Imagine a world where criminals run freely.

Detectives and police officers

collect evidence much the same way as they do today, but there is one
main difference. Science is not used. Due to the lack of scientific analysis,
there would not be a lot of useful evidence. Without the use of science,
criminals could not be convicted of their crimes, ranging from common theft
to a homicidal rampage, unless there was an eyewitness present at the
crime scene when the crime occurred. Murderers would continue killing,
thieves would continue stealing, and drug traffickers would continue
dealing. Fortunately, in today's world, science is used in solving crimes.
Clues a criminal leaves behind can be traced to themselves through
scientific evidence. This field of science dealing with criminal investigation
is known as forensic science, which roughly means the application of
science to law. Forensic science can be used to determine many things
from the evidence when it is collected properly without any contamination.
The people that need to learn the methods of collecting the evidence for
forensic science analysis are those from law enforcement agencies that
come into contact with the crime scenes frequently.

Unfortunately, nine times out of ten, this person is an officer from a police
department, which is lacking in evidence collection training. In other words,
scientific concepts and principles are used to convict criminals of their
crimes. Due to the great importance of forensic science in the conviction of
criminals, the basic ideas and concepts need to be taught to officers of
local police departments so that evidence can be collected without
contamination in order to keep criminals, such as the Manson “family” and
O. J. Simpson, from continuing to commit crimes that linger on forever in
the minds of the victim’s families and the nation's psyche. The evidence
collected in the Manson murders known as the "Tate" murders and that
from the O. J. Simpson case was in many ways done improperly. The
improper collection and the use of various unsterilized items contaminated
the evidence, making it worthless to the two individual cases. Police
departments need to know how to handle evidence to make sure these
mistakes do not happen again.

Throughout history, evidence has been used to convict criminals of the

crimes that they have committed. Today’s society has improved upon the
methods of the past to bring about more precise and accurate techniques.
These techniques are more commonly known as the field of forensic
science. Richard Saferstein writes a more specific definition than what was
previously given in his book Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic
Science, which says that forensic science is the “application of science to
those criminal and civil laws that are enforced by the police agencies in a
criminal justice system (Saferstein 1).” The origin of this type of science
cannot be accurately pinpointed. According to H. J. Walls' article “Whither
Forensic Science?” it started as a hobby of a few scientists who liked to
become mixed up in the proceedings of the police and “enjoyed the kind of
problems this association brought them (Walls 32).” We do not know how
forensic science originated and came together or how it came to be
connected to the police investigations and court rulings. According to
Cowan in his article “Decision Theory in Law, Science, and Technology”
“The aim of science, traditionally put, is to search out the ways in which
truth may become known. Law aims at the just resolution of human
conflict. Truth and justice, we might venture to say, having different aims,
use different methods to achieve them. Unfortunately, this convenient
account of law and science is itself neither true nor just. For law must know
what the truth is within the context of the legal situation: and science finds
itself ever engaged in resolving the conflicting claims of theorists putting
forward their own competing brands of truth (Cowan 5).”
This quote roughly means that the law needs to find the truth to resolve
“human conflict” and one method of doing so is to use the field of science.
The only problem with this method is that science is struggling to find the
correct truth. Different scientists supply various ways of what is known as
the truth, but sometimes these truths differ. An example of the differing
opinions is shown in what scientists believe caused the extinction of the
dinosaurs. Several scientists believe in the asteroid impact theory, in which
giant asteroid fell to the earth. This caused a cloud of dust to erupt into the
earth’s atmosphere, blocking all sunlight. Those that did not die in the
initial impact died of starvation. Other beliefs include a massive plague that
infected all of the dinosaurs and severe global warming due to the gases
from the volcanoes (ETE Team 2001). The three beliefs given about the
dinosaurs are just examples of the differing opinions among scientists.

An excellent example of the need for the proper collection of evidence for
forensic science analysis in criminal investigations would be the Manson
“family” "Tate" murders of the late 1960s. These crimes took place near
the city of Los Angelos in California. Two people, Abigail Folger and
Voytek Frykowski, were found lying on the rear grounds of the Tate
property in the grass. Folger had been stabbed a total of twenty-eight
times and Frykowski was shot twice, stabbed fifty-one times, and brutally
hit over the head thirteen times. Steven Parent was also found on the
outside premises of the estate. He was shot four times and stabbed once
while in his car. The other two victims of the “Tate” murders, Sharon Tate
Polanski and Jay Sebring, were found in the inner part of the house tied
together by a single rope surrounding both their necks that was knotted to a
ceiling rafter. Neither of these two unfortunate people died from the
hanging. Polanski, who was at the time eight months pregnant, took
sixteen stab wounds to both her back and her chest. Sebring, stabbed
seven times and shot once, died from exsanguinations, which means
bleeding to death. The Los Angeles police department, LAPD, worked on
this set of murders (Bugliosi 1974). The department did not have sufficient
training to collect the evidence found at the crime scenes. Due to this fact
many mistakes were made.

The first mistake, made by the LAPD officers, occurred shortly after arrival
at the Tate residence. The officers, in an attempt to cover the bodies of the
dead, put blue sheets found in a linen closet over the bodies (Bugliosi
1974). This was not wise because small fibers from the sheets covered the
victim’s bodies, and these fibers mixed in with the other fibers that were
already on the bodies. These could have easily been from the garments
that the murderer or murderers had worn. They could have been observed
through a microscope for the diameter, length, surface texture, and many
other characteristics (Turner 1949). These results would then be compared
to the known fibers that have been entered into a database for easy
reference. After the fibers already on the body had been contaminated by
the sheet fibers, they were deemed practically useless.
The other mistake that was made with these blue sheets involved the
amount of time that they were on the bodies. A week after the LAPD
arrived, the blue sheet that was on the body of Abigail Folger was still there
(Bugliosi 1974). The sheets were not a well thought out plan, but leaving
the bodies out in the open for that amount of time was far worse. The
bodies needed to be taken to a medical examiner immediately to have an
autopsy completed to determine how long the individual had been dead
and the cause of death (Larson 1999).

Fingerprints can be the key evidence to any investigation; however, in the

Manson investigation they were a key problem. An LAPD officer took
notice of a spot of blood on the button that opened the gate to the Tate
estate while escorting a possible suspect up to the mansion. According to
Vincent Bugliosi, in his book Helter Skelter, he reported that the officer
"who was charged with securing and protecting the scene until
investigating officers arrived, now pressed the button himself, successfully
opening the gate but also creating a superimposure that obliterated any
print that may have been there. (p 14)” Basically, what this means is that
the officer saw the blood on the button and then either did not have enough
common sense not to push the button or simply did not care whether he
damaged a crucial piece of evidence. Another piece of evidence, the gun
used in the crimes, was reported to have more fingerprints that belonged to
officers than the fingerprints of the perpetrators. About two weeks after the
murders at the Tate property were reported, a boy found the weapon and
brought it to the attention of the authorities. E. Sanders in his book The
Family commented, “The boy was careful not to touch the revolver to
protect fingerprints. The police smudged it up and filed it away, the
chambers of the weapon containing seven spent shells and two live bullets.
(p 355)” Apparently the young boy was more careful with the evidence
than the slightly trained police officers. Perhaps he should have been the
one collecting the evidence and not the professionals. Due to the
mishandling of the gun the fingerprints that were on it could not be
identified. Fortunately, a fingerprint for the front door of the house and
another that was lifted from Polanski’s bedroom matched two of the
suspects (Bardsley 2001). Using fingerprints to identify people has been in
practice since around 1860. A very basic definition of a fingerprint is that it
is a print of the design of the “friction skin ridges” on the “palm side” of a
finger. There are three main patterns, or ridge characteristics, that can be
used to identify each person: arches (5% of all fingertips), loops (60%),
and whorls (35%) (Inbau 25). The placement of each of these qualities is
different from person to person, no two are alike. -Manson Gun (Bardsley
2001)
OVERVIEW ON FORENSIC SCIENCES AND CRIMINOLOGY
There is urgent and widespread need for the application of forensic science in criminal
investigation.The present day picture ofcrime investigationand prosecution of criminals,is
a sad story. A large percentage of the murder trials,ultimately,end in acquittal. It is
estimated that the prosecution agency spends on an average over Rs.10,000.00 per trial.
Thus,not only a dangerous criminal goes scotfree but huge amount of public money is also
wasted.These frequent acquittals also embolden the criminals.
Forensic Science in criminal investigations and trials is mainly concerned with materials and
indirectly through materials with men,places and time. Among men,the investigating officer
is the most important person.Infact ,it is he whose work determines the success or failure of
the application of forensic science in the processing of a criminal case. If he fails to collect
the relevant evidence,allows the exhibits to be contaminated or does not provide correct
samples for comparison,the findings of a forensic scientistwill be useless.
NATURE
Forensic Science embraces all branches of science and applies them to the purpose of law.
Originally all the techniques were borrowed from various scientific disciplines like chemistry
, medicine ,surgerybiology,photography. But in the past few years it has developed its own
branches which are more or less exclusivedomains of forensic science. More recently
significant advances have been made in serology,voice analysis,odour analysis and in
studies relating to nose prints and ear patterns.
NEEDS
The need for the application of science in criminal investigation has arisen from the
following factors:
Social Changes:
The society is undergoing drastic social changes at a very rapid pace. India has changed
from a colonial subject race to a democratic republic. Sizeable industrial complex has sprung
up. The transport facilities have been revolutionized. There is a growing shift from a rural
society to an urban one. These changes have made the old techniques of criminal
investigation obsolete. In the British days the police was so much feared that once it had
laid its hands upon an individual,he would ‘confess’ to any crime,he may not have even
known.The fear is vanishing now. The use of ‘third degree’ techniques used in those days
does not find favour with the new generation of police officers and judges.
Hiding facilities:
The quick means of transport and high density of population in cities have facilitated the
commission of crimes. The criminal can hide himself in a corner of a city or move away to
thousands of miles in a few hours. He,thus often escapes apprehension and prosecution.

Technical knowledge:
The technical knowledge of an average man has increased tremendously in recent years.
The crime techniques are getting refined. The investigating officer, therefore, needs modern
methods to combat the modern criminal.
Wide field: The field of activities of the criminal is widening at a terrific rate. Formely,the
criminals were usually local,now we find that national or international criminal is a common
phenomenon. Smuggling,drug trafficking ,financial frauds and forgeries offer fertile and ever
expanding fields.
Better Evidence: The physical evidence evaluated by an expert is objective. If a fingerprint
is found at the scene of crime, it can belong to only one person. If this person happens to
be be the suspect,he must account for its presence at the scene. Likewise,if abullet is
recovered from a dead body,it can be attributed to only one firearm. If this firearm happens
to be that of the accused , he must account account for its involvement in the crime. Such
evidence is always verifiable.
Functions
Forensic science provides answer to the following three questions:
1. Has a crime been committed?
Consider the case of recovery of a dead body. Death could be natural accidental or
homicidal. Forensic Science by ascertaining the nature of death, establishes the existence or
absence of corpus delicti.

2. How and when was the crime committed?

The examination of the ‘corpus delicti’ reveals the way of the crime was committed and
possibly the time when it was committed.

3. Who committed the crime?

Forensic science establishes the identity of the culprit through personal clues like
fingerprints,footprints,blood drops or hair. It links the criminal with the crime through
objects left by him at the scene with the victim or carried from the scene and the victim.
On the other hand, if the clues recovered do not link the accused with the victim or the
scene of occurrence, the innocence of the accused is established. Forensic
science,thus,helps the innocent.

Development

The application of Forensic Science in the investigation of crime can be effective only if the
investigating officer knows:

1. The nature of physical evidence to be collected.

2. Where it is found.
3. How it is collected and packed.
4. What standard samples for comparison purposes are necessary.
5. How much sample is required.
6. How the sampling is done.
7. How the evidence will link the crime with the criminal and to what extend his labours will
be rewarded by the laboratory results.

This is possible if the investigating officer is given a thorough grounding in the above
aspects. He needs both theoretical and practical training.
All police training institutions have courses in scientific aids, but the syllabi and the teaching
standards are far from satisfactory. Periodical attachment of investigating officers to the
departmental forensic science laboratories can go a long way in inculcating the scientific
spirit.
Ignorance about the value of evidence sometimes causes a lot of disappointment to an
investigating officer. For example, hair are recovered in quite a few cases. Evaluation of hair
does not lead to positive identification of the source of hair. It is not possible at the present
stage of development of the science. They would not be disappointed , if they know the
limitations.

Principles
The laws and principles of all the natural sciences are the bases of forensic science. In
addition,it has developed its own principles.
Law of individuality- Every object, natural or man-made, has an individuality which is not
duplicated in any other object.
This principle, at first sight appears to be contrary to common beliefs and observations. The
grains of sand or common salt , seeds of plants or twins look exactly alike. Likewise, man-
made objects: coins of the same denomination made in the same mint,currency notes
printed with the same printing blocks one after the other (excluding serial number) and
typewriters of the same make,model and batch appear to be indistinguishable. Yet the
individuality is always there. It is due to small flaws in the materials, in the arrangement of
the crystals , imperfect stamping or due to inclusions of some extraneous matter.
The individuality has been verified in certain fields. The most extensive work has been
carried out in finger prints. Millions of prints have been checked but no two fingerprints,
even from two fingers of the same person have ever been found to be identical.
The law of individuality is of fundamental importance in forensic science. Anything and
everything involved in a crime, has an individuality. If the sane is established , it connects
the crime and the criminal.

Principle of exchange- ‘Contract exchanges traces’ is the principle of exchange. It was first
enunciated by the French scientist, Edmond Locard.
According to the principal, when a criminal or his instruments of crime come in contact with
the victim or the objects surrounding him, they leave traces. Likewise, the criminal or his
instruments pick up traces from the same contact. Thus, a mutual exchange of traces like
takes place between the criminal, the victim and the objects involved in the crime If these
traces are identified to the original source, viz., the criminal or his instrument (or vice
versa), they establish the contact and pin the crime on to the criminal. The principal of
exchange is aptly demonstrated in hit and run cases and in offences against person.
The basic requirement of the principle is the correct answer to the question ‘ What are the
places or objects with which the criminal or his tools actually came in contact?’ If the
investigating officer is able to establish the points of contact , he is likely to reap a rich
harvest of physical clues:
1. If a criminal enters the premises through a ventilator , he leaves his foot prints in dust on
the sill.
2. If he breaks a window or a door, the jimmy leaves its marks on the wooden frame.
3. The burglar, who opens a safe by an explosive, leaves the area around and the clothes
(including shoes ) covered with insulating material as well as some exploded and
unexploded explosive materials.

The criminal is likely to leave and carry minute traces only. It is seldom that he dares or
neglects to leave or carry gross objects or traces. On a thorough search, the inconspicuous
traces will always be found in all types of crimes. The minute traces connect the crime and
the criminal as effectively as the gross objects or traces.

Law of progressive change- ‘ Everything changes with the passage of time’. The rate of
change varies tremendously with different objects. Its impact on forensic science is
immense.
1. The criminal undergoes rapid changes. If he is not apprehended in time, he becomes
unrecognizable except perhaps through his fingerprints, bone fractures or other
characteristics of permanent( comparatively speaking ) nature which are not always
available.
2. The scene of occurrence undergoes rapid changes. The weather, the vegetable growth,
and the living beings (especially human-beings) make extensive changes in comparatively
short periods. Longer the delay in examining the scene, greater will be the changes. After
some time , the scene may become unrecognizable.
3. The objects involved in crime change gradually, the firearm barrels loosen , metal objects
rust , the shoes suffer additional wear and tear and the tools acquire new surface patterns.
In course of time the objects may loose all practical identity vis-à-vis a particular crime.
The principle, therefore, demands prompt action in all aspects of criminal investigation.

Principle of comparison- Only the like can be compared is the principle of comparison. It
emphasizes the necessity of providing like samples and specimens for comparison with the
questioned items:

1. In a murder case, a bullet is recovered from the deceased. The expert opines that the
bullet has been fired from a firearm firing high velocity projectiles like a service rifle. It is
futile to send shotguns ,pistols or revolvers as the possible suspect firearm.

2. A bunch of hair is recovered from the hands of a deceased. The expert opines that the
hair belong to a Negroid person. Hair from persons of white races for comparison will not be
of any use.
3. The questioned writing is found to have been writing with a ball pen. To send fountain
pen as a likely instrument of writing is futile.

Once handwriting available on a photograph allegedly written on a wall was compared with
the specimen written on a paper. It did not give worthwhile results.
A second set of specimens was obtained by writing on the same wall, at the same height
and with the same instrument and then photographed . It allowed comparison. (CH)

Principle of analysis- The analysis can be no better than the sample analysed. Improper
sampling and contamination render the best analysis useless. The principle emphasizes the
necessity of correct sampling and correct packing for effective use of experts.

1. A criminal while running away from the scene if occurrence brushes against a painted
surface. Some powdered particles of paint get deposited upon his clothes. The investigating
officer scraps a few grams of paint from the same surface with a pen-knife and sends it as
control sample. The result of the analysis shows that the two paints do not match. Why?

2. A small amount of dust is recovered from a small sticky patch of the shoe of a culprit.
The investigating officer collects about two kilograms of soil from the scene , packs it in tin
and sends it as a control sample. The results of comparison are inconclusive. Why?

3. In a rape case, the investigating officer collects the clothes of the victim. The clothe carry
both blood and semen stains. The investigating officer dries the clothes and packs them
together and sends them through a railway parcel. He wants to know if the clothes carry
semen stains , and if so, to which blood group does the secretor belong?

The expert establishes the existence of semen but fails to give its blood grouping; because
he finds powdered blood sticking to semen stain.

Facts do not lie- ‘Facts do not lie, men can and do’ , hence the importance of circumstantial
evidence vis-à-vis oral evidence. The oral testimony depends upon the power of observation
, assimilation and reproduction of the witness. It is modified by the power of observation,
assimilation and reproduction of the witness. It is modified by auto suggestion , external
influence, suggestions, descriptions and opinions of others and rationality. Oral evidence ,
therefore , is coloured whereas factual evidence is free from these infirmities.

But ‘facts’ can also be created:

1. A person is killed in an accident firing. The relatives want to implicate their opponents.
They procure an unlicensed firearm, fire a cartridge ,place at at the scene and plant the
firaram on the opponent.
The police recovers the shell and the firearm. The shell is married to the firearm. The police
prosecutes the person.
2. A person is in the armed forces. He is seen carrying out duty upto 1 A.M. in the unit. He
slips through the guarded premises, goes about a hundred miles, and commits a murder,
returns to his unit, enters into the guarded premises secretly and is present on his duty at
7-30 A.M.
By circumstantial evidence he proves his presence in the unit throughout the night.

3. A threatens B with death. The next day B is found murdered. B had no other enemies
except A. Police suspects A as the murderer. He is not found anywhere. He is declared a
proclaimed offender. Soon afer ‘A’ appears before a magistrate and says he had gone on a
pilgrimage. But checking at the allegedly visited places, his visits to the places are not
established. He is arrested and prosecuted. In defence , he produces the jail record. He was
behind the bars at the relevant time. He escapes sentence.

Law of probability- All identifications, definite or indefinite, are made , consciously or

unconsciously,on the basis of probability.
‘ Probability’ is mostly misunderstood. If we say that according to probability a particular
fingerprint has come from the given source, the defence counsels will make most of the
word and plead that it is not a definite opinion. Consequently, it is not customary to talk of
‘probability’ or ‘probability figures’ in counts.
Probability is the mathematical concept. It determines the chances of occurrence of a
particular event in a particular way out of a number of ways in which the event can take
place or fail to take place with equal facility. If P represents probability N1 the number of
ways in which the event can successfully occur(with equal facility) and N2 the number of
ways in which it can fail (with equal facility), the probability of success is given by the
formula:
P= N1/ N1+N2.
We have neglected other factors (sex, age and dress) and even without these additional
factors , the identity of the deceased is established beyond a ‘ reasonable doubt’.

Tools and Techniques

The tools and techniques of forensic science are oriented to meet the following exacting
demands in an analysis :

1. Sensitivity
2. Specificity
3. Rapidity
The instruments and techniques should be highly sensitive because the quantities of
materials involved are extremely small, often in micro , sub micro or microscopic ranges.
For example, a few milligrams of certain poisons are sufficient to kill a person. The quantity
is distributed in whole body.

Paints, soils , dusts , inks and body fluids are often met with in micro quantities.
The number of cases requiring evaluation of clues is increasing everyday. The techniques
and instruments should , therefore, be rapid. In classical examination of viscera and organs
each item is subjected to lengthy process of extraction, purification, identification and
estimation. The results are checked and cross checked for mistakes. Modern techniques
may eliminate most of these steps.
The tools and techniques currently used in modern forensic science laboratories belong to
both classical and modern categories.They are as follows:-

 Measurements
 Microscopy
 Photography
 Invisible rays
 Chromatography
 Electrophoresis
 Spectrography
 Laser Techniques
 Mass Spectrometry
 X- Ray diffraction analysis.

FORENSIC SCIENCE AND CRIMINAL PROSECUTION

I. Scene of Occurrence
A scene of occurrence is the meeting place of the persons involved. The parties exchange
traces with one another and with the scene, leave odds and ends and mark of tools, wearing
apparels, means of transport , hands and feet. Thus the scene of occurrence provides a
wealth of information which is useful to:

1. Establish corpus delicti

2. Provide link between the criminal , the victim and the scene of occurrence; and
3. Evaluate the pattern of events.

The scene is of great importance in almost all crimes except perhaps in cases of forgery
where the utility is limited.
The examination of the scene needs planning , care and diligence. In many cases the
success or failure of the investigation depends entirely upon the proper handling of the
scene.
The scene of occurrence changes rapidly and cannot be preserved forever. Some of the
evidence gets lost soon after the occurrence, the other evidence disappears, gets
contaminated or altered with further passage of time.
The opportunity to examine the scene is available only once. If the same is not fully
exploited the wealth of information is lost for ever.

CASE LAWS:
1. Raghunandan v State. Of U.P., 1974 Cri. L. J. 453 (S.C)
In the above case both the trial court as well as the High Court had brushed aside the
objection that the blood recovered from the place of occurrence was not sent for chemical
examination. The failure of the police to send the blood for chemical examination is a
serious case of murder , such as the one before us., is to be depreciated . In such a case
the place of occurrence is often disputed.

2. Marachalil Chandra Tukaram Talekar v State of Gujrat. 1980 Cri. L.J.5 (Guj)

Identity of the scene:

It was argued with great vehemence in the High Court as well as in the court of sessions
that there was trial of blood from the front door of the house of the vakil into the corridor
rooms marked H and H-1 in the plan and that supported the defence theory that the
deceased Kannan received the stab injuries not in or near the house in question but
somewhere far away near the railway station. The High Court took the view that if Kannan
had received the injuries somewhere outside the house it was impossible for him to have
come into the room in view of the doctor’s evidence.

It was concluded on the material placed on the record that there could be no room for doubt
that Kannan received the injuries in the room itself and not outside, and that he was carried
out of the room while life was still lingering and therefore there would be dripping of the
blood from the body during the course of transit as the injuries were very serious and vital
arteries had been cut.

II. FINGERPRINTS
The identification of criminals through fingerprints was the first important break-through in
the scientific investigation of crime. As usual, the judiciary and the public took some time to
believe in the utility of fingerprints as a scientific aid. The same is now recognized
throughout the world.
The importance of fingerprints in criminal investigation is immense, because they are:
Unique
Ridge pattern of each finger has an individuality. The patterns vary not only from one
individual to another , but they are different in the same individual on each finger.
Duplication of pattern has never been observed. Nor the same is expected.

Permanent
The fingerprints of an individual do not change throughout his life. In fact, the ridges appear
before birth. They start appearing during third or fourth month of pregnancy. They remain
even after the death of the individual ever till the epidermal skin is destroyed by fire,
putrefaction or is eaten by insects or other creatures.
In a murder case the body of the victim was partially burnt and buried. The same was
discovered many days after the murder. The body was completely disfigured and could not
be identified.
The investigating officer got removed the remaining skin pieces from the tips of the fingers
through a doctor. He sent them to fingerprint bureau alongwith the one authentic print of
the deceased available on his will. The bureau confirmed the identity of the deceased.
The digital skin pieces were recovered and sent to the finger print bureau. The fingerprints
of the deceased tallied with the fingerprints of the convict , available in the records,
The permanence of fingerprints permits identification of an individual even after many
years, if his finger print record is available. Many criminals have been identified through this
medium after years of absconding.

Universal
All individuals and hence all criminals carry this medium of identification. The finger digits
and palmar surface of the hands carry the friction ridges. The fingers have more intricate
patterns. They allow easier individualization and classification.
A criminal uses his hands in the commission of crime. He leaves marks at the scene of
occurrence or on the objects which come in contact in the commission of crime. There are
fair chances of occurrence of fingerprints , therefore in all types of crime.

Inimitable
Successful forgery of fingerprints has not been reported so far. Near perfect forgeries have
been attempted. It is possible that the advancement of science may bring the forgery still
closer to perfection but complete success in the enterprise is extremely difficult ,if not
impossible.
For all practical purposes it may be taken that it is not possible to forge a fingerprint. This is
important because no person can deny his or her fingerprints. The identification through
fingerprints is certain and infallible.

Classifiable

The scope for classification of fingerprints is large and yet the work is simple. Records of
millions of persons can be classified and kept on nicrofilms. Computerisation of fingerprint
record, and hence searches are becoming popular and is increasing the efficiency. A search
can be made virtually in seconds with the help of these devices.

CASE LAWS
Sufficient Evidence
1. The question was raised before the sessions Judge as to whether a conviction can be
based upon the unsupported testimony of a fingerprint expert. There is no rule of law on the
point; it is merely a matter of caution whether a court will act on such unsupported
evidence or not. The correct principle was defined by S.K. Ghose,J. in Hatendra Nath Sen v
Emperor.

“ I do not think that it can be laid down as a rule of law that it is unsafe to base a conviction
on the uncorroborated testimony of a fingerprint expert. The true rule seems to me to be
one of caution that is to say, the court must not take the expert’s opinion for granted , but
it must examine his evidence in order to satisfy itself that there can be no mistake and the
responsibility is all the greater when there is no other evidence to corroborate the expert”

Uncorroborated Evidence

In Bazari Hajam v King Emperor(AIR 1922 Pat.73 :23 Cr. L.J 638) the question arose
whether it will be safe to act on the uncorroborated testimony of the fingerprints and
declare the guilt of the accused. On this point Bucknill,J., observed thus:

“ I think that apart from the fact that I should be rather sorry without any corroborative
circumstances to convict a person of a serious crime solely and entirely upon similarity of
thumb marks or finger prints, the very fact of the taking of a thumb-impression from an
accused person for the purpose of possible manufacture of the evidence by which he could
be incriminated is in itself sufficient to warrant one in setting aside the conviction upon the
understanding and upon the assumption that such was not really a fair trial.”

The above view was disapproved of by Schwabe, C.J. in Public Prosecutor v Kandasami
Thevan (AIR 1927 Mad. 696 :27 Cr. L. J 1251) although the point did not directly arise in
the case as there were thumb-impressions of the accused in evidence other than that taken
by the judge in court for comparison with the thumb-impressions in the document alleged to
have been forged.

III. TRACK MARKS

The culprit approaches, stays and then leaves the scene of occurrence. He leaves track
marks on and around the place in the form of prints and impressions( collectively called
‘marks’) of feet, shoes, tyres, hoofs and the like. The evidence often connects the criminal
with the crime conclusively. It should, therefore be properly understood ,collected,
evaluated and presented in the courts.
The track marks establish not only the presence of the culprit at the scene of crime but also
give the number of participants. The evidence is helpful in tracking down the criminals to
their houses or hide-outs, especially in India where most of the people live in rural areas.
The roads in the country side are not metalled. Besides, the criminal, ordinarily, follows
untrodden routes ; fields ,garden and stream beds. He leaves track marks on routes used
before and after the commission of the crime.

The nature of the vehicle used in the commission of crime wether it is a cycle , scooter, car,
bus, truck, tractor, rickshaw, bullock cart or a buggie can be ascertained. It is sometimes
possible to identify the individual vehicle also.In some cases animals are involved in crimes
sometimes. For example , a horse or a camel may be used for transport ; a cow , a buffalo
or a bullock may be stolen or a dog or a tamed wild best , like a snake or a tiger may be
used to destroy or kill a human-being or a domestic animal. The type of the animal or the
beast can be found out from the track marks.

Foot Wear marks include the marks of shoes , sandals , chappals , socks and the like. The
footwear may be factory- made or hand made.

CASE LAWS
Rejecting the contention that the study of footprints is not a science in Din Muhammad v
Emperor , Central Provinces Police Gazette dated 27th May , 1914 pp. 125-130, the court of
the Judicial Commissioner at Nagpur (H.J. Stanyon and H.F. Hallifax, A.J. Cs ) as far back as
in 1914 held:

“The knowledge of footprints has similarly been systematized and pursued by trackers ,
mainly uncivilized and ignorant people an all other respects, all over the world . The matter
is therefore undoubtedly a science and the opinion of a person specially skilled in it is a
relevant fact, under Sec-45 of the Evidence Act “

In Re Paramban Manmmadhu, which is a bench decision of that court, delievered by Horwill,

J (Supra) the learned judge held that opinion of a foot print expert is not admissible as
evidence.

In the case of Pritam Singh v State of Punjab (AIR 1956 S.C. 415) there is an observation to
the effect that the science of identification by footprints is a rudimentary science and much
reliance cannot be placed on the result of such identification.

POISONS

Poisons are frequently involved in homicidal accidental or suicidal deaths. They are
sometimes used to destroy animals and plants. The detection of poisons and their
identification is an important aspect of forensic science.
The investigation of cases of poisoning is one of the most difficult tasks. The quantity of a
poison required to kill a victim is extremely small in some cases. For example , the fatal
dose of nicotine is about 50 milligrams.
The investigation is further complicated by the variety of poisons available. The ever-
increasing number of synthetic drugs which are used as poisons is further adding to the
complications. Some drugs are very close to one another in their chemical and physiological
behaviours. Their identification requires the most fined analytical techniques.
Body materials in which the poisons are found,is a complex mixture of organic , inorganic
and biological substances. They interfere in the isolation , detection and estimation of the
poisons. In fact the most difficult task of a toxicologist is to isolate the poison in pure form.
Once it is done, it is comparatively easier to identify and estimate the quantity.

An analysis of some of the poisons which can prove detrimental is as follows :

Name of the Poison Fatal Dose Fatal Period

Aconite 1.0 to 2.0g of root 1 to 5 hours
Alcohol(Absolute) 250 to 500 ml A few hours
Arsenic 0.13 to 0.2g Half to 2 days
Caustic alkali 14g Within 24 hours
D.D.T 2g onwards A few hours to few days
Mushrooms Uncertain One day to several days.
Nicotine 0.06g A few minutes.
Oxalic Acid 4 to 16g A few minutes to a few hours
Quinine

Uncertain A few minutes to several days

Sulphuric Acid 4ml A few minutes to several weeks.

Zinc phosphide 0.8g Within a day’

CASE LAWS
1. The essential ingredients in a case of poisoning are no longer in doubt. The matter is
concluded by a series of Supreme Court decisions. In Anant Chintaman Lagu v State of
Bombay (AIR. 1960 S.C. 500), their lordships pronounced that the prosecution establish
three propositions in a case of poisoning: i) Death took place by poisoning ; ii) Accused had
the poison in his possession; and iii) Accused had the opportunity to administer poison to
the deceased.

2. In Emperor v Shetya Timma( AIR 1926 Bom. 518) ,the death was caused by Dhatura
poisoning. After review of conflicting decisions on the point, their lordships held that where
the accused administered Dhatura poison to five men in order to facilitate commission of
robbery and in consequence thereof three men died , the accused must be presumed to
have knowledge that their act was so dangerous that it was likely to set aside. The same
view was taken in Emperor v Chattarpal( AIR 1930 Oudh 502) .

FORENSIC SCIENCE AND SEXUAL OFFENCES

Serious common sexual offences are:

• Rape
• Incest
• Unnatural offences.
Some minor sexual offences are:
1. Exhibitionism
2. Sadism
3. Frottage
4. Voyeurism-‘Peeping Tom’
Certain sexual aberrations are:
1. Masochism
2. Transvertism
3. Fetishism

In all the above cases Forensic Science play a major role in understanding the nature and
gravity of the concerned crime.

CONCLUSION
The lack of understanding and critical appraisal of specialists in general, by non- specialists,
is all- pervasive. The field of Forensic Science is no exception. Neither the police, nor the
lawyer , nor even the judge appreciates fully the advances or the extensive potentialities of
the science.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Science for Prosecution- by Grant, J.(London)
2. Criminal Interrogation- by Aubry, A.S.(Springfield)
3. Forensic Science in Criminal Investigation and Trials – by B.R. Sharma
4. Fingerprints: History, Law and Romance -by Wilton,G.,(London )
5. An outline of Scientific Criminology by Morland,N., (Norwich )
6. An introduction to Criminalistics by O’Hara, C.E., and J.W. Osterburg,(Springfield)
7. Principle and Digest of Law of Evidence Act by Monir,M.,(Allahabad)
8. Medical Jurisprudence and Toxicology by Modi N.J(Bombay)
The application of science and technology to the detection and investigation of crime and
administration of justice is not new to India. Although our ancestors did not know forensic science in
its present form, scientific methods in one way or the other seem to have been followed in the
investigation of crime. Its detailed reference is found in Kautilya’s ‘Arthashastra,’ which was written
about 2300 years ago. Indians studied various patterns of the papillary lines, thousands of years ago.
It is presumed that they knew about the persistency and individuality of fingerprints, which they used
as signatures. Even Mr. KM Kata, a frequent contributor to ‘Nature’, stated that the Chinese records
proved the use of fingerprints in an ancient kingdom of southern India. The Indians knew for long that
the handprints, known as the Tarija’, were inimitable. The use of fingerprints as signatures by illiterate
people in India, introduced centuries ago, was considered by some people as ceremonial only, till it
was scientifically proved that identification from fingerprints was infallible.

:: Chemical examiner’s laboratories

During the nineteenth century, when the cases of death due to poisoning posed a problem to the law
enforcement agencies, a need was felt for isolating, detecting and estimating various poisons
absorbed in the human system. The first Chemical Examiner’s Laboratory was, therefore, set up for
this purpose at the then Madras Presidency, under the Department of Health, during 1849. Later,
similar laboratories were set up at Calcutta (1853), followed by one each at Agra (1864) and Bombay
(1870). These laboratories were equipped to handle toxicological analysis of viscera, biological
analysis of stains of blood, semen, etc. and chemical analysis of food, drugs, and various excisable
materials to provide scientific support to the criminal justice delivery system within their limited
means. These laboratories also provided analytical facilities to the neighbouring States and Union
Territories.

:: Anthropometric bureau

While some progress was made in the identification of poisons, the identification of people, specifically
criminals, was still being done in a rather haphazard manner. Policemen would try to memorize
convict’s face so that they could recognize him if he got involved in another crime later. With the
introduction of Photography, the Criminal Investigation Department (CID) maintained records of every
known criminal including a detailed description of his appearance. With the invention of Bertillon’s
anthropometric system in 1878, India, along with the other countries of the world, adapted Bertillon’s
system of personnel identification and thus an Anthropometric Bureau, for maintaining anthropornetric
records of criminals, was established in 1892 at Calcutta.

:: Finger print bureau

William Herschel, the Collector of the District of Hooghly (Bengal) found that markings on the
fingertips of a person never changed during his lifetime. Herschel applied his knowledge and skill in
devising a system of registration of finger or thumb impressions of native contractors to safeguard the
interests of the Govermnent against the repudiation of contracts by them. Thereafter, he extended his
registration procedure to prison regulations for identifying convicted criminals. In 1877, Herschel
sought the consent of his superior officers in putting his ideas into practice, but did not succeed. In
1891, Edward Richard Henry’s appointment, the Inspector General of Police in Bengal, introduced the
thumb impressions in the record slips, containing anthropometric data, to avoid wrong identification.
Long before 1897, he introduced maintenance of duplicate criminal records with impressions of 10
fingers separately.

Henry employed few selected Indian police officers, viz. Khan Bahadur Azizul Huq and Rai Bahadur
Hem Chandra Bose to work under his general supervision till the classification was evolved, which
remains the basic system even to-day. It was Khan Bahadur Azizul Huq who evolved a mathematical
formula to supplement Henry’s idea of sorting slips in 1024 pigeon holes, based on fingerprint
patterns. Rai Bahadur Hem Chandra Bose made further contribution to the fingerprint science by
evolving an extended systern of sub-classification, a telegraphic code for finger impression and a
system of single-digit classification.

Henry approached the Government to seek approval for replacing the anthropometric data by
fingerprints for the identification of habitual criminals. Government readily agreed, and the first
fingerprint bureau in the world was officially declared open at Calcutta in July 1897, although the
collection of record slips had started a few years earlier. Thus, the personnel identification solely on
the basis of fingerprints commenced in India.

:: Department of explosives

When the use of explosives for subversive activities became common, it was found necessary to
detect the causes of explosion, either accidental or intentional. The foundation of the Department of
Explosives was laid when the first chief inspector of explosives was appointed in the year 1898, with
his headquarters at Nagpur. Later, five regional offices at Calcutta, Bombay, Agra, Madras and
Gwalior, and three sub-offices at Shivkashi. Gomia and Asallsol were opened. They developed
competence to provide scientific clues in respect of explosives as well as the possible causes of
explosions. Their expertise came handy in police investigations in the crimes related to explosions and
for evolving various provisions under the Explosives & Petroleum Act.

:: Government examiner of questioned document, shimla

The British Government of Bengal felt the necessity of identifying the handwritings on the secret
documents connected with the Indian independence movement and, therefore, created the post of
Government Handwriting Expert of Bengal. Mr. CR Hardless, the then Superintendent in the A.G.’s
office in Bengal, was appointed to this post in 1904. This set-up was shifted to Shimla in the year
1906 and was placed under the control of the Director, CID. A post of Handwriting Expert for the
Government of India was created and Mr. CR Hardless was appointed to this post. He was replaced by
Mr. F Brewester, a police officer from the West Bengal CID, and was designated as the Government
Examiner of Questioned Documents (GEQD). At first, the work of this office was mainly confined to the
identification of writings on secret documents. Later, as the application of this branch of science was
felt in many other cases, the services of this office were thrown open to criminal as well as civil court
cases. During the World War II, this organization took up the additional work of secret censorship,
including the detection of invisible writings and training of military personnel in this field of science.
 :: Serologist to the government of india

When the science of examining human blood developed in India, it became possible to examine blood
and seminal stains in criminal investigations. Realising the importance of Forensic Serology, an
institute named as Serology Department’ was established in Calcutta in 1910. The head of this
institute was designated as Imperial Serologist to the Government of India. Dr. Hankin helped in
establishing this department. Though the scientific techniques for serological examination were at the
infancy stage, this institute provided valuable scientific support by analyzing biological materials for
crime investigations. After independence, the department was renamed as ‘Office of the Serologist
and Chemical Examiner to the Government of India’.

:: Footprint section of criminal investigation department

During the year 1915, a Footprint Section was established under the CID, Government of Bengal,
which helped the police authorities to identify criminals through the examination of footprints collected
from the scene of crime. SM Edwardes recorded the following instance in his book ‘Bombay City Police’
showing the use of the footmarks in police work. ‘On several occasions, Indian constables
distinguished themselves by acts of bravery and examples of professional acumen. The detection of a
burglary in the showroom of an English firm was entirely due to the action of a Hindu constable, who
noticed on a piece of furniture the marks of a foot possessing certain peculiarities, which he
remembered having seen before in the foot of an ex-convict.’

:: Note forgery section in criminal investigation department

During 1917, a Note Forgery Section was set up under the CID, Government of Bengal, to undertake
the examination of forged currency notes. The Revenue Department also started its own laboratory for
identification of opium and narcotics, liquor analysis and estimation of purity levels of precious metals
like gold, silver, etc. Similarly, Government Mint and Security Printing Departments at Nasik also
established their own laboratories for detecting cases of counterfeit and forged currency notes.

:: Ballistics laboratory

In 1930, an Arms Expert was appointed and a small ballistic laboratory was set up under the Calcutta
Police to deal with the examination of firearms. As the menace of firearms grew, other State CIDs also
established small ballistics laboratories to help them in the criminal investigation.

:: Scientific sections in the criminal investigation department

During 1936, a Scientific Section was set up under the CID in Bengal and facilities were created for
examination of bullets, cartridge cases, firearms, etc., used in committing crime. Few other states also
started scientific sections in their CID, where investigations on fingerprints, footprints, firearms and
questioned documents were also carried out. Gradually, more and more branches of science were
embraced and the laboratories gained maturity over the years.

:: State forensic science laboratory, calcutta

The first state forensic science laboratory in India was established in the year 1952 at Calcutta. This
laboratory became fully operational in the year 1953. The Medico-legal Section of the Chemical
Examiner’s Laboratory was also transferred to this laboratory. During the year 1955, a small unit of
Physics was established in the West Bengal State Forensic Science Laboratory to deal with various
physical examinations of exhibits encountered in crime investigation. During the year 1957, the
Physics unit developed into a full-fledged Physics Section. In the same year, the Footprint and the
Note Forgery Sections of Criminal Investigation Department were transferred to this laboratory and in
the following year General Chemistry Section of the Chemical Examiner’s Laboratory was also
transferred to this laboratory. Thus the first multidisciplinary forensic science laboratory came into
existence in the country.

:: Central finger print bureau

On the recommendations of the Royal Police Commission of 1902-03, the first Central Finger Print
Bureau (CFPB) in India was established in 1905 at Shimla. It, however, suffered a setback and was
abolished in 1922 as a result of retrenchment proposals of the Inchape Committee. The CFPB
restarted functioning from 1955 in Delhi under the administrative control of Intelligence Bureau (IB).
The major role envisaged for CFPB was to coordinate the activities of State FPBx in tracing/locating
inter-state criminals. During August 1956, the CFPB was shifted to Calcutta and remained under the
administrative control of IB. During September 1973, it was transferred to the Central Bureau of
Investigation and during July 1986, the administrative control of the CFPB was transferred to the
National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) and was again shifted to New Delhi.

:: Central detective training school at calcutta

CDTS, Calcutta, a premier detective training school in India, was established during 1956 and was
colocated (in the same premises) with the CFPB, Calcutta. The aim of establishing such a school was
to impart training in scientific investigation of crimes like drug abuse, terrorism, explosion, crime
against women, investigation of road accidents and enforcement of traffic laws, etc.

:: Central forensic science laboratories

The first Central Forensic Science Laboratory was established at Calcutta during 1957. To begin with,
this laboratory was organised into four basic disciplines viz. Forensic Physics, Forensic Chemistry,
Forensic Biology and Forensic Ballistics. For application of nuclear methods of analysis to criminal
investigation, the Neutron Activation Analysis Unit of CFSL, Calcutta was set up in 1970 at the Bhabha
Atomic Research Centre, Trombay. During the year 1965, the second central forensic science
laboratory was established at Hyderabad, The CFSL, Hyderabad initially established analytical facilities
in the disciplines of Forensic Physics, Forensic Chemistry and Forensic Biology. The Central Forensic
Science Laboratory, Chandigarh, was established, in the year 1933 at Lahore was shifted to
Chandigarh during 1961. Over the years many full-fledged forensic science laboratories were
established in various states.

:: Central forensic institute, calcutta

With the establishment of CDTS and CFSL, (later on GEQD also) in the same premises, under the
control of Intelligence Bureau, the whole set up was named as the Central Forensic Institute (CFI),
Calcutta. A post of Commandant was created during 1958 to look after the overall functioning of all
these establishments, which had different roles but with the common larger goal of providing
appropriate scientific inputs to the criminal investigation process and administration of criminal justice
in the country.

:: Cdts at hyderabad & chandigarh

The Central Detective Training School, Hyderabad was established in 1964, on the pattern of the
CDTS, Calcutta, followed by another one at Chandigarh, during 1973. Their main objective was to
train the operational police personnel in modern scientific techniques of crime investigation, with a
view to improve their professional standard and efficiency.

:: The role of central advisory committees

The Union Government, during 1959, appointed two committees for the purpose of giving a lead to all
the States in establishing new forensic science laboratories and improving the existing ones, and for
improving the study and application of Forensic Medicine. These committees were (i) Central Forensic
Science Advisory Committee and (ii) Central Medico-legal Advisory Committee. The Central Medico-
legal Advisory Committee was to advise the Central and the State Governments on matters pertaining
to medico-legal procedures and practices. The Central Advisory Committee on Forensic Science
considered the issues related to the sphere of Forensic Science (excluding forensic medicine). The
Central Medico-legal Advisory Committee was discontinued whereas the Central Forensic Science
Advisory Committee was converted into Standing Committee on Forensic Science during the year
1972, which is functional even today in BPR&D.

:: Indian academy of forensic science

The Indian Academy of Forensic Sciences (IAFS) was established in the year 1960. This academy
started a biennial scientific journal, which served as a forum for the exchange of ideas in forensic
science with the other international bodies. The role of the Academy was also to hold annual scientific
meetings/seminars or assist in holding seminars in forensic science. In fact, it was at the instance of
this Academy that the Government of India established the Neutron Activation Analysis Unit to cater
for the forensic needs in the country.

:: Teaching of forensic science in the universities

The question of introducing criminology and forensic science as the courses of study at the university
level in India was taken up with the Vice-Chancellors of various universities during 1950, but the
progress made in this direction was not encouraging. The need for university teaching of criminology
and forensic science was also stressed in various annual meetings of the Central Advisory Committee
on Forensic Science. A deputation headed by Shri KF Rustamji met the Chairman, University Grants
Commission in August 1961 and the matter was again taken up by Shri DP Kohli, the then Director,
Central Bureau of Investigation in 1967. As a result of these discussions, Dr DS Kothari, the then
Chairman, University Grants Commission set up a high level committee to advise the Commission on
the steps to be taken for introduction of Criminology and Forensic Sciences in university education. It
recommended that universities should be encouraged to introduce courses in Criminology at the
under-graduate level and postgraduate courses in Criminology and Forensic Science should be started
only in a central autonomous institution, which should be affiliated to a university. Consequently three
Universities viz., University of Sagar, Madras and Patiala started undergraduate and post-graduate
courses in forensic science. It was further suggested that, as an initial step in this direction, one
institute under the Central Government should be established in Delhi. The Committee recommended
those two courses viz. Master’s Degree in Criminology and Master’s Degree in Forensic Science should
be organised in this Institute, besides Diploma courses for in-service personnel. The institute should
also be developed as a center for research in Criminology and Forensic Science and should act as a
clearinghouse of up-to-date information in these fields.

:: Institute of criminology & forensic science at new delhi

After a series of debates at the Government level, it was decided that initially the Institute of
Criminology and Forensic Science should be established only for training the in-service personnel and
for conducting research in the field of forensic science. It was felt that unless the State governments
and the consumer organizations agreed to participate in the scheme, it would not be wise to start
courses for granting postgraduate degrees. However, the ultimate objective of the Institute was to
develop into a full-fledged academic institution affiliated to a university. With the above aim in view,
the Institute of Criminology and Forensic Science (ICFS) was established in Delhi during 1971 with the
limited objectives of imparting training to the in-service personnel and conducting research in
Criminology and Forensic Science. It was also envisaged that the Institute should have two distinct
faculties viz. the Faculty of Criminology and the Faculty of Forensic Science and both should have a
number of eminent teachers and researchers with adequate background and field experience.
 :: Creation of forensic science division at bpr&d

On an invitation from the Government of India, Dr. VK Street, an eminent forensic scientist from the
Department of Forensic Medicine, University of Edinburgh, UK, visited different Indian forensic science
institutions during 1972 and submitted a report to the Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India.
He strongly recommended for creation of a post of Chief Forensic Scientist in the Ministry of Home
Affairs to look after its forensic science activities and to pay whole time attention for the development
of this science in India. The Standing Committee on Forensic Science, during 1973, also recommended
for the creation of a post of Chief Forensic Scientist so that the activities, which needed scientific
inputs at the Union Government level, could be properly coordinated. The post of Chief Forensic
Scientist was finally sanctioned during 1983, and the Forensic Science Directorate was created in
BPR&D.

:: Recommendations of scientific advisory committee to the cabinet

During 1983, the then Scientific Advisory Committee to the Cabinet (SAC-C) under the overall
guidance of an Expert Committee chaired by Prof. M. M. Sharma, FRS, recommended that the
laboratories in Delhi, Calcutta and Hyderabad must be developed as S & T institutions, functioning in
an autonomous fashion, with complete modernization of equipment and manpower capabilities. In
pursuance of these recommendations, the Government of India declared the forensic science
institutions, at the central Government level as Science and Technology institutions.

Based on the observations of the Expert Group of the SAC-C, BPR&D evolved a master plan for
restructuring each CFSL of the BPR&D into fifteen scientific divisions. In the first phase, the three
Central Forensic Science Laboratories at Calcutta, Hyderabad, and Chandigarh were restructured into
six scientific division viz. Biology, Ballistics, Chemistry, Explosive, Physics, and Toxicology. Similarly,
the offices of the Government Examiners of Questioned Documents at Shimia, Calcutta, and
Hyderabad were strengthened in terms of manpower. Besides augmentation of staff, all the BPR&D
laboratories registered significant progress in the acquisition of sophisticated analytical equipment and
updating/modernizing the laboratory and library facilities for smooth working of these institutions.

:: A new mandate to the cfsls of bpr&d

During mid 1990’s, it was realised that most of the States have established their own forensic science
laboratories and hence the role of CFSLs to provide forensic analytical support to different states has
got diluted. Hence the utility of three CFSLs at the national level was questioned.

During 1997, this realization led to the process of defining the role of the CFSLs of BPR&D, de novo.
The justification for the existence of the three Central Forensic Science Laboratories under the BPR&D
was thought to be two folds. One, they should act as epitomes of quality and high standards for the
State Laboratories to emulate. They should not only set visibly higher standards in quality of analytical
processes and reporting accuracy, but also should be the repository of Standards and benchmarks
against which the performance of all the State FSLs can be judged. BPR&D should, therefore, have a
decisive say in the process of accreditation, not only of its own CFSLs/GEsQD, but also of all the State
FSLs. Secondly, since forensic science is one of the most dynamic sciences, CFSLs should provide R&D
support to this field of science. Every new research, development and invention in any discipline of
science should have a potential of application in forensic science. Newer, better and more reliable
technologies developed in all the disciplines need to be harnessed for the fight against crime. The
BPR&D CFSLs should scout around for new developments outside the realm of forensic science and
adapt them for use in Ms, standardize the processes and disseminate them to the State FSLs. In order
to perform this yeomen service, the CFSLs need to maintain very high standards and specialization,
way beyond what is possible in the State FSLs.

Strategy was evolved to bring about a complete paradigm change in the structure of the three BPR&D
CFSLs and provide them a new focussed mandate of R&D and specialized training. It emerged that
while preserving their composite structure, the three laboratories should have subject-specific
exclusiveness and be developed as the ‘Centers of Excellence’ for research and development and
specialized training in the designated fields. Consequently, during 1998, the three CFSLs were
reorganized with an aim to generate synergy and focus attention on research and development
activities in the thrust areas of forensic science. This was possible only if all the available resources
are pooled in the designated Centers of Excellence, rather than spread them very thin on the whole
ground. Besides focussing on their core activity of R&D and specialized training in the designated field
of forensic science, these laboratories also undertake crime case examination in all the fields of
forensic science. However, the routine forensic analysis case work has now been restricted to those
received from the Central Government organizations and State Governments/Union Territories, which
have not yet established their own forensic science facilities. These laboratories also act as the referral
centers for handling forensic analysis of crime cases requiring extensive investigation and high
expertise, received from the courts of law, state and central forensic science institutions and other
crime investigating agencies in India. The designated fields were chosen as follows:

CFSL, Calcutta Forensic Biological Sciences

CFSL, Hyderabad Forensic Chemical Sciences

CFSL, Chandigarh Forensic Physical Sciences

The Neutron Activation Analysis Unit of CFSL, Calcutta, operating at the BARC, Mumbai, was brought
under the administrative control of CFSL, Hyderabad.

:: Establishment of dna typing laboratory at cfsl calcutta

In response to the rising demands of providing high technology to the crime investigation process,
BPR&D established the first Forensic DNA Typing facility at CFSL, Calcutta, during 1998. The
implementation of this state-of-the-art technique represents significant advancements in the forensic
biology in the country. The DNA Typing Unit at CFSL Calcutta is equipped with the most contemporary
techniques of DNA typing, namely, Polymerize Chain Reaction (PCR) based method, HLADQ alpha and
Polymarker technique, and Locus Specific Restricted Fragment Length Polymorphism technique. This
laboratory, after being functional, has been referred many crime cases pertaining to murder, rape,
rape and murder, paternity disputes, organ transplant, exchange of babies in hospitals etc. DNA
Typing facility has further been upgraded to conduct ‘Short Tandem Repeats Sequence based DNA
Typing.

:: References

1. Tewari RK, KV Ravikurnar. Development of Forensic Science in India: A Historical Account.

Journal of the Indian Academy of Forensic Sciences 1999;38:17-32.
2. Tewari RK. Application of Forensic Science in Criminal Justice Administration in the Developing
Countries. The Indian Police Journal1999; XLVI:78-83.
3. Nanda BB, RK Tewari. Development of Forensic Science Services at the State Level. The Indian
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4. Iyengar NK. Growth and Development of Forensic Science in India. The Indian Police Journal
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5. Chatterjee SK. History of Fingerprinting in India, The Indian Police Journal (Special Centenary
Issue), 1961, pp 152-157
6. Tewari RK, AK Ganjoo. Fifty years of Forensic Science in India: An Introspection, The Indian
Police Journal (Special Issue on Indian Police after 50 years of Independence), Vol. XLV, No. 1 &
2, JanJune 1998, pp 105-110.
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Journal (Special Issue on Indian Police after 50 years of Independence), Vol. XLV, No. 1 & 2, Jan-
June 1998, pp 116-122.
8. State-of-the-art Forensic Sciences: For Better Criminal Justice, National Human Rights
Commission, New Delhi, May 1999.
9. Forensic Science in India, Bureau of Police Research & Development, New Delhi, 1997.
10. Tewari RK. Swantantrata Ke Pachas Varshon Men Nyayalayik Vigyan Ki Pragati, Uttar Pradesh
Police Patrika; 1998.
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