soils, and in expan- portance to both chemical flow through the ground
Co
sive soils. An analysis of thermally driven moisture (advection) and the development of electrical poten-
tials, which may, in turn, influence both fluid and ion
flows as a result of additional coupling effects. The
complete roles of thermoelectricity and diffusion and
6
Mechanical coupling also occurs in addition to the hydraulic, ther- membrane potentials are not yet known; however, elec-
mal, electrical, and chemical processes listed in Table 9.6. A common
manifestation of this in geotechnical applications is the development trical potentials generated by temperature and chemical
of excess pore pressure and the accompanying fluid flow that result gradients are important in corrosion and in some
from a change in applied stress. This type of coupling is usually most groundwater flow and stability problems.
easily handled by usual soil mechanics methods. A few other types
of mechanical coupling may also exist in soils and rocks (U.S. Na- Whether thermal diffusion of electrolytes, the Soret
tional Committee for Rock Mechanics, 1987). effect, is important in soils has not been evaluated;

Table 9.6 Direct and Coupled Flow Phenomena
Gradient X
Chemical
Flow J Hydraulic Head Temperature Electrical Concentration
Fluid Hydraulic Thermoosmosis Electroosmosis Chemical
conduction osmosis
Darcy’s law
Heat Isothermal heat Thermal Peltier effect Dufour effect
transfer or conduction
l
thermal filtration Fourier’s law
ria
Current Streaming current Thermoelectricity Electric Diffusion and
Seebeck or conduction membrane
Thompson effect Ohm’s law potentials or
sedimentation
ate
current
Ion Streaming current Thermal diffusion Electrophoresis Diffusion Fick’s
ultrafiltration of electrolyte or law
(also known as Soret effect
hyperfiltration)
dM
however, since chemical activity is highly temperature
dependent, it may be a significant process in some
systems. Finally, electrophoresis, the movement of
qhe
qh
⫽ 冉冊
ke E
kh H
( C ⫽ 0) (9.59a)
charged particles in an electrical field, has been used The ratio (kc /kh) in Fig. 9.20 indicates the hydraulic
for concentration of mine waste and high water content
hte
head difference in centimeters of water required to give

clays. a flow rate equal to the osmotic flow caused by a 10-
The relative importance of chemically and electri- fold difference in salt concentration on opposite sides
cally driven components of total hydraulic flow is il- of the layer. The ratio ke /kh gives the hydraulic head
lustrated in Fig. 9.20, based on data from tests on difference required to balance that caused by a 1 V
kaolinite given by Olsen (1969, 1972). The theory for difference in electrical potentials on opposite sides of
rig
description of coupled flows is given later. A practical the layer. During consolidation, the hydraulic conduc-
form of Eq. (9.57) for fluid flow under combined hy- tivity decreases dramatically. However, the ratios kc /kh
draulic, chemical, and electrical gradients is and ke /kh increase significantly, indicating that the rel-
ative importance of osmotic and electroosmotic flows
H log(CB /CA) E to the total flow increases. Although the data shown in
py
qh ⫽ ⫺kh A ⫹ kc A ⫺ ke A (9.58)
L L L Fig. 9.20 are shown as a function of the consolidation
pressure, the changes in the values of kc /kh and ke /kh
in which kh, kc, and ke are the hydraulic, osmotic, and are really a result of the decrease in void ratio that
electroosmotic conductivities, H is the hydraulic head accompanies the increase in pressure, as may be seen
Co
difference, E is the voltage difference, and CA and CB in Fig. 9.20c.

are the salt concentrations on opposite sides of a clay These results for kaolinite provide a conservative es-
layer of thickness L. timate of the importance of osmotic and electroosmotic
In the absence of an electrical gradient, the ratio of flows because coupling effects in kaolinite are usually
osmotic to hydraulic flows is smaller than in more active clays, such as montmoril-
冉冊
lonite-based bentonites. In systems containing confined
qhc k log(CB /CA) clay layers acted on by chemical and/or electrical gra-
⫽⫺ c ( E ⫽ 0) (9.59)
qh kh H dients, Darcy’s law by itself may be an insufficient
basis for prediction of hydraulic flow rates, particularly
and, in the absence of a chemical gradient, the ratio of if the clay is highly plastic and at a very low void ratio.
electroosmotic flows to hydraulic flows is Such conditions can be found in deeply buried clay

QUANTIFICATION OF COUPLED FLOWS 277
l
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ate
dM
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rig
Figure 9.20 Hydraulic, osmotic, and electroosmotic conductivities of kaolinite (data from
Olsen 1969, 1972): (a) consolidation curve, (b) conductivity values, and (c) conductivities
as a function of void ratio.
py
and clay shale and in densely compacted clays. For Each approach has advantages and limitations. It is as-
more compressible clays, the ratios kc /kh and ke /kh may sumed in the following that the soil properties remain
be sufficiently high to be useful for consolidation by unchanged during the flow processes, an assumption
Co
electrical and chemical means, as discussed later in this that may not be justified in some cases. The effects of
chapter. flows of different types on the state and properties of
a soil are discussed later in this chapter. However,
when properties are known to vary in a predictable
9.10 QUANTIFICATION OF COUPLED FLOWS manner, their variations may be taken into account in
numerical analysis methods.
Quantification of coupled flow processes may be done
by direct, empirical determination of the relevant pa-
rameters for a particular case or by relationships de- Direct Observational Approach
rived from a theoretical thermodynamic analysis of the In the general case, there may be fluid, chemical, elec-
complete set of direct and coupled flow equations. trical, and heat flows. The chemical flows can be sub-

divided according to the particular chemical species ductivity coefficient kh is readily determined.7 The co-
present. Each flow type may have contributions caused efficient of electroosmotic hydraulic conductivity is
by gradients of another type, and their importance usually determined by measuring the hydraulic flow
depends on the values of Lij and Xj in Eq. (9.57). A rate developed in a known DC potential field under
complete and accurate description of all flows may be conditions of ih ⫽ 0. The electrical conductivity e is
a formidable task. obtained from the same experiment through measure-
However, in many cases, flows of only one or two ment of the electrical current.
types may be of interest, some of the gradients may The main advantage of this empirical, but direct, ap-
not exist, and/or some of the coupling coefficients may proach is simplicity. It is particularly useful when only
be either known or assumed to be unimportant. The a few of the possible couplings are likely to be im-
matrix of flows and forces then reduces significantly, portant and when some uncertainty in the measured
l
and the determination of coefficients is greatly simpli- coefficients is acceptable.
ria
fied. For example, if simple electroosmosis under iso-
thermal conditions is considered, then Eq. (9.57) yields General Theory for Coupled Flows
When several flows are of interest, each resulting from
qw ⫽ LHH(⫺H) ⫹ LHE(⫺E) ⫹ LHC(⫺C) (9.60) several gradients, a more formal methodology is nec-
ate
I ⫽ LEH(⫺H) ⫹ LEE(⫺E) ⫹ LEC(⫺C) (9.61) essary so that all relevant factors are accounted for
properly. If there are n different driving forces, then
JC ⫽ LCH(⫺H) ⫹ LCE(⫺E) ⫹ LCC(⫺C) (9.62) there will be n direct flow coefficients Lii and n(n ⫺
1) coupling coefficients Lij(i ⫽ j). The determination
of these coefficients is best done within a framework
where qw ⫽ water flow rate that provides a consistent and correct description of
I
Jc
⫽
⫽
dM
electrical current
chemical flow rate
each of the flows. Irreversible thermodynamics, also
termed nonequilibrium thermodynamics, offers a basis
H ⫽ hydraulic head for such a description. Furthermore, if the terms are
E ⫽ electrical potential properly formulated, then Onsager’s reciprocal rela-
C ⫽ chemical concentration tions apply, that is,
Lij ⫽ coupling coefficients; the first subscript
indicates the flow type and the second de-
hte
notes the type of driving force Lij ⫽ Lji (9.65)
If there are no chemical concentration differences and the number of coefficients to be determined is sig-
across the system, then the last terms on the right-hand nificantly reduced. In addition, the derived forms for
side of Eqs. (9.60), (9.61), and (9.62) do not exist. In the coupling coefficients, when cast in terms of meas-
rig
this case, Eqs. (9.60) and (9.61) become, when written urable and understood properties, provide a basis for
in more familiar terms, rapid assessment of their importance.
The theory of irreversible thermodynamics as ap-
plied to transport processes in soils is only outlined
qw ⫽ khih ⫹ keie (9.63) here. More comprehensive treatments are given by
py
I ⫽ hih ⫹ eie (9.64) DeGroot and Mazur (1962), Fitts (1962), Katchalsky
and Curran (1967), Greenberg, et al. (1973), Yeung
and Mitchell (1992), and Malusis and Shackelford
where kh ⫽ hydraulic conductivity (2002a).
ke ⫽ electroosmotic hydraulic conductivity
Co
Irreversible thermodynamics is a phenomenological,

h ⫽ electrical conductivity due to hydraulic macroscopic theory that provides a basis for descrip-
flow
e ⫽ electrical conductivity
ih ⫽ hydraulic gradient
7
ie ⫽ electrical potential gradient Note that unless the ends of the sample are short circuited to prevent
the development of a streaming potential, there will be a small elec-
troosmotic counterflow contributed by the keie term in Eq. (9.63).
Streaming potentials may be up to a few tens of millivolts in soils.
If permeability tests are done in the absence of an Streaming potential is one of four types of electrokinetic phenomena
electrical potential difference, then the hydraulic con- that may exist in soils, as discussed in more detail in Section 9.16.

SIMULTANEOUS FLOWS OF WATER, CURRENT, AND CHEMICALS 279
tion of systems that are out of equilibrium. It is based in the formulation of the flow equations. And # is also
on three postulates, namely, the sum of products of fluxes and driving forces:
1. Local equilibrium, a criterion that is satisfied if

冘JX
n
local perturbations are not large. #⫽ i i (9.69)

i⫽1
2. Linear phenomenological equations, that is,
The units of # are energy per unit time, and it is a
冘L X
n
Ji ⫽ ( j ⫽ 1,2, . . . , n) (9.66) measure of the rate of local free energy dissipation by
ij j
j⫽1 irreversible processes.
Application of the thermodynamic theory of irre-
versible processes requires the following steps:
l
3. Validity of the Onsager reciprocal relations, a
ria
condition that is satisfied if the Ji and Xj are for- 1. Finding the dissipation function # for the flows
mulated properly (Onsager, 1931a, 1931b). Ex- 2. Defining the conjugated flows Ji and driving
perimental verification of the Onsager reciprocity forces Xi from Eq. (9.69)
for many systems and processes has been ob- 3. Formulating the phenomenological equations in
tained and is summarized by Miller (1960). the form of Eq. (9.66)
ate
4. Applying the Onsager reciprocal relations
Both the driving forces and flows vanish in systems
5. Relating the phenomenological coefficients to
that are in equilibrium, so the deviations of thermo-
measurable quantities
dynamic variables from their equilibrium values pro-
vide a suitable basis for their formulation. The When the Onsager reciprocity is used, the number
deviations of the state parameters Ai from equilibrium of independent coefficients Lij reduces from n2 to
are given by
dM [(n ⫹ 1)n]/2.
i ⫽ Ai ⫺ A 0i (9.67) Application
The quantitative analysis and prediction of flows
where A 0i is the value of the state parameter at equilib- through soils, for a given set of boundary conditions,
rium and Ai is its value in the disturbed state. depends on the values of the various phenomenological
hte
Criteria for deriving the forces and flows are then coefficients in the above flow equations. Unfortunately,
developed on the basis of the second law of thermo- these are not always known with certainty, and they
dynamics, which states that at equilibrium, the entropy may vary over wide ranges, even within an apparently
S is a maximum, and i ⫽ 0. The change in entropy homogeneous soil mass. The direct flow coefficients,
S that results from a change in state parameter gives that is, the hydraulic, electrical, and thermal conduc-
the tendency for a variable to change. Thus S/ i is tivities, and the diffusion coefficient, exhibit the
rig
a measure of the force causing i to change, and is greatest ranges of values. Thus, it is important to ex-
called Xi. amine these properties first before detailed analysis of
The flows Ji, termed fluxes in irreversible thermo- coupled flow contributions. For many problems, it may
dynamics, are given by i / t, the time derivative of be sufficient to consider only the direct flows, provided
py
i. On this basis, the resulting entropy production the factors influencing their values are fully appreci-
per unit time becomes ated.
冘JX
n
dS
⫽ ⫽ (9.68) 9.11 SIMULTANEOUS FLOWS OF WATER,
Co
i i
dt i⫽1
CURRENT, AND CHEMICALS
The entropy production can be related explicitly to Use of irreversible thermodynamics for the description
various irreversible processes in terms of proper forces of coupled flows as developed above is straightforward
and fluxes (Gray, 1966; Yeung and Mitchell, 1992). If in principle; however, it becomes progressively more
the choices satisfy Eq. (9.68), then the Onsager reci- difficult in application as the numbers of driving forces
procity relations apply. and different flow types increase. This is because of
It has been found more useful to use # ⫽ T, the (1) the need for proper specification of the different
dissipation function, in which T is temperature, than coupling coefficients and (2) the need for independent

methods for their measurement. Thus, the analysis of

coupled hydraulic and electrical flows or of coupled
hydraulic and chemical flows is much simpler than the
analysis of a system subjected to electrical, chemical,
and hydraulic gradients simultaneously. Relationships
for the volume flow rate of water for several cases and
for thermoelectric and thermoosmotic coupling in sat-
urated soils are given by Gray (1966, 1969). The si-
multaneous flows of liquid and charge in kaolinite and
the fluid volume flow rates under hydraulic, electric,
and chemical gradients were studied by Olsen (1969,
l
1972). The theory for coupled salt and water flows was
ria
developed by Greenberg (1971) and applied to flows
in a groundwater basin (Greenberg et al., 1973) and to
chemicoosmotic consolidation of clay (Mitchell et al.,
1973).
ate
Equations for the simultaneous flows of water, elec- Figure 9.21 Schematic diagram of system for analysis of
tricity, cations, and anions under hydraulic, electrical, simultaneous flows of water, electricity, and ions through a
and chemical gradients were formulated by Yeung soil.
(1990) using the formalism of irreversible thermody-
namics as outlined previously. The detailed develop-
ment is given by Yeung and Mitchell (1993). The
dM Jv ⫽ L11(⫺P) ⫹ L12(⫺E) ⫹ L13(⫺cc)
results are given here. The chemical flow is separated
into its anionic and cationic components in order to ⫹ L14(⫺ca) (9.71)
permit determination of their separate movements as a
function of time. This separation may be important in I ⫽ L21(⫺P) ⫹ L22(⫺E) ⫹ L23(⫺cc)
some problems, such as chemical transport through the
⫹ L24(⫺ca) (9.72)
ground, where the fate of a particular ionic species, a
hte
heavy metal, for example, is of interest. Jcd ⫽ L31(⫺P) ⫹ L32(⫺E) ⫹ L33(⫺cc)

The analysis applies to an initially homogeneous soil
mass that separates solutions of different concentra- ⫹ L34(⫺ca) (9.73)
tions of anions and cations, at different electrical po- Jad ⫽ L41(⫺P) ⫹ L42(⫺E) ⫹ L43(⫺cc)
tentials and under different hydraulic heads, as shown
schematically in Fig. 9.21. Only one anion and one ⫹ L44(⫺ca) (9.74)
rig
cation species are assumed to be present, and no ad-

sorption or desorption reactions are occurring. These equations contain 4 conductivity coefficients Lii
The driving forces are the hydraulic gradient (⫺P), and 12 coupling coefficients Lij. As a result of Onsager
the electrical gradient (⫺E), and the concentration- reciprocity, however, the number of independent cou-
py
dependent parts of the chemical potential gradients of pling coefficients reduces because
the cation (cc) and of the anion (ca). The fluxes
are the volume flow rate of the solution per unit area L12 ⫽ L21
Jv, the electric current I, and the diffusion flow rates
of the cation Jdc and the anion Jda per unit area relative L13 ⫽ L31
Co
to the flow of water. These diffusion flows are related

L14 ⫽ L41
to the absolute flows according to
L23 ⫽ L32
Ji ⫽ Jid ⫹ ci Jv (9.70) L24 ⫽ L42
L34 ⫽ L43
in which ci is the concentration of ion i. The set of
phenomenological equations that relates the four flows Thus there are 10 independent coefficients needed
and driving forces is for a full description of hydraulic, electrical, anionic,

SIMULTANEOUS FLOWS OF WATER, CURRENT, AND CHEMICALS 281
and cationic flows through a system subjected to hy- e ⫽ bulk electrical conductivity of the soil
draulic, electrical, and chemical gradients. If three of " ⫽ coefficient of osmotic efficiency
the four forces can be set equal to zero during a mea- w ⫽ unit weight of water
surement of the flow under the fourth force, then the cc ⫽ concentration of cation
ratio of the flow rate to that force will give the value ca ⫽ concentration of anion
of its corresponding Lij. However, such measurements u*c ⫽ effective ionic mobility of the cation
are not always possible or convenient. Accordingly, u*a ⫽ effective ionic mobility of the anion
two forces and one flow are usually set to zero and the D*c ⫽ effective diffusion coefficient of the cation
appropriate Lij are evaluated by solution of simultane- D*a ⫽ effective diffusion coefficient of the anion
ous equations. For measurements of hydraulic conduc- n ⫽ soil porosity
tivity, electroosmotic hydraulic conductivity, electrical R ⫽ universal gas constant (8.314 J K⫺1 mol⫺1)
l
conductivity, osmotic efficiency, and effective diffusion T ⫽ absolute temperature (K)
ria
coefficients done in the usual manner in geotechnical
and chemical laboratories, the detailed application of Subsequently, Manassero and Dominijanni (2003)
irreversible thermodynamic theory led Yeung (1990) pointed out that the practical equations for diffusion
and Yeung and Mitchell (1993) to the following defi- L33 and L44 do not take the osmotic efficiency " (Sec-
nitions for the Lij. It was assumed in the derivations
ate
tion 9.13) into account, so Eqs. (9.82) and (9.84) more
that the solution is dilute and there are no interactions properly should be
between cations and anions.8
k L L
L11 ⫽ h ⫹ 12 21
wn L22
(9.75) L33 ⫽ cc 冋(1 ⫺ ")D*
RT
c c k"2
⫹ c
wn 册 (9.85)
冋册
L12 ⫽ L21 ⫽
dM ke
(9.76) L44 ⫽ ca
(1 ⫺ ")D*
a c k"2
⫹ a (9.86)
n RT wn
⫺"cckh L L
L13 ⫽ L31 ⫽ ⫹ 12 23 (9.77) This modification becomes important in clays wherein
wn L22
osmotic efficiency, that is, the ability of the clay to
⫺"cakh L L restrict the flow of ions, is high.
hte
L14 ⫽ L41 ⫽ ⫹ 12 24 (9.78) As the flows of ions relative to the soil are of more
wn L22
interest than relative to the water, Eq. (9.70) and Eqs.
e (9.73) and (9.74) can be combined to give
L22 ⫽ (9.79)
n
L23 ⫽ L32 ⫽ ccu* (9.80) Jc ⫽ (L31 ⫹ ccL11) w(⫺h) ⫹ (L32 ⫹ ccL12)(⫺E)
rig
L24 ⫽ L42 ⫽ ⫺cau*a (9.81) RT

⫹ (L33 ⫹ ccL13) (⫺cc)
cc
D*
c cc
L33 ⫽ (9.82) RT
RT ⫹ (L34 ⫹ ccL14) (⫺ca) (9.87)
py
ca
L34 ⫽ L43 ⫽ 0 (9.83)
D*
a ca Ja ⫽ (L41 ⫹ caL11) w(⫺h) ⫹ (L42 ⫹ caL12)(⫺E)
L44 ⫽ (9.84)
RT
Co
RT
⫹ (L43 ⫹ caL13) (⫺cc)
where kh ⫽ hydraulic conductivity as usually mea- cc
sured (no electrical short circuiting)
RT
ke ⫽ coefficient of electroosmotic hydraulic ⫹ (L44 ⫹ caL14) (⫺ca) (9.88)
conductivity ca
where (⫺h) is the hydraulic gradient. In Eqs. (9.87)

8
The Lij coefficients in Eqs. (9.75) to (9.84) were derived in terms and (9.88) the gradient of the chemical potential has
of the cross-sectional area of the soil voids. They may be redefined
in terms of the total cross-sectional area by multiplying each term been replaced by the gradient of the concentration ac-
on the right-hand side by the porosity, n. cording to

RT At the pore scale level, the fluid particles carrying dis-

(⫺ci ) ⫽ (⫺ci) (9.89) solved chemicals move at different speeds because of
ci
tortuous flow paths around the soil grains and variable
These equations reduce to the known solutions for velocity distribution in the pores, ranging from zero at
special cases such as chemical diffusion, advection– the soil particle surfaces to a maximum along the cen-
dispersion, osmotic pressure according to the van’t terline of the pore. This results in hydrodynamic dis-
Hoff equation [see Eq. (9.98)], osmosis, and ultra- persion and a zone of mixing rather than a sharp
filtration. They predict reasonably well the distribution boundary between two flowing solutions of different
of single cations and anions as a function of time and concentrations. Mathematically, this is accounted for
position in compacted clay during the simultaneous ap- by adding a dispersion term to the diffusion coefficient
plication of hydraulic, electrical, and chemical gradi- in the L33 and L44 terms to account for the deviation
l
ents (Mitchell and Yeung, 1990). of actual motion of fluid particles from the overall or
ria
The analysis of multicomponent systems is more average movement described by Darcy’s law. More de-
complex. The use of averaged chemical properties and tails can be found in groundwater and contamination
the assumption of composite single species of anions textbooks such as Freeze and Cherry (1979) and Dom-
and cations may yield reasonable approximate solu- inico and Schwartz (1997).
Numerical models are available for groundwater
ate
tions in some cases. Malusis and Shackelford (2002a)
present a more general theory for coupled chemical flow and contaminant transport into which the above
and hydraulic flow, based on an extension of the Yeung flow equations can be introduced (e.g., Anderson and
and Mitchell (1993) formulation, which accounts for Woessner, 1992; Zheng and Bennett, 2002). The most
multicomponent pore fluids and ion exchange proc- widely used groundwater flow numerical code is
esses occurring during transport.9
dM MODFLOW developed by the United States Geolog-
The flow equations can be incorporated into numerical Survey (USGS); various updated versions are
ical models for the solution of transient flow problems. available (e.g., Harbaugh et al., 2000). To solve
Conservation of mass of species i requires that single-species contaminant transport problems in
groundwater, MT3DMS (Zheng and Wang, 1999) can
ci be used. The code utilizes the flow solutions from
⫽ ⫺Ji ⫺ Gi (9.90) MODFLOW. More complex multispecies reactions can
t
be simulated by RT3D (Clement, 1997). POLLUTE
hte
(Rowe and Booker, 1997) provides ‘‘one- and one-

in which Gi is a source–sink term describing the ad- half-dimensional’’ solution to the advection–dispersion
dition or removal rate of species i from the solution. equation and is widely used in landfill design. A va-
As commonly used in groundwater flow analyses of riety of public domain groundwater flow and contam-
contaminant transport, Gi is given by inant transport codes is available from the web sites of
冋册
the USGS, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
rig
Kd Kd ci (U.S. EPA), and the U.S. Salinity Laboratory.
Gi ⫽ 1 ⫹ ici ⫹ (9.90a)
n n t
where i is the decay constant of species i, is the

9.12 ELECTROKINETIC PHENOMENA
py
bulk dry density of the soil, Kd is the distribution co-

efficient, and n is the soil porosity. As defined previ- Coupling between electrical and hydraulic flows and
ously, the distribution constant is the ratio of the gradients can generate four related electrokinetic phe-
amount of chemical adsorbed on the soil to that in nomena in materials such as fine-grained soils, where
solution. The quantity in the brackets on the right-hand
Co
there are charged particles balanced by mobile coun-

side of Eq. (9.90) is the retardation factor Rd defined tercharges. Each involves relative movements of elec-
by Eq. (9.56). tricity, charged surfaces, and liquid phases, as shown
Advection rather than diffusion is the dominant schematically in Fig. 9.22.
chemical transport mechanism in coarse-grained soils.
Electroosmosis
9
When an electrical potential is applied across a wet
Malusis and Shackelford (2002a) defined parameters in terms of the
total cross-sectional area for flow rather than the cross-sectional area soil mass, cations are attracted to the cathode and an-
of voids as used in the development of Eqs. (9.75) through (9.84). ions to the anode (Fig. 9.22a). As ions migrate, they

ELECTROKINETIC PHENOMENA 283
l
ria
ate
dM
Figure 9.22 Electrokinetic phenomena: (a) electroosmosis, (b) streaming potential, (c) elec-
trophoresis, and (d) migration or sedimentation potential.
hte
carry their water of hydration and exert a viscous drag of the electrodes and repelled from the other. Nega-
on the water around them. Since there are more mobile tively charged clay particles move toward the anode as
cations than anions in a soil containing negatively shown in Fig. 9.22c. This is called electrophoresis.
charged clay particles, there is a net water flow toward Electrophoresis involves discrete particle transport
the cathode. This flow is termed electroosmosis, and through water; electroosmosis involves water transport
rig
its magnitude depends on ke, the coefficient of elec- through a continuous soil particle network.
troosmotic hydraulic conductivity and the voltage gra-
dient, as considered in more detail later. Migration or Sedimentation Potential
The movement of charged particles such as clay rela-
py
Streaming Potential
tive to a solution, as during gravitational settling, for
When water flows through a soil under a hydraulic example, generates a potential difference, as shown in
gradient (Fig. 9.22b), double-layer charges are dis- Fig. 9.22d. This is caused by the viscous drag of the
placed in the direction of flow. This generates an elec- water that retards the movement of the diffuse layer
Co
trical potential difference that is proportional to the cations relative to the particles.
hydraulic flow rate, called the streaming potential, be- Of the four electrokinetic phenomena, electroos-
tween the opposite ends of the soil mass. Streaming mosis has been given the most attention in geotechni-
potentials up to several tens of millivolts have been cal engineering because of its practical value for
measured in clays. transporting water in fine-grained soils. It has been
used for dewatering, soft ground consolidation, grout
Electrophoresis injection, and the containment and extraction of chem-
If a DC field is placed across a colloidal suspension, icals in the ground. These applications are considered
charged particles are attracted electrostatically to one in a later section.

9.13 TRANSPORT COEFFICIENTS AND THE

IMPORTANCE OF COUPLED FLOWS I⫽ 冋册冋册
ke w
n
ih ⫹
e
n e
i (9.93)
To assess conditions where coupled chemical, electri-

cal, and hydraulic flows will be significant relative to For chemical flow relative to the soil:
direct flows, it is necessary to know the values of the
Lij relative to the Lii. Estimates can be made by con-
sidering the probable values of the soil state parameters
and the several flow and transport coefficients given in
Jc ⫽ 冋
(1 ⫺ ")ckh ck2e w
n
⫹
ne 册冋册
ih ⫹
cke
n e
i
Eqs. (9.75) to (9.84). Typical ranges are given in Table

9.5. ⫹ 冋册
D* ⫺
"ckh
n w
RT ic (9.94)
l
In Table 9.5 the diffusion coefficients and ionic mo-
ria
bilities for cations and anions are considered together
since they lie within similar ranges for most species. Coupling Influences on Hydraulic Flow
Values of ionic mobility for specific ions in dilute so- In the absence of applied electrical and chemical gra-
lution are given in standard chemical references, for dients, flow under a hydraulic gradient is given by the
example, Dean (1973), and values of diffusion coeffi- first bracketed term on the right-hand side of Eq.
ate
cients are given in Tables 9.3 and 9.4. Ionic mobility (9.92). It contains the quantity k2e w /ne, which com-
is related to the diffusion coefficient according to pensates for the electroosmotic counterflow generated
by the streaming potential, which causes the measured
Di兩zi兩F value of kh to be slightly less than the true value of
ui ⫽ (9.91)
dM RT L11.
As it is not usual practice to short-circuit between
in which zi is the ionic valence and F is Faraday’s the ends of samples during hydraulic conductivity test-
constant. Similarly to the diffusion coefficients, the ing, the second bracketed term on the right-hand side
ionic mobilities are considerably less in a soil than in of Eq. (9.92) is not zero. This term represents an elec-
a free solution, especially in a fine-grained soil. troosmotic counterflow that results from the streaming
The importance of coupled flows to fluid, electrical potential and acts in the direction opposite to the hy-
current, and chemical transport through soil under dif- draulically driven flow. Analysis based on the values
hte
ferent conditions can be examined by study of the con- of properties in Table 9.5, as well as the results of
tributions of the different terms in Eqs. (9.71), (9.72), measurements, for example, Michaels and Lin (1954)
(9.87), and (9.88). For this purpose, the equations have and Olsen (1962) show that this counterflow is negli-
been rewritten in one-dimensional form and in terms gible in most cases, but it may become significant rel-
of the hydraulic, electrical, and chemical concentration ative to the true hydraulic conductivity for soils of very
gradients: ih ⫽ ⫺dh/dx, ie ⫽ ⫺dV/dx, and ic ⫽ ⫺dc/ low hydraulic conductivity, for example, kh ⬍ 1 ⫻
rig
dx, respectively. In addition, the chemical flows have 10⫺10 m/s. For example, for a value of ke of 5 ⫻ 10⫺9
been represented by a single equation. This assumes m2 /s-V, an electrical conductivity of 0.01 mho/m, and
that all dissolved species are moving together. Terms a porosity of 35 percent, the counterflow term is 0.7
involving the ionic mobility u do not exist in such a ⫻ 10⫺10 m/s.
py
formulation because the cations and anions move to- In the presence of an applied DC field the second
gether, with the effects of electrical fields assumed to bracketed term on the right-hand side of Eq. (9.92) can
accelerate the slower moving ions and to retard the be very large relative to hydraulic flow in soils finer
faster moving ions. Thus there is no net transfer of than silts, as ke, which typically ranges within only
electric charge due to ionic movement. The Lij coeffi- narrow limits, is large relative to kh; that is, kh is less
Co
cients have been replaced by the physical and chemical than 1 ⫻ 10⫺8 m/s in these soils. The relative effect-
quantities that determine them, as given by Eqs. (9.74) iveness of hydraulic and electrical driving forces for
through (9.85). The resulting equations are the follow- water movement can be assessed by comparing gra-
ing. For fluid flow: dients needed to give equal flow rates. They will be
equal if
Jv ⫽ 冋 kh
n
k2
册冋册 k
⫹ e w ih ⫹ e ie ⫹ RT ⫺
en n
"kh
冋i
wn c 册 keie ⫽ khih (9.95)
(9.92)
The hydraulic gradient required to balance the elec-
For electrical current flow: troosmotic flow then becomes

TRANSPORT COEFFICIENTS AND THE IMPORTANCE OF COUPLED FLOWS 285
ke
ih ⫽ i (9.96)
kh e
As the hydraulic conductivity of soils in which elec-

troosmosis is likely to be used is usually of the order
of 1 ⫻ 10⫺9 m/s or less, whereas ke is in the range of
1 ⫻ 10⫺9 to 1 ⫻ 10⫺8 m2 /s V, it follows that even
small electrical gradients can balance flows caused by
large hydraulic gradients. Because of this, and because
ke is insensitive to particle size while kh decreases rap-
idly with decreasing particle size, electroosmosis is ef-
l
fective in fine-grained soils, as discussed further in
ria
Section 9.15.
Chemically driven hydraulic flow is given by the last
Figure 9.23 Theoretical values of osmotic pressure as a
term on the right-hand side of Eq. (9.92). It depends
function of concentration difference across a clay layer for
primarily on the osmotic efficiency ". Osmotic effi- different values of osmotic efficiency coefficient, ". (T ⫽
ate
ciency has an important influence on the movement of 20C).
chemicals through a soil, the development of osmotic
pressure, and the effectiveness of clay barriers for
chemical waste containment.
Osmotic Efficiency The osmotic efficiency of clay, Values of osmotic efficiency coefficient, ", or
a slurry wall, a geosynthetic clay liner (GCL), or other
dM membrane efficiency (" expressed as a percentage),
seepage and containment barrier is a measure of the have been measured for clays and geosynthetic clay
material’s effectiveness in causing hydraulic flow un- liners; for example, Kemper and Rollins (1966), Letey
der an osmotic pressure gradient and of its ability to et al. (1969), Olsen (1969), Kemper and Quirk (1972),
act as a semipermeable membrane in preventing the Bresler (1973), Elrick et al. (1976), Barbour and Fred-
passage of ions, while allowing the passage of water. lund (1989), and Malusis and Shackelford (2002b,
The osmotic pressure concept can be better appreciated 2002c). Values of membrane efficiency from 0 to 100
by rewriting the last term in Eq. (9.92): percent have been determined, depending on the clay
hte
type, porosity, and type and concentration of salts in

kh k RT c 1 solution. The results of many determinations were
" RTic ⫽ " h (9.97)
wn n w x summarized by Bresler (1973) as shown in Fig. 9.24.
The efficiency is shown as a function of a normalizing
This form is analogous to Darcy’s law, with the quan- parameter, the half distance between particles b times
the square root of the solution concentration 兹c.
rig
tity RT c/ w being the head difference. The osmotic

efficiency is a measure of the extent to which this the- To put these relations into more familiar terms for
oretical pressure difference actually develops. Theo- use in geotechnical studies, the half spacings were con-
retical values of osmotic pressure, calculated using the verted to water contents on the assumption of uniform
van’t Hoff equation, as a function of concentration dif- water layer thicknesses on all particles, using specific
py
ference for different values of osmotic efficiency are surface areas corresponding to different clay types and
shown in Fig. 9.23. noting that volumetric water content equals surface
The van’t Hoff equation for osmotic pressure is area times layer thickness. The relationship between
specific surface area and liquid limit (LL) obtained by
冘 (n
Co
⫽ kT ⫺ niB) ⫽ RT(ciA ⫺ ciB) (9.98) Farrar and Coleman (1967) for 19 British clays
iA
where k is the Boltzmann constant (gas constant per LL ⫽ 19 ⫹ 0.56As (20%) (9.99)
molecule), R is the gas constant per molecule, T is the
absolute temperature, ni is concentration in particles in which the specific surface area As is in square meters
per unit volume, and ci is the molar concentration. The per gram, was then used to obtain the relationships
van’t Hoff equation applies for ideal and relatively di- shown in Fig. 9.25. The computed efficiencies shown
lute solution concentrations (Malusis and Shackelford, in Fig. 9.25 should be considered upper bounds be-
2002c). According to Fritz (1986) the error is low cause the assumption of uniform water distribution
(⬍5%) for 1⬊1 electrolytes (e.g., NaCl, KCl) and con- over the full surface area underestimates the effective
centrations 1.0 M. particle spacing in most cases. In most clays, espe-

concentrations on the inside of a lined repository

should be greater than on the outside, osmotically
driven water flow should be directed from the outside
toward the inside. The greater the osmotic efficiency
the greater the driving force for this flow. Furthermore,
if the efficiency is high, then outward diffusion of con-
tained chemicals is restricted (Malusis and Shack-
elford, 2002b). In diffusion-dominated containment
barriers, the effect of solute restriction on reducing sol-
ute diffusion is likely substantially more significant
than the effect of osmotic flow (Shackelford et al.,
l
2001).
ria
Coupling Influences on Electrical Flow
Substitution of values for the parameters in Eq. (9.93)
indicates, as would be expected, that electrical current
ate
flow is dominated completely by the electrical gradient
ie. In the presence of an applied voltage difference, the
other terms are of little importance, even if the move-
ments of anions and cations are considered separately
and the contributions due to ionic mobility are taken
dM into account. On the other hand, when a soil layer be-
haves as an open electrical circuit, small electrical po-
tentials, measured in millivolts, may exist if there are
hydraulic and/or chemical flows. This may be seen by
setting I ⫽ 0 in Eq. (9.93) and solving for ie, which
must have value if ih has value. These small potentials
Figure 9.24 Osmotic efficiency coefficient as a function of and flows are important in such processes as corrosion
b兹c where c is concentration of monovalent anion in nor- and electroosmotic counterflow.
hte
mality and 2b is the effective spacing between particle sur-

faces (from Bresler, 1973). Coupling Influences on Chemical Flow
Equation (9.94) provides a description of chemical
transport relative to the soil. It contains two terms that
cially those with divalent adsorbed cations, individual influence chemical flow under a hydraulic gradient;
rig
clay plates associate in clusters giving an effective spe- one for chemical transport under an electrical gradient,
cific surface that is less than that determined by most and one for transport of chemical under a chemical
methods of measurement. This means that the curves gradient. The first term in the first bracket of the right-
in Fig. 9.25 should in reality be displaced to the left. hand side of Eq. (9.94) describes advective transport.
High osmotic efficiencies are developed at low water As would be expected, the smaller the osmotic effi-
py
contents, that is, in very dense, low-porosity clays, and ciency, the more chemical flow through the soil is pos-
in dilute electrolyte systems. Malusis and Shackelford sible. The second term in the same bracket simply
(2002a, 2002b, 2002c) found that the osmotic effi- reflects the advective flow reduction that would result
ciency decreases with increasing solute concentration from electroosmotic counterflow caused by develop-
Co
and attribute this to compression of the diffuse double ment of a streaming potential. As noted earlier, this
layers adjacent to the clay particles. flow will be small, and its contribution to the total flow
Water flow by osmosis can be significant relative to will be small, except in clays of very low hydraulic
hydraulically driven water flow in heavily overconsol- and electrical conductivities. Advective transport is the
idated clay and clay shale, where the void ratio is low dominant means for chemical flow for soils having a
and the hydraulic conductivity is also very low. Such hydraulic conductivity greater than about 1 ⫻ 10⫺9
flow may be important in geological processes (Olsen m/s.
1969, 1972). Densely compacted clay barriers for The importance of an electrical driving force for
waste containment, usually composed of bentonite, chemical flow depends on the electrical potential gra-
possess osmotic membrane properties. As the chemical dient. For a unit gradient, that is, 1 V/m, chemical flow

TRANSPORT COEFFICIENTS AND THE IMPORTANCE OF COUPLED FLOWS 287
l
ria
ate
dM
hte
Figure 9.25 Osmotic efficiency of clays as a function of water content.

rig
quantities are comparable to those by advective flow der conditions where the value of " is low such that
under a unit hydraulic gradient in a clay having a hy- the second term in the bracket is negligible, chemical
draulic conductivity of about 1 ⫻ 10⫺9 m/s. Electri- transport by diffusion is significant relative to advec-
cally driven chemical flow is relatively less important tive chemical transport in soils with hydraulic conduc-
py
in higher permeability soils and more important in tivity values less than about 1 ⫻ 10⫺9 to 1 ⫻ 10⫺10
soils with lower kh. In cases where the electrically m/s for chemicals with diffusion coefficients in the
driven chemical transport is of interest, as in electro- range given by Table 9.7, that is, 2 ⫻ 10⫺10 to 2 ⫻
kinetic waste containment barrier applications, anion, 10⫺9 m2 /s.
Co
cation, and nonionic chemical flows must be consid- This is illustrated by Fig. 9.26 from Shackelford
ered separately using expanded relationships such as (1988), which shows the relative importance of advec-
given by Eqs. (9.87) and (9.88). tive and diffusive chemical flows on the transit time
The last bracketed quantity of Eq. (9.94) represents through a 0.91-m-thick compacted clay liner having a
diffusive flow under chemical gradients. The quantity porosity of 0.5 acted on by a hydraulic gradient of
D*ic gives the normal diffusive flow rate. The second 1.33. A diffusion coefficient of 6 ⫻ 10⫺10 m2 /s was
term represents a restriction on this flow that depends assumed. The transit time is defined as the time re-
on the clay’s osmotic efficiency, "; that is, if the clay quired for the solute concentration on the discharge
acts as an effective semipermeable membrane, diffu- side to reach 50 percent of that on the upstream side.
sive flow of chemicals is restricted. However, even un- For hydraulic conductivity values less than about 2 ⫻

term stability of clay liners are discussed by Mitchell

and Jaber (1990).
Rigid wall, flexible wall, and consolidometer per-
meameters are used for compatibility testing in the lab-
oratory. These three types of test apparatus are shown
schematically in Fig. 9.27. Tests done in a rigid wall
system overestimate hydraulic conductivity whenever
chemical–clay interactions cause shrinkage and crack-
ing; however, a rigid wall system is well suited for
qualitative determination of whether or not there may
be adverse interactions. In the flexible wall system the
l
lateral confining pressure prevents cracks from open-
ria
Figure 9.26 Transit times for chemical flow through a 0.91-
ing; thus there is risk of underestimating the hydraulic
m-thick compacted clay liner having a porosity of 50 percent conductivity of some soils. The consolidometer per-
and acted on by a hydraulic gradient of 1.33 (from Shack- meameter system allows for testing clays under a range
elford, 1988). of overburden stress states that are representative of
ate
those in the field and for quantitative assessment of the
effects of chemical interactions on volume stability and
hydraulic conductivity. More details of these perme-
10⫺9 m/s the transit time in the absence of diffusion ameters are given by Daniel (1994).
would be very long. For diffusion alone the transit time
The effects of chemicals on the hydraulic conduc-
would be about 47 years. dM tivity of high water content clays such as used in slurry
Most compacted clay barriers and geosynthetic clay
walls are likely to be much greater than on lower water
liners are likely to have hydraulic conductivity values
content, high-density clays as used in compacted clay
in the range of 1 ⫻ 10⫺11 to 1 ⫻ 10⫺9 m/s, with the
liners. This is because of the greater particle mobility
latter value being the upper limit allowed by the U.S.
and easier opportunity for fabric changes in a higher
EPA for most waste containment applications. In this
water content system. A high compactive effort or an
range, diffusion reduces the transit time significantly
in comparison to what it would be due to advection effective confining stress greater than about 70 kPa can
make properly compacted clay invulnerable to attack
hte
alone. This is shown by the curve labeled advection–

dispersion in Fig. 9.26. The calculations were done by concentrated organic chemicals (Broderick and
using the well-known advection–dispersion equation Daniel, 1990). However, it is not always possible to
(Ogata and Banks, 1961) in which the dispersion term ensure high-density compaction or to maintain high
includes both mechanical mixing and diffusion. Me- confining pressures, or eliminate all construction de-
chanical mixing is negligible in low-permeability ma- fects, so it is useful to know the general effects of
rig
terials such as compacted clay. different types of chemicals on hydraulic conductivity.

The influences of inorganic chemicals on hydraulic
conductivity are consistent with (1) their effects on the
9.14 COMPATIBILITY—EFFECTS OF double-layer and interparticle forces in relation to floc-
CHEMICAL FLOWS ON PROPERTIES culation, dispersion, shrinkage, and swelling, (2) their
py
effects on surface and edge charges on particles and

Chemical Compatibility and Hydraulic Conductivity the influences of these charges on flocculation and de-
The compatibility between waste chemicals, especially flocculation, and (3) their effects on pH.
liquid organics, and compacted clay liners and slurry Acids can dissolve carbonates, iron oxides, and the
Co
wall barriers constructed to contain them must be con- alumina octahedral layers of clay minerals. Bases can
sidered in the design of waste containment barriers. dissolve silica tetrahedral layers, and to a lesser extent,
Numerous studies have been done to evaluate chemical alumina octahedral layers of clay minerals. Removal
effects on clay hydraulic conductivity because of fears of dissolved material can cause increases in hydraulic
that prolonged exposure may compromise the integrity conductivity, whereas precipitation can clog pores and
of the liners and barriers and because tests have shown reduce hydraulic conductivity.
that under some conditions clay can shrink and crack The most important factors controlling the effects of
when permeated by certain classes of chemicals. Sum- organic chemicals on hydraulic conductivity are (1)
maries of the results of chemical compatibility studies water solubility, (2) dielectric constant, (3) polarity,
are given by Mitchell and Madsen (1987) and Quigley and (4) whether or not the soil is exposed to the pure
and Fernandez (1989), and factors controlling the long- organic or a dilute solution. Exposure of clay barriers

COMPATIBILITY—EFFECTS OF CHEMICAL FLOWS ON PROPERTIES 289
l
ria
ate
dM
hte
Figure 9.27 Three types of permeameter for compatibility testing: (a) rigid wall, (b) flexible
wall, and (c) consolidometer permeameter (from Day, 1984).
rig
to water-insoluble pure or concentrated organics is 3. Many water-insoluble organic liquids (i.e., non-
likely only in the case of spills, leaking tanks, and with aquoues-phase liquids, NAPLs) can cause shrink-
py
dense non-aqueous-phase liquids (DNAPLs) or ‘‘sink- age and cracking of clays, with concurrent
ers’’ that accumulate above low spots in liners. Some increases in hydraulic conductivity.
general conclusions about the influences of organics 4. Hydraulic conductivity increases caused by per-
on the hydraulic conductivity are: meation by organics are partly reversible when
water is reintroduced as the permeant.
Co
1. Solutions of organic compounds having a low 5. Concentrated hydrophobic compounds (like

solubility in water, such as hydrocarbons, have many NAPLs) permeate soils through cracks and
no large effect on the hydraulic conductivity. This macropores. Water remains within mini- and mi-
is in contrast to dilute solutions of inorganic com- cropores.
pounds that may have significant effects as a 6. Hydrophilic compounds permeate the soil more
result of their influence on flocculation and dis- uniformly than NAPLs, as the polar molecules
persion of the clay particles. can replace the water in hydration layers of the
2. Water-soluble organics, such as simple alcohols cations and are more readily adsorbed on particle
and ketones, have no effect on hydraulic conduc- surfaces.
tivity at concentrations less than about 75 to 80 7. Organic acids can dissolve carbonates and iron
percent. oxides. Buffering of the acid can lead to precip-

itation and pore clogging downstream. However, ative to that measured with water. The decreases in
after long time periods these precipitates may be hydraulic conductivity for dioxane concentrations up
redissolved and removed, thus leading to an in- to 70 percent can be accounted for in terms of fluid
crease in hydraulic conductivity. density and viscosity, as may be seen in Fig. 9.28b
8. Pure bases can cause a large increase in the hy- where the intrinsic values of permeability are shown.
draulic conductivity, whereas concentrations at or As noted earlier in this chapter, the intrinsic permea-
below the solubility limit in water have no effect. bility is defined by K ⫽ k / .
9. Organic acids do not cause large-scale dissolu- Although many chemicals do not have significant
tion of clay particles. effect on the hydraulic conductivity of clay barriers,
this does not mean that they will not be transported
The combined effects of confining pressure and con- through clay. Unless adsorbed by the clay or by or-
l
centration, as well as permeant density and viscosity, ganic matter, the chemicals will be transported by ad-
ria
are illustrated by Fig. 9.28 (Fernandez and Quigley, vection and diffusion. Furthermore, the actual transit
1988). The data are for water-compacted, brown Sarnia time through a barrier by advection, that is, the time
clay permeated by solutions of dioxane in domestic for chemicals moving with the seepage water, may be
landfill leachate. Increased hydrocarbon concentration far less than estimated using the conventional seepage
caused a decrease in hydraulic conductivity up to con- velocity. The seepage velocity is usually defined as the
ate
centrations of about 70 percent, after which the hy- Darcy velocity khih, divided by the total porosity n. In
draulic conductivity increased by about three orders of systems with unequal pore sizes the flow is almost to-
magnitude for pure dioxane (Fig. 9.28a), for samples tally through mini- and macropores, which comprise
that were unconfined by a vertical stress (v ⫽ 0). On the effective porosity ne, which may be much less than
the other hand, the data points for samples maintained
dM the total porosity. Thus effective compaction of clay
under a vertical confining stress of 160 kPa indicated barriers must break down clods and aggregates to de-
no effect of the dioxane on hydraulic conductivity rel- crease the effective pore size and increase the propor-
hte
rig
py
Co
Figure 9.28 (a) Hydraulic conductivity and (b) intrinsic permeability of compacted Sarnia
clay permeated with leachate–dioxane mixtures. Initial tests run using water (●) followed by
leachate–chemical solution (䉱). (from Fernandez and Quigley, 1988). Reproduced with per-
mission from the National Research Council of Canada.

ELECTROOSMOSIS 291
tion of the porosity that is effective porosity, thereby charges of one sign on or near the surface of the wall
increasing the transit time. and countercharges concentrated in a layer in the liquid
a small distance from the wall, as shown in Fig. 9.29.10
The mobile shell of counterions is assumed to drag
9.15 ELECTROOSMOSIS water through the capillary by plug flow. There is a
high-velocity gradient between the two plates of the
The coefficient of electroosmotic hydraulic conductiv- condenser as shown.
ity ke defines the hydraulic flow velocity under a unit The rate of water flow is controlled by the balance
electrical gradient. Measurement of ke is made by de- between the electrical force causing water movement
termination of the flow rate of water through a soil and friction between the liquid and the wall. If v is the
sample of known length and cross section under a flow velocity and is the distance between the wall
l
known electrical gradient. Alternatively, a null indicat- and the center of the plane of mobile charge, then the
ria
ing system may be used or it may be deduced from a velocity gradient between the wall and the center of
streaming potential measurement. From experience it positive charge is v / ; thus, the drag force per unit
is known that ke is generally in the range of 1 ⫻ 10⫺9 area is dv /dx ⫽ v / , where is the viscosity. The
to 1 ⫻ 10⫺8 m2 /s V (m/s per V/m) and that it is of force per unit area from the electrical field is E/
the same order of magnitude for most soil types, as L, where is the surface charge density and E/ L
ate
may be seen by the values for different soils and a is the electrical potential gradient. At equilibrium
freshwater permeant given in Table 9.7.
Several theories have been proposed to explain elec-
troosmosis and to provide a basis for quantitative pre- v E
⫽ (9.100)
diction of flow rates. L
dM
Helmholtz and Smoluchowski Theory or
This theory, based on a model introduced by Helm-
holtz (1879) and refined by Smoluchowski (1914), is
one of the earliest and most widely used. A liquid- 10
A derivation using a Poisson–Boltzmann distribution of counter-
filled capillary is treated as an electrical condenser with ions adjacent to the wall gives the same result.
hte
Table 9.7 Coefficients of Electroosmotic Permeability
Water ke in 10⫺5 Approximate kh

No. Material Content (%) (cm2 /s-V) (cm/s)
rig
1. London clay 52.3 5.8 10⫺8

2. Boston blue clay 50.8 5.1 10⫺8
3. Kaolin 67.7 5.7 10⫺7
4. Clayey silt 31.7 5.0 10⫺6
py
5. Rock flour 27.2 4.5 10⫺7

6. Na-Montmorillonite 170 2.0 10⫺9
7. Na-Montmorillonite 2000 12.0 10⫺8
8. Mica powder 49.7 6.9 10⫺5
10⫺4
Co
9. Fine sand 26.0 4.1

10. Quartz powder 23.5 4.3 10⫺4
11. Ås quick clay 31.0 20.0–2.5 2.0 ⫻ 10⫺8
12. Bootlegger Cove clay 30.0 2.4–5.0 2.0 ⫻ 10⫺8
13. Silty clay, West Branch Dam 32.0 3.0–6.0 1.2 ⫻ 10⫺8 –6.5 ⫻ 10⫺8
14. Clayey silt, Little Pic River, 26.0 1.5 2 ⫻ 10⫺5
Ontario
ke and water content data for Nos. 1 to 10 from Casagrande (1952). kh estimated by authors; no. 11
from Bjerrum et al. (1967); no. 12 from Long and George (1967); no. 13 from Fetzer (1967); no. 14
from Casagrande et al. (1961).

l
ria
Figure 9.29 Helmholtz–Smoluchowski model for electrokinetic phenomena.
L D E
ate
⫽ v (9.101) qA ⫽ Nqa ⫽ Na (9.104b)
E L
From electrostatics, the potential across a condenser If the porosity is n, then the cross-sectional area of
is given by voids is nA, which must equal Na. Thus,
dM
⫽

(9.102) qA ⫽
D E

n
L
A (9.105)
D
where D is the relative permittivity, or dielectric con- By analogy with Darcy’s law we can write Eq.
stant of the pore fluid. Substitution for in Eq. (9.105) as
(9.102) gives
hte
qA ⫽ keie A (9.106)
v⫽ 冉冊
D E
L
(9.103) in which ie is the electrical potential gradient E/ L
and ke the coefficient of electroosmotic hydraulic con-
ductivity is
The potential is termed the zeta potential. It is not
rig
the same as the surface potential of the double-layer

D
0 discussed in Chapter 6, although conditions that ke ⫽ n (9.107)
give high values of 0 also give high values of zeta
potential. A common interpretation is that the actual
According to the Helmholtz–Smoluchowski theory
py
slip plane in electrokinetic processes is located some

small, but unknown, distance from the surface of par- and Eq. (9.107), ke should be relatively independent of
ticles; thus should be less than 0. Values of in the pore size, and this is borne out by the values listed in
range of 0 to ⫺50 mV are typical for clays, with the Table 9.7. This is in contrast to the hydraulic conduc-
lowest values associated with high pore water salt con- tivity kh, which varies as the square of some effective
Co
centrations. pore size. Because of this independence of pore size,

For a single capillary of area a the flow rate is electroosmosis can be more effective in moving water
through fine-grained soils than flow driven by a hy-
draulic gradient.
D E
qa ⫽ va ⫽ a (9.104a) This is illustrated by the following simple example.
L Consider a fine sand and a clay of hydraulic conduc-
tivity kh of 1 ⫻ 10⫺5 m/s and 1 ⫻ 10⫺10 m/s, respec-
and for a bundle of N capillaries within total cross- tively. Both have ke values of 5 ⫻ 10⫺9 m2 /s V. For
sectional area A normal to the flow direction equal hydraulic flow rates khih ⫽ keie, so

ELECTROOSMOSIS 293
ke E
ih ⫽ i (9.108) FE ⫽ A0 F0r 2 (9.112)
kh e L
If an electrical potential gradient of 20 V/m is used, where A0 is the concentration of wall charges in ionic
substitution in Eq. (9.108) shows that ih is 0.01 for the equivalents per unit volume of pore fluid, and F0 is the
fine sand and 1000 for the clay. This means that a Faraday constant. Replacement of FH by FE in Eq.
hydraulic gradient of only 0.01 can move water as ef- (9.111) gives
fectively as an electrical gradient of 20 V/m in fine
sand. However, for the clay, a hydraulic gradient of r 4 E F A
qa ⫽ A F ⫽ 0 0 r 2iea (9.113)
1000 would be needed to offset the electroosmotic 8 0 0 L 8
flow.
l
so for a total cross section of N capillaries and area A
ria
However, it does not follow that electroosmosis will
always be an efficient means to move water in clays
because the above analysis does not take into account A0 F0r 2
qA ⫽ nie A (9.114)
the power requirement to develop the potential gradient 8
of 20 V/m or energy losses in the system. These points
ate
are considered further later. This equation shows that ke should vary as r 2, whereas
the Helmholtz–Smoluchowski theory leads to ke in-
Schmid Theory dependent of pore size, as previously noted. Of the two
theories, the Helmholtz gives the better results for
The Helmholtz–Smoluchowski theory is essentially a
soils, perhaps because most clays have a cluster or ag-
large-pore theory because it assumes a negligible ex-
gregate structure with electroosmotic flow controlled
dM
tension of the counterion layer into the pore. Also, it
does not account for an excess of ions over those
more by the larger pores than by the intracluster pores.
needed to balance the surface charge. A model that
Spiegler Friction Model
overcomes the first of these problems was proposed by
Schmid (1950, 1951). It can be considered a small- A completely different concept for electrokinetic proc-
pore theory. esses takes into account the interactions of the mobile
The counterions are assumed to be distributed uni- components (water and ions) on each other and of the
hte
formly throughout the fluid phase in the soil. The elec- frictional interactions of these components with pore
trical force acts uniformly over the entire pore cross walls (Spiegler, 1958). This theory provides insight
section and gives the same velocity profile as shown into conditions leading to high electroosmotic effi-
by Fig. 9.29. The hydraulic flow rate through a single ciency.
capillary of radius r is given by Poiseuille’s law: The assumptions include:
rig
1. Exclusion of coions,11 that is, the medium be-

r 4
haves as a perfect perm-selective membrane,
q⫽ i (9.109)
8 w h admitting ions of only one sign
2. Complete dissociation of pore fluid ions
py
The hydraulic seepage force per unit length causing The following equation for electroosmotic transport
flow is of water across a fine-grained porous material contain-
ing adsorbed and free ions can be derived:
FH ⫽ r 2 wih (9.110)
Co
C3
⫽ (W ⫺ H) ⫽ (9.115)
so C1 ⫹ C3(X34 /X13)
in which is the true electroosmotic water flow

r2
q⫽ F (9.111) (moles/faraday), W is the measured water transport
8 H
The electrical force per unit length FE is equal to the 11

Ions of the opposite sign to the charged surface are termed coun-
charge times the potential, that is, terions. Ions of the same sign are termed coions.

(moles/faraday), H is the water transport by ion hy- opposite sign. The greater the difference between the
dration (moles/faraday), C3 is the concentration of free concentrations of cations and anions, the greater the
water in the material (mol/m3), C1 is the concentration net drag on the water in the direction toward the cath-
of mobile counterions m2, X34 is the friction coefficient ode. The efficiency and economics of the process de-
between water and the solid wall, and X13 is the friction pend on the volume of water transported per unit
coefficient between cation and water. electrical charge passed. If the volume is high, then
Concentrations C1 and C3 are hypothetical and prob- more water is transported for a given expenditure of
ably less than values measured by chemical analysis electrical energy than if it is low. This volume may
because some ions may be immobile. Evaluation of X13 vary over several orders of magnitude depending on
and X34 requires independent measurements of diffu- such factors as soil type, water content, and electrolyte
sion coefficients, conductance, transference numbers, concentration.
l
and water transport. Thus Eq. (9.115) is limited as a In a low exchange capacity soil at high water content
ria
predictive equation. Its real value is in providing a rel- in a low electrolyte concentration solution, there is
atively simple physical representation of a complex much more water per cation than in a high exchange
process. capacity, low water content soil having the same pore
From Eq. (9.115), water electrolyte concentration. This, combined
with cation-to-anion ratio considerations, leads to
ate
1 the predicted water transport–water content–soil
⫽ (W ⫺ H) ⫽ (9.116) type–electrolyte concentration relationships shown
(C1 /C3 ⫹ X34 /X13)
schematically in Fig. 9.30, where increasing electrolyte
concentration in the pore water results in a much
At high water contents and for large pores, X34 /X13 →
0 because X34 becomes negligible. Then
dM
X34→0 ⫽ C3 /C1 (9.117)
This relationship indicates that a high water-to-cation

ratio implies a high rate of electroosmotic flow. At low
water contents and for small pores, X34 will not be
hte
zero, thus reducing the flow. An increase in C1 reduces

the flow of water per faraday of current passed because
there is less water per ion. An increase in X13 increases
the flow because there is greater frictional drag on the
water by the ions.
rig
Ion Hydration
Water of hydration is carried along with ions in a direct
current electric field. The ion hydration transport H is
given by
py
H ⫽ t⫹N⫹ ⫺ t
N
(9.118)
where t⫹ and t
are the transport numbers, that is, num-
Co
bers that represent the fraction of current carried by a

particular ionic species. The numbers N⫹ and N
are
the number of moles of hydration water per mole of
cation and anion, respectively.
9.16 ELECTROOSMOSIS EFFICIENCY

Electroosmotic water flow occurs if the frictional drag Figure 9.30 Schematic prediction of water transport by elec-
between the ions of one sign and their surrounding troosmosis in various clays according to the Donnan concept
water molecules exceeds that caused by ions of the (from Gray, 1966).

ELECTROOSMOSIS EFFICIENCY 295
greater decrease in efficiency for inactive clay than 2C0
y⫽ (9.120)
more plastic, active clay. Tests on sodium kaolinite (in- A0
active clay) and sodium illite (more active clay) gave
the results shown in Fig. 9.31, which agree well with The concentration C0 is in the external solution, is
the predictions in Fig. 9.30. the mean molar activity coefficient in the external so-
The slopes and locations of the curves can be ex- lution, is the mean activity coefficient in the double
plained more quantitatively in the following way. Al- layer, and A0 is the surface charge density per unit pore
ternatively to the double-layer theory given in Chapter volume. The parameter A0 is related to the cation
6, the Donnan (1924) theory can be used to describe exchange capacity (CEC) by
equilibrium ionic distributions in fine-grained materi-
als. The basis for the Donnan theory is that at equilib-
(CEC)w
l
rium the potentials of the internal and external A0 ⫽ (9.121)
ria
solutions are equal and that electroneutrality is re- w
quired in both phases. It may be shown (Gray, 1966;
Gray and Mitchell, 1967) that the ratio R of cations to where w is the density of water and w is the water
anions in the internal phase for the case of a symmet- content. The higher R, the greater is the electroosmotic
rical electrolyte (z⫹ ⫽ z⫺) is given by
ate
water transport, all other things equal.
From Eqs. (9.119) to (9.121) it may be deduced that
C⫹ 1 ⫹ (1 ⫹ y2)1 / 2 exclusion of anions is favored by a high exchange
R⫽ ⫽ (9.119)
C⫺ ⫺1 ⫹ (1 ⫹ y2)1 / 2 capacity (active clay), a low water content, and low
salinity in the external solution. However, the concen-
where dM tration of anions in the double layer builds up more
hte
rig
py
Co
Figure 9.31 Electroosmotic water transport versus concentration of external electrolyte so-
lution for homoionic kaolinite and illite at various water content (from Gray, 1966).

rapidly as the salinity of the external solution increases E L

⫽ ⫺ EH (9.124)
in inactive clays than in active clays. As a result the P LEE
efficiency, as measured by volume of water per unit
charge passed, decreases much more rapidly with in- In electroosmosis P ⫽ 0, so Eq. (9.122) is
creasing electrolyte concentration than in the more ac-
tive clay.
The results of electroosmosis measurements on a qh ⫽ LHE E (9.125)
number of different materials are summarized in Fig.
9.32, which shows water flow rate as a function of and Eq. (9.122) becomes
water content. This figure may be used as a guide for
prediction of electroosmotic flow rates. The flow rates I ⫽ LEE E (9.126)
l
shown are for open systems, that is, solution was ad-
ria
mitted at the anode at the same time it was extracted so
from the cathode. Electrochemical effects (Section
9.18) and water content changes were minimized in
qh LHE
these tests. Thus, the values can be interpreted as upper ⫽ (9.127)
bounds on the flow rates to be expected in practice. I LEE
ate
Values of water content, electrolyte concentration in
the pore water, and type of clay are required for elec- By Onsager’s reciprocity theorem LEH ⫽ LHE so
troosmosis efficiency estimation. Water content is read-
ily measured, the electrolyte concentration is easily
determined using a conductivity cell, and the clay type
dM
can be determined from plasticity and grain size in-
冉冊qh
I P⫽0
⫽⫺ 冉冊
E
P I⫽0
(9.128)
formation if mineralogical data are not available. Elec-

This equivalence between streaming potential and elec-
troosmotic flow rates of 0.03 to 0.06 gal/h/amp are
troosmosis was first shown experimentally by Saxen
predicted using Fig. 9.32 for soils 11, 13, and 14 in
(1892) and is known as Saxen’s law. It has been ver-
Table 9.7. Electrical treatment for consolidation and
ified for clay–water–electrolyte systems. Care must be
ground strengthening was effective in these soils. For
taken to ensure consistency in units. For example, the
soil 12, however, a flow rate of 0.008 to 0.012 gal/h/
electroosmotic flow rate in gallons per hour per ampere
hte
amp was predicted, and electroosmosis was not effec-

is equal to 0.0094 times the streaming potential in mil-
tive.
livolts per atmosphere.
Saxen’s Law Prediction of Electroosmosis from
Energy Requirements
Streaming Potential
The preceding analysis leads to a prediction of the
rig
Streaming potential can be measured directly during a

amount of water moved per unit charge passed, for
measurement of hydraulic conductivity by using a
example, gallons or cubic meters of water per hour per
high-impedance voltmeter and reversible electrodes.
ampere or moles per faraday. If this quantity is denoted
Equivalence between streaming potential and elec-
by ki, then
troosmosis may be derived. Expansion of Eq. (9.57)
py
for coupled hydraulic and current flows gives

qh ⫽ ki I (9.129)
qh ⫽ LHH P ⫹ LHE E (9.122)
Unlike ke, ki varies over a wide range, as may be seen
Co
I ⫽ LEH P ⫹ LEE E (9.123) in Fig. 9.32. The power consumption P is
in which qh is the hydraulic flow rate, I is the electric Eqh

current, LHH and LEE are the direct flow coefficients, P ⫽ E I ⫽ (in W) (9.130)
ki
LHE and LEH are the coupling coefficients for hydraulic
flow due to an electrical gradient and electrical flow for E in volts and I in amperes. The power consump-
due to a hydraulic gradient, P is the pressure drop, tion per unit volume of flow is
and E is the electrical potential drop.
In a usual hydraulic conductivity measurement,
there is no electrical current flow, so I ⫽ 0, and E is P E
⫽ ⫻ 10⫺3 (in kWh) (9.131)
the streaming potential. Equation (9.123) then becomes qh ki

l
ria
ate
dM
hte
rig
Figure 9.32 Electroosmotic water transport as a function of water content, soil type, and
electrolyte concentration: (a) homoionic kaolinite and illite, (b) illitic clay and collodion
py
membrane, and (c) silty clay, illitic clay, and kaolinite.

Co
297

Relationship Between ke and ki equations in place of Darcy’s law in consolidation

From Eqs. (9.108) and (9.129), the electroosmotic flow theory.
rate is given by
Assumptions
E The following idealizing assumptions are made:
qh ⫽ ki I ⫽ ke A (9.132)
L
1. There is homogeneous and saturated soil.
2. The physical and physicochemical properties of
Because E/I is resistance and L/(resistance ⫻ A) is the soil are uniform and constant with time.12
specific conductivity , Eq. (9.132) becomes 3. No soil particles are moved by electrophoresis.
4. The velocity of water flow by electroosmosis is
l
ke directly proportional to the voltage gradient.
ria
ki ⫽ (9.133)
5. All the applied voltage is effective in moving wa-
ter.13
As ke varies within relatively narrow limits, Eq. (9.133) 6. The electrical field is constant with time.
shows that the electroosmotic efficiency, measured by 7. The coupling of hydraulic and electrical flows
ate
ki, is a sensitive function of the electrical conductivity can be formulated by Eqs. (9.63) and (9.64).
of the soil. For soils 11, 13, and 14 in Table 9.7, is 8. There are no electrochemical reactions.
in the range of 0.02 to 0.03 S. For soil 12, in which
electroosmosis was not effective, is 0.25 S. In es- Governing Equations
sence, a high value of electrical conductivity means For one-dimensional flow between plate electrodes
that the current required to develop the voltage is too (Fig. 9.33a), Eq. (9.63) becomes
dM
high for economical movement of water. In addition,
if high current is used, the generation of gas, heat, and k u V
electrochemical effects become excessive. qh ⫽ ⫺ h ⫺ ke (9.134)
w x x
for the flow rate per unit area. For radial flow for the
9.17 CONSOLIDATION BY ELECTROOSMOSIS conditions shown in Fig. 9.33b and a layer of unit
hte
thickness
If, in a compressible soil, electroosmosis draws water
to a cathode where it is drained away and no water is
k u V
allowed to enter at the anode, then consolidation of the qh ⫽ ⫺ h 2r ⫺ ke 2r (9.135)
soil between the electrodes occurs in an amount equal w r r
to the volume of water removed. Water movement
rig
away from the anode causes consolidation in the vi- Introduction of Eq. (9.134) in place of Darcy’s law
cinity of the anode. The effective stress must increase in the derivation of the diffusion equation governing
concurrently. Because the total stress in the vicinity of consolidation in one dimension leads to
the anode remains essentially unchanged, the pore wa-
ter pressure must decrease. Water drains at the cathode kh 2u 2V u
py
⫹ k ⫽ mv (9.136)
where there is no consolidation. Therefore, the total, w x2 e
x2
t
effective, and pore water pressures at the cathode re-
main unchanged. As a result, hydraulic gradient de- and
velops that tends to cause water flow from cathode to
Co
anode. Consolidation continues until the hydraulic

force that drives water back toward the anode exactly
12
balances the electroosmotic force driving water toward Flow of water away from anodes toward cathodes causes a non-
uniform decrease in water content along the line between electrodes.
the cathode. This leads to changes in hydraulic conductivity, electroosmotic hy-
The usefulness of consolidation by electroosmosis draulic conductivity, compressibility, and electrical conductivity with
as a means for soil stabilization was established by a time and position. To account for these effects, which are discussed
by Mitchell and Wan (1977) and Acar et al. (1990), would greatly
number of successful field applications, for example, complicate the analysis because it would be highly nonlinear. Similar
Casangrande (1959) and Bjerrum et al. (1967). Two problems arise in classical consolidation theory, but the simple linear
questions are important: (1) How much consolidation theory developed by Terzaghi is adequate for most cases.
13
In most cases some of the electrical energy will be consumed by
will there be? and (2) How long will it take? Answers generation of heat and gases at the electrodes. To account for those
to these questions are obtained using the coupled flow losses, an effective voltage can be used (Esrig and Henkel, 1968).

CONSOLIDATION BY ELECTROOSMOSIS 299
kh u V
⫽ ⫺ke (9.139)
w x x
or
k
du ⫽ ⫺ e w dV (9.140)
kh
The solution of this equation is
l
k
u ⫽ ⫺ e w V ⫹ C (9.141)
ria
kh
At the cathode, V ⫽ 0 and u ⫽ 0; therefore, C ⫽ 0,

and the pore pressure at equilibrium at any point is
given by
ate
k
u ⫽ ⫺ e w V (9.142)
kh
dM where the values of u and V are those at any point of

interest. A similar result is obtained from Eq. (9.135)
Figure 9.33 Electrode geometries for analysis of consoli- for radial flow.
dation by electroosmosis: (a) one-dimensional flow and (b) Equation (9.142) indicates that electroosmotic con-
radial flow. solidation continues at a point until a negative pore
pressure, relative to the initial value, develops that is
proportional to the ratio ke /kh and to the voltage at the
point. For conditions of constant total stress, there must
hte
2u ke 2V 1 u be an equal and opposite increase in the effective

⫹ ⫽ (9.137)
x2
kh w
x2
cv t stress. This increase in effective stress causes the con-
solidation. For the one-dimensional case, consolidation
where mv is the compressibility and cv is the coefficient by electroosmosis is analogous to the loading shown
of consolidation. For radial flow, the use of Eq. (9.135) in Fig. 9.35.
For a given voltage, the magnitude of effective stress
rig
gives
increase that develops depends on ke /kh. As ke only
冉冊
varies within narrow limits for different soils, the total
2u ke 2V 1 u k V 1 u consolidation that can be achieved depends largely on
⫹ ⫹ ⫹ e w ⫽
r 2
kh w
r 2
r r kh r cv t kh. Thus, the potential for consolidation by electroos-
py
(9.138) mosis increases as soil grain size decreases because the

finer grained the soil, the lower is kh. However, the
amount of consolidation in any case depends on the
Both V and u are functions of position, as shown in soil compressibility as well as on the change in effec-
Fig. 9.34; V is assumed constant with time, whereas u
Co
tive stress. For linear soil compression with increase in

varies. effective stress, the coefficient of compressibility av is
Amount of Consolidation de de
av ⫽ ⫺ ⫽ (9.143)
When the hydraulic gradient that develops in response d du
to the differing amounts of consolidation between the
anode and cathode generates a counterflow (kh / w)/ or
(u/ x) that exactly balances the electroosmotic flow
ke(V/ x) in the opposite direction, consolidation is de ⫽ av du ⫽ ⫺av d (9.144)
complete. As there then is no flow, qh in Eqs. (9.14)
and (9.135) is zero. Thus Eq. (9.134) is in which d is the increase in effective stress.

l
ria
ate
dM
hte
rig
Figure 9.34 Assumed variation of voltage with distance during electroosmosis: (a) one-
dimensional flow and (b) radial flow.
py
Thus, the more compressible the soil, the greater pendent on the voltage at the point. Accordingly, prop-
will be the amount of consolidation for a given stress erties at the end of treatment vary along a line between
increase, just as in the case of consolidation under ap- the anode and cathode, as shown, for example, by the
Co
plied loads. It follows, also, that electroosmosis will be posttreatment variations in shear strength and water
of little value in an overconsolidated clay unless the content shown in Fig. 9.36. Values of these properties
effective stress increases are large enough to bring the before treatment are also shown for comparison. More
material back into the virgin compression range. uniform property distributions between electrodes can
The consolidation loading of any small element of be obtained if the polarity of electrodes is reversed
the soil is isotropic, as it is done by increasing the after partial completion of consolidation (Wan and
effective stress through reduction in the pore water Mitchell, 1976).
pressure. The entire soil mass being treated is not con- The results shown in Fig. 9.36 were obtained at a
solidated isotropically or uniformly, however, because site in Norway where electroosmosis was used for the
the amount of consolidation varies with position, de- consolidation of quick clay (Bjerrum et al., 1967). The

CONSOLIDATION BY ELECTROOSMOSIS 301
l
ria
ate
dM
Figure 9.35 Consolidation by electroosmosis and by direct loading, one-dimensional case:
(a) electroosmosis and (b) direct loading.
hte
variations in strength and water content after treatment voltage, and TV is the time factor, defined in terms of
are consistent with the patterns to be expected based the distance between electrodes L and real time t as
on the predicted variation of pore pressure decrease
and vertical strain stress increase with voltage and po- cvt
sition shown in Fig. 9.35. TV ⫽ (9.146)
L2
rig
Rate of Consolidation where cv is the coefficient of consolidation, given by

Solutions for Eqs. (9.137) and (9.138) have been ob-
tained for several cases (Esrig, 1968, 1971). For the kh
cv ⫽
py
one-dimensional case, and assuming a freely draining (9.147)

mv w
(open) cathode and a closed anode (no flow), the pore
pressure is The average degree of consolidation U as a function
of time is
Co
ke 2k V
冋冉冊册
u⫽ V(x) ⫹ e w 2 m
kh
冘
⬁
kh w 4 (⫺1)n 1
2
U⫽1⫺ exp ⫺ n ⫹ 2TV

冘 (n (⫹⫺1)1/2) sin冋(n ⫹ 1/2) 册
⬁ n
x 3 n⫽0 (n ⫹ 1/2)3 2

n⫽0
2
L (9.148)
冋冉冊册
exp ⫺ n ⫹
1 2 2
2
TV (9.145) Solutions for Eqs. (9.145) and (9.148) are shown in
Figs. 9.37 and 9.38. They are applied in the same way
as the theoretical solution for classical consolidation
where V(x) is the voltage at x, Vm is the maximum theory.

l
ria
ate
dM
hte
rig
py
Co
Figure 9.36 Effect of electroosmosis treatment on properties of quick clay at Ås, Norway
(from Bjerrum et al., 1967): (a) Undrained shear strength, (b) remolded shear strength, (c)
water content, and (d) Atterberg limits.

ELECTROCHEMICAL EFFECTS 303
l
ria
Figure 9.39 Average degree of consolidation as a function
ate
of dimensionless time for radial consolidation by electroos-
mosis (from Esrig, 1968). Reprinted with permission of
ASCE.
Figure 9.37 Dimensionless pore pressure as a function of
dimensionless time and distance for one-dimensional consol-
idation by electroosmosis.
dM to pile driving, pile pulling, reduction of negative skin
friction, and recovery of buried objects. Special solu-
tions for in situ determination of soil consolidation
properties by electroosmosis measurements have also
been developed (Banerjee and Mitchell, 1980).
One of the most important points to be noted from
these solutions is that the rate of consolidation depends
completely on the coefficient of consolidation, which
hte
varies directly with kh, but is completely independent

of ke. Low values of kh, as is the case in highly plastic
clays, mean long consolidation times. Thus, whereas a
low value of kh means a high value of ke /kh and the
potential for a high effective consolidation pressure, it
also means longer required consolidation times for a
rig
given electrode spacing. The optimum situation is

when ke /kh is high enough to generate a large pore
water tension for reasonable electrode spacings (2 to 3
m) and maximum voltage (50 to 150 V DC), but kh is
Figure 9.38 Average degree of consolidation versus dimen-
py
sionless time for one-dimensional consolidation by electroos- high enough to enable consolidation in a reasonable
mosis. time. The soil types that best satisfy these conditions
are silts, clayey silts, and silty clays. Most successful
field applications of electroosmosis for consolidation
have been in these types of materials. As noted earlier,
Co
A numerical solution to Eq. (9.138) gives the results the electrical conductivity of the soil is also important;
shown in Fig. 9.39 (Esrig, 1968, 1971). For the case if it is too high, as in the case of high-salinity pore
of two pipe electrodes, a more realistic field condition water, adverse electrochemical effects and unfavorable
than the radial geometry of Fig. 9.33b, Fig. 9.39 cannot economics may preclude use of electroosmosis for
be expected to apply exactly. Along a straight line be- consolidation.
tween two pipe electrodes, however, the flow pattern
is approximately the same as for the radial case for a
considerable distance from each electrode. 9.18 ELECTROCHEMICAL EFFECTS
A solution for the rate of pore pressure buildup at
the cathode for the case of no drainage (closed cath- The measured strength increases in the quick clay at
ode) is shown in Fig. 9.40. This condition is relevant Ås, Norway (Fig. 9.36), were some 80 percent greater

l
ria
ate
Figure 9.40 Dimensionless pore pressure at the face of a cylindrical electrode as a function
of dimensionless time for the case of a closed cathode (a swelling condition) (from Esrig
and Henkel, 1968).
dM
than can be accounted for solely by reduction in water Chlorine may also form in a saline environment. Some
content. Also, the liquid and plastic limits were of the exchangeable cations on the clay may be re-
changed as a result of treatment. Consolidation alone placed by H⫹. Because hydrogen clays are generally
should have no effect on the Atterberg limits because unstable, and high acidity and oxidation cause rapid
changes in mineralogy, particle characteristics, and/or deterioration of the anodes, the clay will soon alter to
pore solution characteristics are needed to do this. the aluminum or iron form depending on the anode
hte
In addition to movement of water when a DC volt- material. As a result, the soil is usually strengthened
age field is applied between metal electrodes inserted in the vicinity of the anode. If gas generation at the
into a wet soil, the following effects may develop: ion anode causes cavitation and heat causes desiccation,
diffusion, ion exchange, development of osmotic and cracking may occur. This will limit the negative pore
pH gradients, desiccation by heat generation at the pressure that can develop to a value less than 1 atm,
electrodes, mineral decomposition, precipitation of and also the electrical resistance will increase, leading
rig
salts or secondary minerals, electrolysis, hydrolysis, to a loss in efficiency.

oxidation, reduction, physical and chemical adsorption, Hydrogen gas is generated at the cathode
and fabric changes. As a result, continuous changes in
soil properties that are not readily accounted for by the 4H2O ⫹ 4e⫺ → 2H2 ↑ ⫹ 4OH⫺ (9.150)
simplified theory developed previously must be ex-
py
pected. Some of them, such as electrochemical hard- Cations in solution are drawn to the cathode where
ening of the soil that results in permanent changes in they combine with (OH)⫺ that is left behind to form
plasticity and strength, may be beneficial; others, such
hydroxides. The pH may rise to values as high as 12
as heating and gas generation, may impair the effi-
at the cathode. Some alumina and silica may go into
Co
ciency of electroosmosis. For example, heat and gas

solution in the high pH environment.
generation were so great that a field test of consoli-
More detailed information about electrochemical re-
dation by electroosmosis for foundation stabilization of
the leaning Tower of Pisa was unsuccessful. actions during electroosmosis can be found in Titkov
A simplified mechanism for some of the processes et al. (1965), Esrig and Gemeinhardt (1967), Chilingar
during electroosmosis is as follows. Oxygen gas is and Rieke (1967), Gray and Schlocker (1969), Gray
evolved at the anode by hydrolysis (1970), Acar et al. (1990), and Hamed et al. (1991).
Soil strength increases resulting from consolidation
2H2O ⫺ 4e⫺ → O2 ↑ ⫹ 4H⫹ (9.149) by electroosmosis and the concurrent electrochemical
hardening have application for support of foundations
Anions in solution react with freed H⫹ to form acids. on and in fine-grained soil. Pile capacity for a bridge

SELF-POTENTIALS 305
foundation in varved clay at a site in Canada was well 9.20 SELF-POTENTIALS
below the design value and inadequate for support of
the structure (Soderman and Milligan, 1961; Milligan, Natural DC electrical potential differences of up to
1994). Electrokinetic treatment using the piles as an- several tens of millivolts exist in the earth. These self-
odes resulted in sufficient strength increase to provide potentials are generated by differing chemical condi-
the needed support. Recently reported model tests by tions in adjacent soil layers, fluid flow, subsurface
Micic et al. (2003) on the use of electrokinetics in soft chemical reactions, and temperature differences. The
marine clay to increase the load capacity of skirt foun- self-potential (SP) method is one of the oldest geo-
dations for offshore structures resulted in increases in physical methods for characterization of the subsurface
soil strength and supporting capacity of up to a factor (National Research Council, 2000). Self-potentials
of 3. may be the source of phenomena of importance in geo-
l
technical problems as well.
ria
The magnitude of self-potential between different
soil layers depends on the contents of oxidizing and
9.19 ELECTROKINETIC REMEDIATION reducing substances in the layers (F. Hilbert, in Veder,
1981). These potentials can cause a natural electroos-
The transport of dissolved and suspended constituents mosis in which water flows in the direction from the
ate
into and out of the ground by electroosmosis and elec- higher to the lower potential, that is, toward the cath-
trophoresis, as well as electrochemical, reactions have ode. The process is shown schematically in Fig. 9.41.
become of increasing interest because of their potential An oxidizing soil layer is positive relative to a reducing
applications in waste containment and removal of con- layer, thus inducing an electroosmotic water flow to-
taminants from fine-grained soils. The electrolysis re- ward the interface. If water accumulates at the inter-
face, there can be swelling and loss of strength, leading
dM
actions at the electrodes described in the preceding
section, wherein acid is produced at the anode and base ultimately to formation of a slip surface.
at the cathode, are of particular relevance. After a few
days of treatment the pH in the vicinity of the anode Generation of Self-Potentials in Soil Layers
may drop to less than 2, and that at the cathode in-
crease to more than 10 (Acar and Alshewabkeh, 1993). Soils in an oxidizing environment are usually yellow
Toxic heavy metals are preferentially adsorbed by or tan to reddish brown and are characterized by oxides
and hydrates of trivalent iron and a low pH relative to
hte
clay minerals and they precipitate except at low pH.

Iron or aluminum cations from decomposing anodes reducing soils, which are usually dark gray to blue-
can replace heavy-metal ions from exchange sites, the gray in color and contain sulfides and oxides and hy-
acid generated at the anode can redissolve precipitated droxides of divalent iron. The local electrical potential
material, and the acid front that moves across the soil of the soil depends on the iron concentrations and
can keep the metals in solution until removed at the can be calculated from Nernst’s equation:
rig
cathode. Geochemical reactions in the soil pores im-

pact the efficiency of the process. Among them are
complexation effects that reverse ion charge and
reverse flow directions, precipitation/dissolution,
sorption, desorption and dissolution, redox, and im-
py
mobilization or precipitation of metal hydroxides in the

high pH zone near the cathode.
Some success has been reported in the removal of
organic pollutants from soils, at least in the laboratory,
Co
as summarized by Alshewabkeh (2001). However, it is

unlikely that large quantities of non-aqueous-phase liq-
uids can be effectively transported by electrokinetic
processes, except as the NAPL may be present in the
form of small bubbles that move with the suspending
water.
An in-depth treatment of the fundamentals of elec- Figure 9.41 Natural electroosmosis due to self-potential dif-
trokinetic remediation and the practical aspects of its ferences between oxidizing and reducing soil layers. The ox-
implementation are given by Alshewabkeh (2001) and idizing soil layer is positive relative to the reducing layer
the references cited therein. (redrawn from Hilbert, in Veder, 1981).

⫽ 0.771 ⫹
RT
F 冉冊
c3⫹
ln Fe
c2⫹
Fe
(9.151)
then ke /hh ⫽ 50 m/V. If the self-potential difference is
50 mV, then from Eq. (9.142) a pore pressure value of
in which the concentrations are of Fe in solution in u ⫽ 50 ⫻ 9.81 ⫻ 0.05 ⬇ 25 kPa

moles/liter pore water. The difference in potentials be-
tween two layers gives the driving potential for elec- is generated, which is not an insignificant value. If wa-
troosmosis. Values calculated using the Nernst ter that is driven toward the interface cannot escape or
equation are too high for actual soil systems because be absorbed by the soil, then the effective stress will
it applies for conditions of no current flow, and the be reduced by this amount. If the water is absorbed
flowing current also generates a diffusion potential act- into the clay layer, then softening will result. Either
ing in the opposite direction. Hilbert, in Veder (1981), way, the resistance to sliding along the interface will
l
gives the electrical potential as a function of the in situ be reduced.
ria
pH, that is,
Landslide Stabilization Using Short-Circuit
Conductors
⫽ 0.186 ⫺ 0.059 pH (9.152)
If slope instability is caused by a slip surface between
ate
Reasonable agreement has been obtained between reducing and oxidizing soil layers, then a simple means
measured and calculated values of for different soil for stabilization can be used (Veder, 1981). Short-
layers. The end result is that potential differences of circuiting conductors, such as steel rods, are driven
up to 50 mV or so are developed between different into the soil so that they extend across the slip surface
layers. Potentials measured in a trench excavated in a and about 1 to 2 m into the soil below. The mechanism
dM
slide zone are shown in Fig. 9.42. that is then established is shown in Fig. 9.43.
Electric current generated by reduction reactions in
the oxidizing soil layer and oxidizing reactions in the
Excess Pore Pressure Generation by Self-Potentials reducing layer flows through the conductors. Because
The pore pressure that may develop at an interface be- of the presence of oxidizing agents such as ferric iron,
tween two different soil layers is given by Eq. (9.142) oxygen, and manganese compounds, in the upper ox-
in which V is the difference in self-potentials between idizing layer that take up electrons, electrons pass from
the layers. For a given value of V, the magnitude of the metal conductor to the soil. That is, the introduc-
hte
pore pressure depends directly on ke /kh. For example, tion of electrons initiates reducing reactions. In the re-
if ke ⫽ 5 ⫻ 10⫺9 m2 /s V and kh ⫽ 1 ⫻ 10⫺10 m/s, ducing layer, on the other hand, there is already a
rig
py
Co
Figure 9.42 Electrical potentials measured in a trench cut into a slide (from Veder, 1981).
Reprinted with permission of Springer-Verlag.

THERMALLY DRIVEN MOISTURE FLOW 307
for use of short-circuiting conductors are (1) intact co-
hesive soils with a low hydraulic conductivity, (2)
shear between oxidizing and reducing clay layers, and
(3) a relatively thin, well-defined shear zone.
9.21 THERMALLY DRIVEN MOISTURE FLOW

Thermally driven flows in saturated soils are rather
small. Gray (1969) measured thermoelectric currents
on the order of 1 to 10 A/ C cm, with the warm side
l
positive relative to the cold side. Thermoosmotic pres-
ria
sures of only a few tenths of a centimeter water head
per degree Celsius were measured in saturated soil. Net
flows in different directions have been measured in dif-
ferent investigations, evidently because of different
temperature dependencies of chemical activity coeffi-
ate
cients. These small thermoelectric and thermoosmotic
effects in saturated soils may be of little practical sig-
Figure 9.43 Mechanism for slide stabilization using short- nificance in geotechnical problems.
circuiting conductors (adapted from Veder, 1981).
On the other hand, thermally driven moisture flows
dM in partly saturated soils can be large, and that these
flows can be very important in subgrade stability,
surplus of electrons. If these pass into the conductor, swelling soils, and heat transfer and storage problems
then the environment becomes favorable for oxidation of various types. Theoretical representations of mois-
reactions. Thus, positive charges are generated in the ture flow through partly saturated soils based solely on
reducing soil layer as the conductor carries electrons the application of irreversible thermodynamics, such as
away. The oxidizing soil layer then takes up these elec- developed by Taylor and Cary (1964), have not been
trons. completely successful. They underestimate the flows
hte
Completion of the electrical circuit requires current substantially, perhaps because of the inability to ade-
flow through the soil pore water in the manner shown quately represent all the processes and interactions.
in Fig. 9.43, where adsorbed cations, shown as Na⫹, A widely used theory for coupled heat and moisture
plus the associated water, flow away from the soil layer flow through soils was developed by Philip and De
interface. This electroosmotic transport of water re- Vries (1957). It accounts for both liquid- and vapor-
duces the water content in the slip zone. Thus, short- phase flows. Vapor-phase flow depends on the thermal
rig
circuit conductors have three main effects (Veder, and isothermal vapor diffusivities and is driven by tem-
1981): perature and moisture content gradients. The liquid-
phase flow depends on the thermal and isothermal
1. Natural electroosmosis is prevented because the liquid diffusivities and is driven by the temperature
py
short-circuiting conductors eliminate the poten- gradient, the moisture content gradient, and gravity.
tial difference between the two soil layers. The two governing equations are:
2. Electrochemical reactions produce electroos-
motic flow in the opposite direction, thus helping For vapor-phase flow:
to drain the shear zone.
Co
3. Corrosion of the conductors produces high va- qvap

lence cations that exchange for lower valence ad- ⫽ ⫺DTVT ⫺ DV (9.153)
w
sorbed cations, for example, iron for sodium,
which leads to soil strengthening. and for liquid-phase flow:
Several successful cases of landslide stabilization
using short-circuiting conductors have been described qliq
⫽ ⫺DTLT ⫺ DL ⫺ k i (9.154)
by Veder (1981) and the references cited therein. Typ- w
ically, steel rods about 25 mm in diameter are used,
spaced a maximum of 3 to 4 m apart in grid patterns where qvap ⫽ vapor flux density (M/L2 /T)
covering the area to be stabilized. Conditions favorable w ⫽ density of water (M/L3)

T ⫽ temperature (K) in which is the surface tension of water (F/L).

⫽ volumetric water content (L3 /L3) Use of the above equations requires knowledge of
DTV ⫽ thermal vapor diffusivity (L2 /T/K) four relationships to describe the properties of the soils
DV ⫽ isothermal vapor diffusivity (L2 /T) in the system:
qliq ⫽ liquid flux density (M/L2 /T)
DTL ⫽ thermal liquid diffusivity (L2 /T/K) 1. Hydraulic conductivity as a function of water
DL ⫽ isothermal liquid diffusivity (L2 /T) content
k ⫽ unsaturated hydraulic conductivity (L/T) 2. Thermal conductivity as a function of water con-
i ⫽ unit vector in vertical direction tent
3. Volumetric heat capacity (see Table 9.2)
The thermal vapor diffusivity is given by 4. Suction head as a function of water content
l
冉冊冉冊
ria
D0 d 0
DTV ⫽ v[a ⫹ ƒ(a) ]h (9.155) The hydraulic conductivity and suction relationships
w dT
are hysteretic; that is, they depend on whether the soil
The isothermal vapor diffusivity is given by is wetting or drying. Examples of the variations of the
different properties needed for the analysis are shown
冉冊冉冊冉冊
ate
D0 hg d in Fig. 9.44 as a function of degree of saturation and
DV ⫽ va 0 (9.156) volumetric water content. The data are for a crushed
w RT d
limestone that is used for a trench backfill around bur-
where D0 ⫽ molecular diffusivity of water vapor in air ied electrical transmission cables. This material is used
(L2 /T) because of its low thermal resistivity, which makes it
v ⫽ mass flow factor ⫽ P/(P ⫺ p) suitable for effective dissipation of heat from the bur-
dM
P ⫽ total gas pressure in pore space ied cable, provided the saturation does not fall below
about 40 percent.
p ⫽ partial pressure of water vapor in pore
space The vapor flow is made up of a flow away from the
⫽ tortuosity factor high-temperature side that is driven by a vapor density
a ⫽ volumetric air content (L3 /L3) gradient and a return flow caused by variation in the
h ⫽ relative humidity of air in pores pore vapor humidity as reflected by variations in soil
suction. At moderate soil suction values, for example,
hte
⫽ ratio of average temperature gradient in

the air-filled pores to the overall temper- a few meters for sand and several tens of meters for
ature gradient clay, the thermal vapor diffusivity predominates, and
g ⫽ acceleration of gravity (L/T2) moisture is driven away from the heat source (McMil-
R ⫽ gas constant (FL/M/K) lan, 1985).
0 ⫽ density of saturated water vapor (M/L3) The isothermal diffusivity term only becomes im-
rig
⫽ suction head of water in the soil (negative portant at very high suction levels. The liquid flow con-
head) (L) sists of a capillarity-driven flow toward the heat source
ƒ(a) ⫽ a/ak for 0 ⬍ a ⬍ ak and an outward liquid flow due to variations in water
⫽ 1 for a ak surface tension with temperature. McMillan’s analysis
ak ⫽ a at which liquid conductivity is lost or showed that for both sand and clay the isothermal liq-
py
at which the hydraulic conductivity falls uid diffusivity term was 4 to 5 orders of magnitude
below some arbitrary fraction of the sat- greater than the thermal liquid diffusivity term. Thus
urated value capillarity-driven flow predominates for any significant
gradient in the volumetric moisture content. The very
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The thermal liquid diffusivity is given by small thermal liquid diffusivity is consistent with the
冉冊冉冊
observations noted earlier for saturated soils in which
d measured water flows under thermal gradients are
DTL ⫽ k (9.157)
dT small.
The total water flow q in an unsaturated soil under
The isothermal diffusivity is given by the action of a temperature gradient and its resulting
冉冊
water content gradient equals the sum of the vapor-
d phase and liquid-phase movements. Thus, from Eqs.
DL ⫽ k (9.158)
d (9.153) to (9.158),

THERMALLY DRIVEN MOISTURE FLOW 309
l
ria
ate
dM
hte
Figure 9.44 Examples of properties used for analysis of thermally driven moisture flow in
a partially saturated, compacted, crushed limestone: (a) particle size distribution, (b) suction
head as a function of volumetric water content, (c) hydraulic conductivity as a function of
degree of saturation and volumetric water content, (d) isothermal liquid diffusivity as a
function of degree of saturation and volumetric water content, (e) isothermal vapor diffusivity
as a function of degree of saturation and volumetric water content, and (f) Thermal water
rig
diffusivity as a function of degree of saturation and volumetric water content. Thermal re-
sistivity as a function of water content for this soil is shown in Fig. 9.14.
q Equation (9.159) is the governing equation for mois-

⫽ ⫺(DTV ⫹ DTL)T ⫺ (DV ⫹ DL ) ⫺ ki
py
w ture movement under a thermal gradient in unsaturated

soils as proposed by Philip and De Vries (1957). Dif-
⫽ ⫺DTT ⫺ D ⫺ k i (9.159) ferentiation of this equation and application of the
continuity requirement gives the general differential
in which
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equation for moisture flow:

D ⫽ DTV ⫹ DTL ⫽ thermal water diffusivity k
⫽ (DTT) ⫹ (D) ⫹ (9.162)
(9.160) t z
and The heat conduction equation for the soil is

D ⫽ DV ⫹ DL ⫽ isothermal water diffusivity
(9.161)
T
t
k
冉冊
⫽ t T
C
(9.163)

l
ria
ate
dM
Figure 9.44 (Continued )
hte
where kt ⫽ thermal conductivity Table 9.2. Three topics are considered in this section:
C ⫽ volumetric heat capacity (1) the depth of frost penetration, which illustrates the
application of transient heat flow analysis, (2) frost ac-
The ratio of thermal conductivity to the volumetric tion in soils, a phenomenon of great practical impor-
rig
heat capacity is the thermal diffusivity A. tance that can be understood through consideration of
Both transient and steady-state temperature distri- interactions of the physical and physicochemical prop-
butions computed using the Philip and De Vries theory erties of the soil, and (3) some effects of freezing on
incorporated into numerical models have agreed well the behavior and properties of the soil after thawing.
with measured values in a number of cases. The actual
py
These topics are also covered in some detail by Konrad

moisture movements and distributions have not agreed (2001) and the references therein.
as well, for example, Abdel-Hadi and Mitchell (1981)
and Cameron (1986). The numerical simulations have
been done using transform methods, finite difference Depth of Frost Penetration
Co
methods, the finite element method, and the integrated Accurate estimation of the depth of ground freezing
finite difference method. Cameron (1986) reformulated during the winter, the depth of thawing in permafrost
the equations in terms of suction head rather than areas during the summer, and the refrigeration and time
moisture content and incorporated them into the finite requirements for artificial ground freezing for tempo-
element model of Walker et al. (1981) for solution of rary ground stabilization are all problems involving
two-dimensional problems. transient heat flow analysis. They differ from the con-
duction analyses in the preceding sections in that the
9.22 GROUND FREEZING phase change of water to ice must be taken into ac-
count. Prediction of the maximum depth of frost pen-
Heat conduction in soils and rocks is discussed in Sec- etration illustrates this type of problem. Theoretical
tion 9.5, and values for thermal properties are given in solutions of this problem are based on a mathematical

GROUND FREEZING 311
analysis developed by Neumann in about 1860 (Berg- T 2T
⫽a 2 (9.168)
gren, 1943; Aldrich, 1956; Brown, 1964; Konrad, t z
2001).
The relationship between thermal energy u and tem- where a ⫽ kt /C is the thermal diffusivity (L2 /T). Equa-
perature T for a soil mass at constant water content is tion (9.168) is the one-dimensional, transient heat flow
shown in Fig. 9.45. In the absence of freezing or thaw- equation.
ing At the interface between frozen and unfrozen soil,
z ⫽ Z, and the equation of heat continuity is
u
⫽C (9.164)
T dZ
Ls ⫽ q ƒ ⫺ qu (9.169)
dt
l
The Fourier equation for heat flow is
ria
where Ls is the latent heat of fusion of water and qƒ ⫺
T qu is the net rate of heat flow away from the interface.
qt ⫽ ⫺kt (9.165) Equation (9.169) can be written
z
ate
In the absence of freezing or thawing, thermal conti- dZ T T
Ls ⫽ kƒ ƒ ⫺ ku u (9.170)
nuity and conservation of thermal energy require that dt z z
the rate of change of thermal energy of an element plus
the rate of heat transfer into the element equal zero, where the subscripts u and f pertain to unfrozen and
that is, for the one-dimensional case frozen soil, respectively. Simultaneous solution of Eqs.
(9.168) and (9.170) gives the depth of frost penetra-
u
⫹
q
dM
⫽0 (9.166)
tion.
Stefan Formula The simplest solution is to assume
t z
that the latent heat is the only heat to be removed dur-
ing freezing and neglect the heat that must be removed
Using Eqs. (9.164) and (9.165), Eq. (9.166) may be
to cool the soil water to the freezing point, that is, the
written
thermal energy stored as volumetric heat is neglected.
This condition is shown by Fig. 9.46. For this case Eq.
hte
T 2T (9.168) does not exist, and Eq. (9.170) becomes

C ⫽ kt 2 (9.167)
t z
dZ T
or Ls ⫽ kƒ s (9.171)
dt Z
rig
where Ts is the surface temperature. The solution of

this equation is
py
Co
Figure 9.45 Thermal energy as a function of temperature

for a wet soil. Figure 9.46 Assumed conditions for the Stefan equation.

Z⫽ 冉2kƒ 冕 T dt
Ls
s
冊
1/2
(9.172)
(9.170) has been made for the conditions shown in Fig.
9.48, assuming that the soil has a uniform initial tem-
perature that is T0 degrees above freezing and that the
surface temperature drops suddenly to Ts below freez-
ing (Aldrich, 1956). The solution is
冉冊
The integral of Ts dt is a measure of freezing intensity. 1/2
2kTst
It can be expressed by the freezing index F, which has Z⫽ (9.173)
units of degrees ⫻ time. Index F is usually given in Ls
degree-days. It is shown in relation to the annual tem-
perature cycle in Fig. 9.47. Freezing index values are where k is taken as an average thermal conductivity
derived from meteorological data. Methods for deter- for frozen and unfrozen soil. The dimensionless cor-
l
mination of freezing index values are given by Linell rection coefficient depends on the two parameters
ria
et al. (1963), Straub and Wegmann (1965), McCormick shown in Fig. 9.49. The thermal ratio is given by
(1971), and others. Maps showing mean freezing index
values are available for some areas. It is important T0
⫽ (9.174)
when using such data sources to be sure that there are Ts
ate
not local deviations from the average values that are
given. Different types of ground cover, local topogra- and the fusion parameter is
phy and vegetation, and solar radiation all influence
the net heat flux at the ground surface. C
⫽ T (9.175)
The Stefan equation can also be used to estimate the Ls s
summer thaw depth in permafrost; that is, the thickness
dM
of the active layer. In this case the ground thawing An averaged value for the volumetric heats of frozen
index, also in degree-days and derived from meteoro- and unfrozen soil can be used for C in Eq. (9.175).
logical data, is used in Eq. (9.172) in place of the In application, the quantity Tst in Eq. (9.173) is re-
freezing index (Konrad, 2001). placed by the freezing index, and Ts in (9.175) is given
Modified Berggren Formula The Stefan formula by F/t, where t is the duration of the freezing period.
overpredicts the depth of freezing because it neglects The coefficient corrects the Stefan formula for ne-
the removal of the volumetric heats of frozen and un- glect of volumetric heat. For soils with high water con-
hte
frozen soil. Simultaneous solution of Eqs. (9.168) and tent C is small relative to Ls; therefore, is small and
rig
py
Co
Figure 9.47 Freezing index in relation to the annual temperature cycle.

GROUND FREEZING 313
l
ria
ate
dM
hte
Figure 9.48 Thermal conditions assumed in the derivation of the modified Berggren for-
rig
mula.
the Stefan formula is reasonable. For arctic climates, depths of frost penetration may be misleading if esti-
where T0 is not much above the freezing point, is mates for a proposed pavement or other structure are
py
small, is greater than 0.9, and the Stefan formula is needed because of differences in ground surface char-
satisfactory. However, in more temperate climates and acteristics and because the pavement or foundation
in relatively dry or well-drained soils, the correction base will be at different water content and density than
becomes important. the surrounding soil.
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A comparison between theoretical freezing depths The solutions do not account for flow of water into
and a design curve proposed by the Corps of Engineers or out of the soil or the formation of ice lenses during
is shown in Fig. 9.50 for several soil types. The the- the freezing period. This may be particularly important
oretical curves were developed by Brown (1964) using when dealing with frost heave susceptible soils or
the modified Berggren equation and the thermal prop- when developing frozen soil barriers for the cutoff of
erties given in Fig. 9.13. groundwater flow. Methods for prediction of frost
Consideration should be given to the effect of dif- depth in soils susceptible to ice lens formation and the
ferent types of surface cover on the ground surface rate of heave are given by Konrad (2001). The initia-
temperature because air temperature and ground tem- tion of freezing of flowing groundwater requires that
perature are not likely to be the same, and the effects the rate of volumetric and latent heat removal be high
of thermal radiation may be important. Observed enough so that ice can form during the residence time

l
ria
ate
dM
Figure 9.49 Correction coefficients for use in the modified Berggren formula (from Aldrich,
1956).
hte
of an element of water moving between the boundaries a complex manner. If the cooling rate is too high, then
of the specified zone of solidification. the soil freezes before water can migrate to an ice lens,
so the heave becomes only that due to the expansion
of water on freezing.
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Frost Heaving
Three conditions are necessary for ice lens forma-
Freezing of some soils is accompanied by the forma-
tion and frost heave:
tion of ice layers or ‘‘lenses’’ that can range from a
millimeter to several centimeters in thickness. These 1. Frost-susceptible soil
lenses are essentially pure ice and are free from large
py
2. Freezing temperature
numbers of contained soil particles. The ground sur- 3. Availability of water
face may ‘‘heave’’ by as much as several tens of cen-
timeters, and the overall volume increase can be many Frost heaving can occur only where there is a water
times the 9 percent expansion that occurs when water table, perched water table, or pocket of water reason-
Co
freezes. Heave pressures of many atmospheres are ably close to the freezing front.
common. The freezing of frost-susceptible soils be- Frost-Susceptible Soils Almost any soil may be
neath pavements and foundations can cause major dis- made to heave if the freezing rate and water supply
tress or failure as a result of uneven uplift during are controlled. In nature, however, the usual rates of
freezing and loss of support on thawing, owing to the freezing are such that only certain soil types are frost
presence of large water-filled voids. Ordinarily, ice susceptible. Clean sands, gravels, and highly plastic
lenses are oriented normal to the direction of cold-front intact clays generally do not heave. Although the only
movement and become thicker and more widely sep- completely reliable way to evaluate frost susceptibility
arated with depth. is by some type of performance test during freezing,
The rate of heaving may be as high as several mil- soils that contain more than 3 percent of their particles
limeters per day. It depends on the rate of freezing in finer than 0.02 mm are potentially frost susceptible.

GROUND FREEZING 315
l
ria
ate
Figure 9.50 Predicted frost penetration depths compared with the Corps of Engineers’ de-
sign curve (Brown, 1964). Curve a—sandy soil: dry density 140 lb / ft3, saturated, moisture
content 7 percent. Curve b—silt, clay: dry density 80 lb / ft3, unsaturated, moisture content
2 percent. Curve c—sandy soil; dry density 140 lb / ft3, unsaturated, moisture content 2
percent. Curve d—silt, clay: dry density 120 lb / ft3, moisture content 10 to 20 percent (sat-
dM
urated). Curve e—silt, clay: dry density 80 lb / ft3 saturated, moisture content 30 percent.
Curve f—Pure ice over still water.
Frost-susceptible soils have been classified by the A method for the evaluation of frost susceptibility
Corps of Engineers in the following order of increasing that takes project requirements and acceptable risks
hte
frost susceptibility: and freezing conditions into account as well as the soil
type is described by Konrad and Morgenstern (1983).
Mechanism of Frost Heave The formation of ice
lenses is a complex process that involves interrelation-
Group
ships between the phase change of water to ice, trans-
(increasing
port of water to the lens, and general unsteady heat
rig
susceptibility) Soil Types

flow in the freezing soil. The following explanation of
F1 Gravelly soils with 3 to 20 percent the physics of frost heave is based largely on the mech-
finer than 0.02 mm anism proposed by Martin (1959). Although the Martin
F2 Sands with 3 to 15 percent finer (1959) model may not be correct in all details in the
py
than 0.02 mm light of subsequent research, it provides a logical and

F3 a. Gravelly soils with more than instructive basis for understanding many aspects of the
20 percent finer than 0.02- frost heave process.
mm sands, except fine silt The ice lens formation cycle involves four stages:
Co
sands with more than 15

percent finer than 0.02 mm 1. Nucleation of ice
b. Clays with PI greater than 12 2. Growth of the ice lens
percent, except varved clays 3. Termination of ice growth
F4 a. Silts and sandy silts 4. Heat and water flow between the end of stage 3
b. Fine silty sands with more than and the start of stage 1 again
15 percent finer than 0.02
In reality, heat and water flows continue through all
mm
four stages; however, it is convenient to consider them
c. Lean clays with PI less than 12
separately.
percent
The temperature for nucleation of an ice crystal, Tn,
d. Varved clays
is less than the freezing temperature, T0. In soils, T0 in

pore water is less than the normal freezing point of

water because of dissolved ions, particle surface force
effects, and negative pore water pressures that exist in
the freezing zone. The freezing point decreases with
decreasing distance to particle surfaces and may be
several degrees lower in the double layer than in the
center of a pore. Thus, in a fine-grained soil, there is
an unfrozen film on particle surfaces that persists until
the temperature drops below 0C.
The face of an ice front has a thin film of adsorbed
water. Freezing advances by incorporation of water
l
molecules from the film into the ice, while additional
ria
water molecules enter the film to maintain its thick-
ness. It is energetically easier to bring water to the ice
from adjacent pores than to freeze the adsorbed water
on the particle or to propagate the ice through a pore
constriction.
ate
The driving force for water transport to the ice is an
equivalent hydrostatic pressure gradient that is gener-
ated by freezing point depression, by removal of the
water from the soil at the ice front, which creates a
higher effective stress in the vicinity of the ice than
Figure 9.51 Temperature versus depth relationships in a
dM
away from it, by interfacial tension at the ice–water
interface, and by osmotic pressure generated by the freezing soil.
high concentration of ions in the water adjacent to the
ice front. Ice formation continues until the water ten-
sion in the pores supplying water becomes great The quantity L is the latent heat. Supercooling of 1C
enough to cause cavitation, or decreased upward water is sufficient to lift 12.5 kg a distance of 10 mm. Al-
flow from below leads to new ice lens formation be- ternatively, the energy for heave may originate from
hte
neath the existing lens. the thin water films at the ice surface (Kaplar, 1970).
The processes of freezing and ice lens formation As long as water can flow to a growing ice lens fast
proceed in the following way with time according to enough, the volumetric heat and latent heat can pro-
Martin’s theory. If homogeneous soil, at uniform water duce a temporary steady-state condition so that (dT/
content and temperature T0 above freezing, is subjected dz)A ⫽ (dT/dz)B. For example, silt can supply water at
to a surface temperature Ts below freezing, then the a rate sufficient for heave at 1 mm/h. After some time
rig
variation of temperature with depth at some time is as the ability of the soil to supply water will drop because
shown in Fig. 9.51. The rate of heat flow at any point the water supply in the region ahead of the ice front
is ⫺kt(dT/dz). If dT/dz at point A is greater than at becomes depleted, and the hydraulic conductivity of
point B, the temperature of the element will drop. the soil drops, owing to increased tension in the pore
When water goes to ice, it gives up its latent heat, water. This is illustrated in Fig. 9.52, where hydraulic
py
which flows both up and down and may slow or stop conductivity data as a function of negative pore water
changes in the value of dT/dz for some time period, pressure are shown for a silty sand, a silt, and a clay,
thus halting the rate of advance of the freezing front all compacted using modified AASHTO effort, at a
into the soil. water content about 3 percent wet of optimum.
Co
Ground heave results from the formation of a lens A small negative pore water pressure is sufficient to
at A, with water supplied according to the mechanisms cause water to drain from the pores of the silty sand,
indicated above. The energy needed to lift the over- and this causes a sharp reduction in hydraulic conduc-
lying material, which may include not only the soil and tivity. Because the clay can withstand large negative
ice lenses above, but also pavements and structures, is pore pressures without loss of saturation, the hydraulic
available because ice forms under conditions of super- conductivity is little affected by increasing reductions
cooling at a temperature T X ⬍ TFP, where TFP is the in the pore pressure (increasing suction). The small
freezing temperature. The available energy is decrease that is observed results from the consolidation
needed to carry the increased effective stress required
L(TFP ⫺ T X) to balance the reduction in the pore pressure. For the
F ⫽ (9.176)
TFP silt, water drainage starts when the suction reaches

GROUND FREEZING 317
which have now reduced the distance that water can
be from a particle surface. The temperature drop must
reach a depth where there is sufficient water available
after nucleation to supply a growing lens. The thicker
the overlying lens, the greater the distance, thus ac-
counting for the increased spacings between lenses
with depth. The greater the depth, the smaller the ther-
mal gradient, as may be seen in Fig. 9.51, where
(dT/dz)A ⬎ (dT/dz)A where A is on the temperature
distribution curve for a later time t2. Because of this,
the rate of heat extraction is slowed, and the temporary
l
steady-state condition for lens growth can be main-
ria
tained for a longer time, thus enabling formation of a
thicker lens.
More quantitative analyses of the freezing and frost
heaving processes in terms of segregation potential,
rates, pressures, and heave amounts are available. The
ate
Proceedings of the International Symposia on Ground
Freezing, for example, Jones and Holden (1988),
Nixon (1991), and Konrad (2001) provide excellent
sources of information on these issues.
dM Thaw Consolidation and Weakening
When water in soil freezes, it expands by about 9 per-
cent of its original volume. Thus a fully saturated soil
increases in volume by 9 percent of its porosity, even
Figure 9.52 Hydraulic conductivity as a function of negative
in the absence of ice segregation and frost heave. The
pore water pressure (from Martin and Wissa, 1972).
expansion associated with freezing disrupts the origi-
hte
nal soil structure. When thawed, the water returns to

its original volume, the melting of segregated ice
about 40 kPa; however, a significant continuous water leaves voids, and the soil can be considerably more
phase remains until substantially greater values of suc- deformable and weaker that before it was frozen. Un-
tion are reached. der drained conditions and constant applied overburden
In sand, the volume of water in a pore is large, and stress, the soil may consolidate to a denser state than
rig
the latent heat raises the freezing temperature to the it had prior to freezing. The lower the density of the
normal freezing point. Hence, there is no supercooling soil, the greater is the amount of thaw consolidation.
and no heave. Negative pore pressure development at The total settlement of foundations and pavements as-
the ice front causes the hydraulic conductivity to drop, sociated with thawing is the sum of that due to (1) the
so water cannot be supplied to form ice lenses. Thus phase change, (2) melting of segregated ice, and (3)
py
sands freeze homogeneously with depth. In clay, the compression of the weakened soil structure.
hydraulic conductivity is so low that water cannot be Testing of representative samples under appropriate
supplied fast enough to maintain the temporary steady- boundary conditions is the most reliable means for
state condition needed for ice lens growth. Heave in evaluating thaw consolidation. Samples of frozen soil
Co
clay only develops if the freezing rate is slowed to well are allowed to thaw under specified levels of applied
below that in nature. Silts and silty soils have a com- stress and under defined drainage conditions, and the
bination of pore size, hydraulic conductivity, and freez- decrease in void ratio or thickness is determined. An
ing point depression that allow for large heave at example of the effects of freezing and thawing on the
normal freezing rates in the field. compression and strength of initially undisturbed Bos-
The freezing temperature penetrates ahead of a com- ton blue clay is shown in Fig. 9.53 from Swan and
pleted ice lens, and a new lens will start to form only Greene (1998). These tests were done as part of a
after the temperature drops to the nucleation temper- ground freezing project for ground strengthening to en-
ature. The nucleation temperature for a new lens may able jacking of tunnel sections beneath operating rail
be less than that for the one before because of reduced lines during construction of the recently completed
saturation and consolidation from the previous flows, Central Artery/Tunnel Project in Boston. Detailed

0
2
4 C1-UF
e0 = 1.064
Vertical Strain, εv (%)

6
8 C4-FT
e0 = 1.171
10
12
14
l
16
ria
18
20
22
10 100 1000 10000
ate
Effective Stress, σc (kPa)
(a)
120
dM 100
Deviator Stress, σ1 – σ3 (kPa)
UUC1-UF
80 (σ1–σ3)max = 109.6 kPa
ε1 = 2.3%
su/σ3cell = 0.36
60 e0 = 1.02; w = 37.5%
hte
40
UUC4-FT
(σ1– σ3)max = 42.4 kPa
20 ε1 = 12.8%
su/σ3cell = 0.14
e0 = 1.13; w = 43.2%
rig
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Axial Strain. %
(b)
Figure 9.53 (a) Comparison between the compression behavior of unfrozen (C1-UF) and
py
frozen then thawed (C4-FT) samples of Boston blue clay. (b) Deviator stress vs. axial strain
in unconsolidated–undrained triaxial compression of unfrozen (UUC1-UF) and frozen and
thawed (UUC4-FT) Boston blue clay (from Swan and Greene, 1998).
Co
analysis of the thaw consolidation process and its an- cations are usually temporary, and they have the ad-
alytical representation is given by Nixon and Ladanyi vantage that the ground is not permanently altered,
(1978) and Andersland and Anderson (1978). except for such property changes as may be caused by
the freeze–thaw processes. Returning the ground to its
pristine state may be important for environmental rea-
Ground Strengthening and Flow Barriers by
sons where alternative methods for stabilization could
Artificial Ground Freezing
permanently change the state and composition of the
Artificial ground freezing has applications for formation subsoil.
of seepage cutoff barriers in situ, excavation support, Freezing is usually accomplished by installation of
and other ground strengthening purposes. These appli- freeze pipes and circulation of a refrigerant. For emer-

CONCLUDING COMMENTS 319
gency and rapid ground freezing, expendable refrig- 160
erants such as liquid nitrogen or carbon dioxide in an
open pipe can be used. The thermal energy removal
and time requirements for freezing the ground can be
calculated using the appropriate thermal conductivity,
volumetric heat, and latent heat properties for the
120
ground and heat conduction theory in conjunction with First Second Third
the characteristics of the refrigeration system (Sanger, Stage Stage Stage
1968; Shuster, 1972; Sanger and Sayles, 1979). For
many applications the energy required to freeze the
ground in kcal/m3 will be in the range of 2200 to 2800
l
Natural Strain, ε -%
times the water content in percent (Shuster, 1972). 80
ria
However, if the rate of groundwater flow exceeds about Pa
M
1.5 m/day, it may be difficult to freeze the ground 55 Temperature
0. Effect
without a very high refrigeration capacity to ensure =
,σ
that the necessary temperature decrease and latent heat °C
0
removal can be accomplished within the time any el- =
ate
T
ement of water is within the zone to be frozen. 40
The long-term strength and stress–strain character-
istics of frozen ground depend on the ice content, tem- Pa
,σ= 0.55 M
perature, and duration of loading. The short-term T= –2.2 °C
Stress effect
strength under rapid loading, which can be up to 20
dM
MPa at low temperature, may be 5 to 10 times greater T = –2.2 °C, σ = 0.138 MPa
than that under sustained stresses. That is, frozen soils 0
0 10 tf 20 30
are susceptible to creep strength losses (Chapter 12). Time, t (hr)
The deformation behavior of frozen soil is viscoplastic,
and the stress and temperature have significant influ- Figure 9.54 Creep curves for a frozen organic silty clay
ence on the deformation at any time. The creep curves (from Sanger and Sayles, 1979).
in Fig. 9.54 illustrate these effects. The onset of the
hte
third stage of creep indicates the beginning of failure.

The evaluation of stability of frozen soil masses, the
prediction of creep deformation, and the possibility of the permeability of soils to water and how this property
creep rupture are complex problems because of het- depends on soil type, especially gradation, and is
erogeneous ground conditions, irregular geometries, sensitive to testing conditions, soil fabric, and en-
and temperature and stress variations throughout the vironmental factors. The understanding of these fun-
rig
frozen soil mass. Design and implementation consid- damentals is important, not only because of the
erations for use of ground freezing in construction are insights provided but also because many of the same
given by Donohoe et al. (1998). considerations apply to the several other types of flows
that are known to be important—chemical, electrical,
and thermal. Knowledge of one is helpful in the un-
py
9.23 CONCLUDING COMMENTS derstanding and quantification of the other because the
mathematical descriptions of the flows follow similar
Conductivity properties are one of the four key dimen- force-flux relationships.
sions of soil behavior that must be understood and At the same time it is necessary to take into account
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quantified for success in geoengineering. The other that the flows of fluids of different composition and the
three dimensions are volume change, deformation and application of hydraulic, chemical, electrical, and ther-
strength, and the influences of time. They form the mal driving forces to soils can cause changes in com-
subjects of the following three chapters of this book. positions and properties, with differing consequences,
Water flows through soils and rocks under fully sat- depending on the situation. Furthermore, as examined
urated conditions have been the most studied, and hy- in considerable detail in this chapter, flow coupling can
draulic conductivity properties, their determination and be important, especially advective and diffusive chem-
application for seepage studies of various types, con- ical transport, electroosmotic water and chemical flow,
struction dewatering, and the like are central to geo- and thermally driven moisture flow. Considerable im-
technical engineering. One objective of this chapter has petus for research on these processes has been gener-
been to elucidate the fundamental factors that control ated by geoenvironmental needs, including enhanced

and more economical waste containment and site re- 6. How can the effects of incompatibility between
mediation strategies. chemicals in a waste repository and a compacted
Ground freezing, in addition to its importance in en- clay liner best be minimized?
gineering and construction in cold regions, is seeing
7. Two parallel channels, one with flowing water and
new applications for temporary ground stabilization
the other with contaminated water, are 100 ft apart.
needed for underground construction in sensitive urban
areas. The surface elevation of the contaminated channel
is 99 ft, and the surface elevation of the clean wa-
ter channel is at 97 ft. The soil between the two
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS channels is sand with a hydraulic conductivity of
1 ⫻ 10⫺4 m/s, a dry unit weight of 100 pcf, and
1. A uniform sand with rounded particles has a void a specific gravity of solids of 2.65. Estimate the
l
ratio of 0.63 and a hydraulic conductivity, k, of 2.7 time it will take for seepage from the contaminated
ria
⫻ 10⫺4 m/s. Estimate the value of k for the same channel to begin flowing into the initially clean
sand at a void ratio of 0.75. channel. Make the following assumptions and sim-
2. The soil profile at a site that must be dewatered plifications:
consists of three homogeneous horizontal layers of a. Seepage is one dimensional.
ate
equal thickness. The value of k for the upper and b. The only subsurface reaction is adsorption onto
lower layers is 1 ⫻ 10⫺6 m/s and that of the mid- the soil particles.
dle layer is 1 ⫻ 10⫺4 m/s. What is the ratio of the c. The soil–water partitioning coefficient is 0.4
average hydraulic conductivity in the horizontal cm3 /g.
direction to that in the vertical direction?
dM d. Hydrodynamic dispersion can be ignored.
3. Consider a zone of undisturbed San Francisco Bay
8. For the compacted clay waste containment liner
mud free of sand and silt lenses. Comment on the
shown below and assuming steady-state condi-
probable effect of disturbance on the hydraulic
tions:
conductivity, if any. Would this material be ex-
pected to be anisotropic with respect to hydraulic a. What is the contaminant transport for pure
conductivity? Why? molecular diffusion?
b. What is the contaminant transport rate for pure
hte
4. Assume the specific surface of the San Francisco advection?

Bay mud in Question 3 is 50 m2 /g and prepare a
c. What is the contaminant transport rate for ad-
plot of the hydraulic conductivity in meters/sec-
ond as a function of water content over the range vection plus diffusion?
of 100 percent decreased to 25 percent by consol- d. Why don’t the answers to parts (a) and (b) add
idation using the Kozeny–Carman equation. up to (c)?
rig
Would you expect the actual variation in hydraulic

conductivity as a function of water content to be
of this form? Why? Sketch the variation you
would expect and explain why it has this form.
py
5. At a Superfund site a plastic concrete slurry wall

was proposed as a vertical containment barrier
against escape of liquid wastes and heavily con-
taminated groundwater. The subsurface conditions
consist of horizontally bedded mudstone and silt-
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stone above thick, very low permeability clay

shale. The cutoff wall was to extend into the slay
shale, which has been shown to be able to serve
as a very effective bottom barrier. For the final
design and construction, however, a 3-ft-wide NOTE: Advection and diffusion are in the
gravel trench was used instead of the slurry wall. same direction; therefore, J ⬎ 0, and the so-
Sumps and pumps placed in the bottom of the
lution will be in the form
trench are used to collect liquids. Explain how this
trench can serve as an effective cutoff and discuss
the pros and cons of the two systems. c ⫽ a1ea2x ⫹ a3

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 321
9. One-dimensional flow is occurring by electroos-
mosis between two electrodes spaced at 3.0 m with
a potential drop of 100 V (DC) between them.
What should the water flow rate be if the coeffi-
cient of electroosmotic permeability, ke, is 5 ⫻
10⫺9 m2 /s V assuming an open system? If no wa-
ter is resupplied at the anode, what maximum con-
solidation pressure should develop at a point
midway between electrodes if the hydraulic con-
ductivity of the soil is 1 ⫻ 10⫺8 m/s?
Assume that the water pressure at the top of the leach-
10. a. A soil has a coefficient of electroosmotic per-
l
ate collection layer is atmospheric and that the only
meability equal to 0.3 ⫻ 10⫺8 m/s per V/m
ria
fluxes across the liner are water and electricity. The
and a hydraulic conductivity of 6 ⫻ 10⫺9 m/s. characteristics of the compacted clay liner are:
Starting from the general relationship
Hydraulic conductivity
ate
Ji ⫽ Lij Xj kh ⫽ 1 ⫻ 10⫺7 m/s
Electroosmotic coefficients
derive an expression for the pore water tension ke ⫽ 2 ⫻ 10⫺9 m2 /s V
that may be developed under ideal conditions
for consolidation of the clay by electroosmosis
dM ki ⫽ 0.2 ⫻ 10⫺6 m3 /s amp
and compute the value that should develop at a a. Wire mesh is proposed for use as electrodes.
point where the voltage is 25 V. Be sure to Where would you place the anode and cathode
indicate correct units with your answers. meshes?
b. In the absence of electrochemical effects or b. If the waste pond is to be filled to an average
cavitation, would you consider your answer to depth of 6 m, what voltage drop should be
part (a) to represent an upper or lower bound maintained between the electrodes?
estimate of the pore water tension? Why?
hte
c. What will the power cost be per hectare of im-

(HINT: Consider the influence of consolidation poundment per year? Power costs $0.09 per
on the soil properties that are used to predict kWh.
the pore water tension.) d. Assume that the leachate collection layer is
11. In 1892 Saxen established that there is equivalence flushed continuously with freshwater and that
between electroosmosis and streaming potential the liquid waste contains dissolved salts. Write
rig
such that the results of a hydraulic conductivity the complete set of equations that would be re-
test in which streaming potential is measured can quired to describe all the flows across the liner
be used to predict the volume flow rate during during electroosmosis. Define all terms.
electroosmosis in terms of the electrical current. e. Will maintenance of a no hydraulic flow con-
py
Starting with the general equations for coupled dition ensure that no leachate will escape
electrical and hydraulic flow, derive Saxen’s law. through the clay liner? Why?
What will be the drainage rate from a soil, in
13. a. Estimate the minimum footing depths for struc-
m3 /h amp, if the streaming potential is 25 mV/
tures in a Midwestern city where the freezing
atm? What will be the cost of electrical power per
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index is 750 degree-days and the duration of

cubic meter of water drained if electricity costs
the freezing index is 100 days. The mean an-
$0.10 per kWh and a maximum voltage of 75 V
nual air temperature is 50F. The soil is silty
is used? clay with a water content of 20 percent and a
12. It might be possible to prevent leakage of hazard- dry unit weight of 110 lb/ft3. Assume no ice
ous and toxic chemicals through waste impound- segregation and compare values according to
ment and landfill clay or geosynthetic-clay liners the Stefan and modified Berggren formulas.
by means of an electroosmosis counterflow barrier b. What will be the depth of frost penetration be-
against hydraulically driven seepage. Consider the low original ground surface level if a surface
impoundment and liner system shown below. heave of 6 inches develops due to ice lens for-

mation? Assume a frozen ground temperature through the liner as a function of the hydraulic
of 32F. conductivity. Show in the same diagram the
c. If a pavement is to be placed over the soil, what proportions of the total that are attributable to
thickness of granular base course should be diffusion and advection.
used to prevent freezing of the subgrade? The Assume that the leachate collection layer is
base course will be compacted to a dry density fully drained, but for purposes of analysis the
of 125 lb/ft3 at a water content of 15 percent. fluid level can be considered at the bottom of
If the pavement structure is to contain an 8- the clay. Determine the leakage rate through
inch-thick Portland cement concrete surface the liner per unit area as a function of the hy-
layer, will your result tend to overestimate or draulic conductivity and show it on a diagram.
underestimate the base thickness required? 15. The diagram below shows the cross section of a
l
Why? tunnel and underlying borehole in which waste
ria
14. A compacted fine-grained soil is to be used as a canisters for spent nuclear fuel are located. Such
liner for a chemical waste storage area. Free liquid an arrangement is proposed for deep (e.g., several
leachate and possibly some heavier than water hundred meters) burial of nuclear waste in crys-
free phase nonsoluble, nonpolar organic liquids talline rock. The surrounding rock can be assumed
ate
(DNAPLs) may accumulate in some areas as a re- fully saturated, and the groundwater table will be
sult of rupturing and corrosion of the drums in within a few tens of meters of the ground surface.
which they were stored. Two sources of soil for Thermal studies have shown that the temperature
use in the liner are available. They have the fol- of the waste canister will rise to as high as 150C
lowing properties: at its surface. A canister life of about 100 years is
anticipated using either stainless steel or copper
dM for the material. The surrounding environment
must be safe against leakage of radionuclides from
Property Soil A Soil B
the repository for a minimum of 100,000 years.
Unified class (CH) (CL)
Liquid limit (%) 90 45
Plastic limit (%) 30 25
Clay size (%) 50 30
hte
Silt size (%) 30 40

Sand size (%) 20 30
Predominant clay Smectite Illite
mineral
Cation exchange 60 20
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capacity (meg/100 g)
a. Which of the two soils would be best suited for

use in the liner? Why?
py
b. What tests would you use to validate your

choice? Why?
c. Assume that you have confirmed that it will be
possible to compact the soil to states that will
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have hydraulic conductivities in the range of 1

⫻ 10⫺8 to 1 ⫻ 10⫺11 m/s. A liner thickness of
0.6 m is proposed. Leachate is likely to accu-
mulate to a depth of 1.0 m above the top of the
liner. A leachate collection layer will underlie
the liner.
d. If the concentration of dissolved salts in the
leachate is 1.0 M and the average diffusion co-
efficient is 5 ⫻ 10⫺10 m2 /s, determine for the
steady state the total amount of dissolved
chemical per unit area per year that will escape

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 323
Clay or a mix of clay with other materials such as c. Assess the probable natures and directions of
sand and crushed rock is proposed for use as the heat and fluid flows that will develop, if any.
fill both around the canisters and in the tunnel. d. What alterations might occur in the material
a. What are the most important properties that the during the life of the repository if any? Con-
backfill should possess to ensure isolation and sider the effects of groundwater from the sur-
buffering of the waste from the outside envi- rounding ground, corrosion of the canister, and
ronment? the prolonged exposure to high temperature.
b. What clay material would you propose for this Would each of these alternations be likely to
application and under what conditions would enhance or impair the effectiveness of the clay
you place it? pack?
l
ria
ate
dM
hte
rig
py
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CHAPTER 9

permeated soil and the ﬂowing material are the sub-

relative to frost action, construction in permafrost ar-

Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons Retrieved from: www.knovel.com

9.3 HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY

where A is the cross-section area normal to the direc-

troleum technologists. Figure 9.3 can be used to con-

Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons Retrieved from: www.knovel.com

Fluid Heat Electrical Chemical

weight of the flowing fluid. Because the flow channels 1 p 2

Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons Retrieved from: www.knovel.com

Figure 9.3 Hydraulic conductivity and permeability conversion chart.

Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons Retrieved from: www.knovel.com

ancies are often found when it is applied to clays. The

1 p 3 e3 small intracluster pores. The inﬂuences of fabric and

If comparisons are made using materials having the

For full saturation, S ⫽ 1, and denoting Cs by 1/

This is the Kozeny–Carman equation for the permea- kh ⫽ CD2s 冉冊

Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons Retrieved from: www.knovel.com

solidation, that are based on it. Furthermore, gradients

ture. It is now known, however, that many of the

Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons Retrieved from: www.knovel.com

ing permeation. and pore ﬂuid chemistry as closely approximating

Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons Retrieved from: www.knovel.com

ences between the laboratory-measured and ﬁeld val-

cause lower gradients minimize particle migration ef-

Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons Retrieved from: www.knovel.com

Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons Retrieved from: www.knovel.com

Figure 9.8 Inﬂuence of compaction method on the hydraulic

Figure 9.7 Hydraulic conductivity as a function of compac-

Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons Retrieved from: www.knovel.com

Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons Retrieved from: www.knovel.com

qCM (1 ⫺ ec /eT)3 found reasonable for compacted ﬁne-grained soils and

marily by the intercluster voids.

bution of particle sizes and fabric elements in terms of

clay aggregates and pore space in combination with

where C() ⫽ n(S/ ) and k(S) is converted to k()

9.4 FLOWS THROUGH UNSATURATED SOILS

Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons Retrieved from: www.knovel.com

Hydraulic Conductivity (m/s)

Hydraulic conductivity (m/s)

1.E-12 1.E-12 Sand

ter 7. Careful experiments show that the movement of

Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons Retrieved from: www.knovel.com

where suction  is given as a function of volumetric

Following Green and Corey (1971), the porosity n ⫺x ⫺x

Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons Retrieved from: www.knovel.com

conductivity. On the other hand, the clayey sand holds tion.

Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons Retrieved from: www.knovel.com

Hydraulic Conductivity, k × 10(m/s)

Hydraulic Conductivity, k (cm/day)

0.1 Predicted coefficient

ductivity of the solids relative to the water and air. 1989).

Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons Retrieved from: www.knovel.com

Heat of Fusion Water 143.4 Btu/lb 333 kJ/kg

mentation may exhibit an increased thermal con- 9.6 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY

ductivity with time.

Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons Retrieved from: www.knovel.com

fects particle size, shape, and surface conductance, soil

Nonconductive Particle Models

where W and T are the electrical conductivities of the

An empirical correlation between formation factor and

where n is porosity, and m equals from 1.3 for loose sands

where C() ⫽ n(S/ ) and k(S) is converted to k()

where suction is given as a function of volumetric

where W and T are the electrical conductivities of the

(m), and A is its cross-sectional area (m2). The value W

冉冊冉冊 2 is obtained; that is, T ⫽ constant ⫻ W. Some of the

Electrolyte D0 ⫻ 1010(m2 /s) c 2c

Shackelford, 2002b). Values for compacted clays are c D* 2c

heavy metal, for example, is of interest. Jcd ⫽ L31(⫺P) ⫹ L32(⫺E) ⫹ L33(⫺cc)

where (⫺h) is the hydraulic gradient. In Eqs. (9.87)

where i is the decay constant of species i, is the