YOGAP 6/1/99 7:14 PM Page 588

Appendix I

Different ways in which titratable acidity is

expressed and their relative values to %
lactic acid

Soxhlet- Soxhlet-
% Lactic Henkel Thorner Dornic % Lactic Henkel Thorner Dornic
acid (°SH) (°T) (°D) acid (°SH) (°T) (°D)

0.0000 0 0.0 0.00 0.6975 31 77.5 69.75

0.0225 1 2.5 2.25 0.7200 32 80.0 72.00
0.0450 2 5.0 4.50 0.7425 33 82.5 74.25
0.0675 3 7.5 6.75 0.7650 34 85.0 76.50
0.0900 4 10.0 9.00 0.7875 35 87.5 78.79
0.1125 5 12.5 11.25 0.8100 36 90.0 81.00
0.1350 6 15.0 13.50 0.8325 37 92.5 83.25
0.1575 7 17.5 15.75 0.8550 38 95.0 85.50
0.1800 8 20.0 18.00 0.8775 39 97.5 87.75
0.2025 9 22.5 20.25 0.9000 40 100.0 90.00
0.2250 10 25.0 22.50 0.9225 41 102.5 92.25
0.2475 11 27.5 24.75 0.9450 42 105.0 94.50
0.2700 12 30.0 27.00 0.9675 43 107.5 96.75
0.2925 13 32.5 29.25 0.9900 44 110.0 99.00
0.3150 14 35.0 31.50 1.0125 45 112.5 101.25
0.3375 15 37.5 33.75 1.0350 46 115.0 103.50
0.3600 16 40.0 36.00 1.0575 47 117.5 105.75
0.3825 17 42.5 38.25 1.0800 48 120.0 108.00
0.4050 18 45.0 40.50 1.1025 49 122.5 110.25
0.4275 19 47.5 42.75 1.1250 50 125.0 112.50
0.4500 20 50.0 45.00 1.1475 51 127.5 114.75
0.4725 21 52.5 47.25 1.1700 52 130.0 117.00
0.4950 22 55.0 49.50 1.1925 53 132.5 119.25
0.5175 23 57.5 51.75 1.2150 54 135.0 121.50
0.5400 24 60.0 54.00 1.2375 55 137.5 123.75
0.5625 25 62.5 56.25 1.2600 56 140.0 126.00
0.5850 26 65.0 58.50 1.2825 57 142.5 128.25
0.6075 27 67.5 60.75 1.3050 58 145.0 130.50
0.6300 28 70.0 63.00 1.3275 59 147.5 132.75
0.6525 29 72.5 65.25 1.3500 60 150.0 135.00
0.6750 30 75.0 67.50 1.3725 61 152.5 137.25

© 2000 Woodhead Publishing Limited

YOGAP 6/1/99 7:14 PM Page 589

Soxhlet- Soxhlet-
% Lactic Henkel Thorner Dornic % Lactic Henkel Thorner Dornic
acid (°SH) (°T) (°D) acid (°SH) (°T) (°D)

1.3950 62 155.0 139.50 1.8000 80 200.0 180.00

1.4175 63 157.5 141.75 1.8225 81 202.5 182.25
1.4400 64 160.0 144.00 1.8450 82 205.0 184.50
1.4625 65 162.5 146.25 1.8675 83 207.5 186.75
1.4850 66 165.0 148.50 1.8900 84 210.0 189.00
1.5070 67 167.5 150.75 1.9125 85 212.5 191.25
1.5300 68 170.0 153.00 1.9350 86 215.0 193.50
1.5525 69 172.5 155.25 1.9575 87 217.5 195.75
1.5750 70 175.0 157.50 1.9800 88 220.0 198.00
1.5975 71 177.5 159.75 2.0025 89 222.5 200.25
1.6200 72 180.0 162.00 2.0250 90 225.0 202.50
1.6425 73 182.5 164.25 2.0475 91 227.5 204.75
1.6650 74 185.0 166.50 2.0700 92 230.0 207.00
1.6875 75 187.5 168.75 2.0925 93 232.5 209.25
1.7100 76 190.0 171.00 2.1150 94 235.0 211.50
1.7325 77 192.5 173.25 2.1375 95 237.5 213.75
1.7550 78 195.0 175.50 2.1600 96 240.0 216.00
1.7775 79 197.5 177.75 2.1825 97 242.5 218.25

© 2000 Woodhead Publishing Limited

YOGAP 6/1/99 7:14 PM Page 590

Appendix II

Temperature conversion*

Centigrade/Celsius Fahrenheit
°C = 5/9 (F - 32) °F = (9/5 ¥ C) + 32
= 0.555 (F - 32) = (1.8 ¥ C) + 32

°C °F °C °F °C °F

-31.7 -25 -13.0 -15.6 4 39.2 0.6 33 91.4

-31.6 -24 -11.2 -15.0 5 41.0 1.1 34 93.2
-30.6 -23 -9.4 -14.4 6 42.8 1.7 35 95.0
-30.0 -22 -7.6 -13.9 7 44.6 2.2 36 96.8
-29.4 -21 -5.8 -13.3 8 46.4 2.8 37 98.6
-28.9 -20 -4.0 -12.8 9 48.2 3.3 38 100.4
-28.3 -19 -2.2 -12.2 10 50.0 3.9 39 102.2
-27.8 -18 -0.4 -11.7 11 51.8 4.4 40 104.0
-27.2 -17 1.4 -11.1 12 53.6 5.0 41 105.8
-26.7 -16 3.2 -10.6 13 55.4 5.6 42 107.6
-26.1 -15 5.0 -10.0 14 57.2 6.1 43 109.4
-25.6 -14 6.8 -9.4 15 59.0 6.7 44 111.2
-25.0 -13 8.6 -8.9 16 60.8 7.2 45 113.0
-24.4 -12 10.4 -8.3 17 62.6 7.8 46 114.8
-23.9 -11 12.2 -7.8 18 64.4 8.3 47 116.6
-23.4 -10 14.0 -7.2 19 66.2 8.9 48 118.4
-22.8 -9 15.8 -6.7 20 68.0 9.4 49 120.2
-22.2 -8 17.6 -6.1 21 69.8 10.0 50 122.0
-21.7 -7 19.4 -5.6 22 71.6 10.6 51 123.8
-21.1 -6 21.2 -5.0 23 73.4 11.1 52 125.6
-20.6 -5 23.0 -4.4 24 75.2 11.7 53 127.4
-20.0 -4 24.8 -3.9 25 77.0 12.2 54 129.2
-19.4 -3 26.6 -3.3 26 78.8 12.8 55 131.0
-18.9 -2 28.4 -2.8 27 80.6 13.3 56 132.8
-18.3 -1 30.2 -2.2 28 82.4 13.9 57 134.6
-17.8 0 32.0 -1.7 29 84.2 14.4 58 136.4
-17.2 1 33.8 -1.1 30 86.0 15.0 59 138.2
-16.7 2 35.6 -0.6 31 87.8 15.6 60 140.0
-16.1 3 37.4 0 32 89.6 16.1 61 141.8

© 2000 Woodhead Publishing Limited

YOGAP 6/1/99 7:14 PM Page 591

°C °F °C °F °C °F

16.7 62 143.6 47.2 117 242.6 77.8 172 341.6

17.2 63 145.5 47.8 118 244.4 78.3 173 343.4
17.8 64 147.2 48.3 119 246.2 78.9 174 345.2
18.3 65 149.0 48.9 120 248.0 79.4 175 347.0
18.9 66 150.8 49.4 121 249.8 80.0 176 348.8
19.4 67 152.6 50.0 122 251.6 80.6 177 350.6
20.0 68 154.4 50.6 123 253.4 81.1 178 352.4
20.6 69 156.2 51.1 124 255.2 81.7 179 354.2
21.1 70 158.0 51.7 125 257.0 82.2 180 356.0
21.7 71 159.8 52.2 126 258.8 82.8 181 357.8
22.2 72 161.6 52.8 127 260.6 83.3 182 359.6
22.8 73 163.4 53.3 128 262.4 83.9 183 361.4
23.3 74 165.2 53.9 129 264.2 84.4 184 363.2
23.9 75 167.0 54.4 130 266.0 85.0 185 365.0
24.4 76 168.8 55.0 131 267.8 85.6 186 366.8
25.0 77 170.6 55.6 132 269.6 86.1 187 368.6
25.6 78 172.4 56.1 133 271.4 86.7 188 370.4
26.1 79 174.2 56.7 134 273.2 87.2 189 372.2
26.7 80 176.0 57.2 135 275.0 87.8 190 374.0
27.2 81 177.8 57.8 136 276.8 88.3 191 375.8
27.8 82 179.6 58.3 137 278.6 88.9 192 377.6
28.4 83 181.4 58.9 138 280.4 89.4 193 379.4
28.9 84 183.2 59.4 139 282.2 90.0 194 381.8
29.4 85 185.0 60.0 140 284.0 90.6 195 383.6
30.0 86 186.8 60.6 141 285.8 91.1 196 384.6
30.6 87 188.6 61.1 142 287.6 91.7 197 386.6
31.1 88 190.4 61.7 143 289.4 92.2 198 388.4
31.7 89 192.2 62.2 144 291.4 92.8 199 390.2
32.2 90 194.4 62.8 145 293.0 93.3 200 392.0
32.8 91 195.8 63.3 146 294.8 93.9 201 393.8
33.3 92 197.6 63.9 147 296.6 94.4 202 395.6
33.9 93 199.4 64.4 148 298.4 95.0 203 397.4
34.4 94 210.2 65.0 149 300.2 95.6 204 399.2
35.0 95 203.0 65.6 150 302.0 96.1 205 401.0
35.6 96 204.8 66.1 151 303.8 96.7 206 402.8
36.1 97 206.6 66.7 152 305.6 97.2 207 404.6
36.7 98 208.4 67.2 153 307.4 97.8 208 406.4
37.2 99 210.2 67.8 154 309.2 98.3 209 408.2
37.8 100 212.0 68.3 155 311.0 98.9 210 410.0
38.3 101 213.8 68.9 156 311.8 99.4 211 411.8
38.9 102 215.6 69.4 157 314.6 100.0 212 413.6
39.4 103 217.4 70.0 158 316.4 100.6 213 415.4
40.0 104 219.2 70.6 159 318.2 101.1 214 417.2
40.6 105 221.0 71.1 160 320.0 101.7 215 419.0
41.1 106 222.8 71.7 161 321.8 102.2 216 420.8
41.7 107 224.6 72.2 162 323.6 102.8 217 422.6
42.2 108 226.4 72.8 163 325.4 103.3 218 424.4
42.8 109 228.2 73.3 164 327.2 103.9 219 426.2
43.3 110 230.0 73.9 165 329.0 104.4 220 428.0
43.9 111 231.9 74.4 166 330.8 105.0 221 429.8
44.4 112 233.6 75.0 167 332.6 105.6 222 431.6
45.0 113 235.4 75.6 168 334.4 106.1 223 433.4
45.6 114 237.2 76.1 169 336.2 106.7 224 435.2
46.1 115 239.0 76.7 170 338.2 107.2 225 437.0
46.7 116 240.8 77.2 171 339.8 107.8 226 438.8
Continued

© 2000 Woodhead Publishing Limited

YOGAP 6/1/99 7:14 PM Page 592

°C °F °C °F °C °F

108.3 227 440.6 122.2 252 485.6 136.1 277 530.6

108.9 228 442.4 122.8 253 487.4 136.7 278 532.4
109.4 229 444.2 123.3 254 489.2 137.2 279 534.2
110.0 230 446.0 123.9 255 491.0 137.8 280 536.0
110.6 231 447.8 124.4 256 492.8 138.3 281 537.8
111.1 232 449.6 125.0 257 494.6 138.9 282 539.6
111.7 233 451.4 125.6 258 496.4 139.4 283 541.4
112.2 234 453.2 126.1 259 498.2 140.0 284 543.2
112.8 235 455.0 126.7 260 500.0 140.6 285 545.0
113.3 236 456.8 127.2 261 501.8 141.1 286 546.8
113.9 237 458.6 127.8 262 503.6 141.7 287 548.6
114.4 238 460.4 128.3 263 505.4 142.2 288 550.4
115.0 239 464.4 128.9 264 507.2 142.8 289 552.2
115.6 240 464.0 129.4 265 509.0 143.3 290 554.0
116.1 241 465.8 130.0 266 510.8 143.9 291 555.8
116.7 242 467.6 130.6 267 512.6 144.4 292 557.6
117.2 243 469.4 131.1 268 514.4 145.0 293 559.4
117.8 244 471.2 131.7 269 516.2 145.6 294 561.2
118.3 245 473.0 132.2 270 518.0 146.1 295 563.0
118.9 246 474.8 132.8 271 519.8 146.7 296 564.8
119.4 247 476.6 133.3 272 521.6 147.2 297 566.6
120.0 248 478.4 133.9 273 523.4 147.8 298 568.4
120.6 249 480.2 134.4 274 525.2 148.3 299 570.2
121.1 250 482.0 135.0 275 527.0 148.9 300 572.0
121.7 251 483.8 135.6 276 528.8

* Find the known temperature to be converted in the “boxed” column, then read the conversion to the
left for °C and/or right for °F.
Example: Convert the following known temperature, i.e. 50
10.0 50 122.0
\ 50°C = 122.0°F
or 50°F = 10.0°C

© 2000 Woodhead Publishing Limited

YOGAP 6/1/99 7:14 PM Page 593

Appendix III

Volume units

Metric (SI) (Prefixes) Imperial (Imp) and US

Kilo- = 1000 Gallon
Hecto- = 100 Yard
Deca- = 10 Foot
Deci- = 0.1 Inch
Centi- = 0.01 Pint
Milli- = 0.001 Fluid ounce
Micro- = 0.000 001 Drams

To convert volume Multiply by

Millilitres to gallons (Imp) 0.00022
gallons (US) 0.00026
fluid ounces (Imp) 0.03520
fluid ounces (US) 0.03380
Cubic centimetres to cubic inches 0.06100

cubic inches 61.0 ¥ 10-3
cubic feet 35.30000
Cubic metres to gallons (Imp) 220.00000
gallons (US) 264.17000
cubic feet 0.03500
cubic inches 61.03000
fluid ounces (Imp) 35.19600
fluid ounces (US) 33.81400
gallons (Imp) 0.21990
Litres to gallons (US) 0.26420
pints (Imp) 1.75980
pints (US) 2.11340
quarts (Imp) 0.87880
quarts (US) 1.05670

cubic inches 1.80500
gallons (US) 0.00780
Fluid ounces (US) to litres 0.02950
millilitres 29.57000
fluid ounces (Imp) 1.04100

© 2000 Woodhead Publishing Limited

YOGAP 6/1/99 7:14 PM Page 594

gallons (Imp) 0.00630
Fluid ounces (Imp) to millilitres 28.41000
fluid ounces (US) 0.96000

Pints (Imp) to  litres

pints (US)
0.56800
0.83270


litres 0.47320
Pints (US) to pints (Imp) 1.20090
Quarts (Imp) to litres 1.13650
Quarts (US) to litres 0.94600

cubic inches 1728.00000
gallons (Imp) 6.48100
Cubic feet to gallons (US) 7.48100

litres 28.32000
cubic centilitres 16.38700
cubic feet 0.00058
gallons (Imp) 0.00360
Cubic inches to gallons (US) 0.00430
litres 0.01640
fluid ounces (US) 0.55400

Fluid drams to fluid ounces (US) 0.12500
Fluid ounces to drams (US) 8.00000
Fluid ounces to litres (Imp) 0.02080

Fluid ounces (US) to litres 0.02960
cubic feet 0.16000
cubic inches 277.30000
litres 4.54600
Gallons (Imp) to gallons (US) 1.20090
millilitres 4546.00000
cubic metres 0.00460

ounces (Imp) 160.00000
cubic feet 0.13370
cubic inches 231.30000
litres 3.78530
Gallons (US) to gallons (Imp) 0.83270
millilitres 3785.00000
cubic metres 0.00380
ounces (US) 128.00000

© 2000 Woodhead Publishing Limited

YOGAP 6/1/99 7:14 PM Page 595

Appendix IV

Weight/mass units

Metric (SI) Imperial

Tonnes Ton
Kilograms Pound
Grams Ounce
Grains

To convert weight Multiply by

grain 15.4300
Gram to ounce 0.0353
pound 0.0022


ounce 35.2700
Kilogram to pound 2.2040

gram 28.3500
Ounce to grain 437.0000
pound 0.0625

gram 453.6000
grain 7000.0000
Pound to kilogram 0.4500
ounce 16.0000

ounce 0.0023
Grain to pound 0.00014
gram 0.0648

To convert weight per volume Multiply by

grain/gallon (Imp) 70.1140
grain/gallon (US) 58.4000
Gram/litre to grain/ounce (US) 0.4600
pound/gallon (US) 0.0083
Gram/millilitre to pounds/gallon (US) 8.3450


gram/cubic centimetre 0.0160
Pound/cubic foot to pound/gallon (US) 0.1337

gram/millilitre 0.1198
Pound/gallon (US) to pound/cubic foot 7.8410
gram/litre 119.9470

© 2000 Woodhead Publishing Limited

YOGAP 6/1/99 7:14 PM Page 596

Appendix V

Miscellaneous units

To convert to SI units Multiply by

1. Velocity
cm s-1 1.0000 ¥ 10-2 m s-1
m hour-1 2.7778 ¥ 10-4 m s-1
ft s-1 3.0480 ¥ 10-1 m s-1
ft hour-1 3.4667 ¥ 10-5 m s-1
mile hour-1 4.4704 ¥ 10-1 m s-1
2. Volumetric flow
cm3 s-1 1.0000 ¥ 10-6 m3 s-1
m3 hour-1 2.7778 ¥ 10-4 m3 s-1
ft3 s-1 2.8317 ¥ 10-2 m3 s-1
cm3 min-1 1.6667 ¥ 10-8 m3 s-1
1 min-1 1.6667 ¥ 10-5 m3 s-1
ft3 min-1 4.7195 ¥ 10-4 m3 s-1
ft3 hour-1 7.8658 ¥ 10-6 m3 s-1
gal (Imp) min-1 7.5766 ¥ 10-5 m3 s-1
gal (Imp) hour-1 1.2628 ¥ 10-6 m3 s-1
gal (US) min-1 6.3089 ¥ 10-5 m3 s-1
gal (US) hour-1 1.0515 ¥ 10-6 m3 s-1
3. Viscosity
A. Dynamic
g cm-1 s-1 1.000 ¥ 10-1 kg m-1 s-1
kg m-1 hour-1 2.7778 ¥ 10-4 kg m-1 s-1
lb ft-1 s-1 1.4882 kg m-1 s-1
lb ft-1 hour-1 4.1338 ¥ 10-4 kg m-1 s-1
B. Kinematic
cm2 s-1 1.0000 ¥ 10-4 m2 s-1
m2 hour-1 2.7778 ¥ 10-4 m2 s-1
ft2 s-1 9.2903 ¥ 10-2 m2 s-1
ft2 hour-1 2.5806 ¥ 10-5 m2 s-1
4. Density
g cm-3 °C-1 1.0000 ¥ 103 kg m-3
lb ft-3 °F-1 1.6018 ¥ 10 kg m-3
lb gal-1 (Imp) 9.9779 ¥ 10 kg m-3
lb gal-1 (US) 1.1983 ¥ 102 kg m-3

© 2000 Woodhead Publishing Limited

YOGAP 6/1/99 7:14 PM Page 597

Appendix VI

Work/energy and other related units

Quantity SI factor
Energy
cal 4.1868 J
kcal 4.1868 ¥ 103 J
Btu 1.0551 ¥ 103 J
Horse power (hp) hour-1
metric 2.6477 ¥ 106 J
hp hour-1 (Imp) 2.6845 ¥ 106 J
kW hour-1 3.6000 ¥ 106 J
ft lb-1 1.3558 J
Therm 1.0551 ¥ 18 J
Thermic 4.1855 ¥ 106 J
Calorific value (volumetric)
cal cm-3 4.1868 ¥ 106 J m-3
kcal m-3 4.1868 ¥ 103 J m-3
Btu ft-3 3.7260 ¥ 104 J m-3
Therm ft-3 3.7260 ¥ 109 J m-3
Coefficient of expansion (volumetric)
g cm-3 °C-1 1.0000 ¥ 103 ¥ kg m-3 °C-1
lb ft-3 °C-1 28.8330 ¥ kg m-3 °C-1
Heat flux
cal s-1 cm-2 4.1868 ¥ 104 W m-2
kcal hour-1 m-2 1.1630 W m-2
Btu hour-1 ft-2 3.1546 W m-2
Heat release rate
A. Mass
cal s-1 g-1 4.1868 ¥ 103 W kg-1
kcal hour-1 kg-1 1.1630 W kg-1
Btu hour-1 lb-1 6.4612 ¥ 10-1 W kg-1
B. Volumetric
cal s-1 cm-3 4.1868 ¥ 106 W m-3
kcal hour-1 m-3 1.1630 W m-3
Btu hour-1 ft-3 1.0350 ¥ 10 W m-3
Heat transfer coefficient
cal s-1 cm-2 °C-1 4.1868 ¥ 104 W m-2 °C-1

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YOGAP 6/1/99 7:14 PM Page 598

kcal hour-1 m-2 °C-1 1.1630 W m-2 °C-1

Btu hour-1 ft-2 °F-1 5.6704 W m-2 °C-1
Power
cal s-1 4.1868 W
kcal hour-1 1.1630 W
Btu s-1 1.0551 ¥ 103 W
Btu hour-1 2.9308 ¥ 10-1 W
hp (metric) 7.3548 ¥ 102 W
hp (Imp) 7.4570 ¥ 102 W
ft lb s-1 1.3558 W
Specific enthalpy
cal g-1 4.1868 ¥ 103 J kg-1
Btu l-1 2.3260 ¥ 103 J kg-1
Specific heat
cal g-1 °C-1 4.1868 ¥ 103 J kg-1 °K-1
Btu lb-1 °F-1 2.3260 ¥ 103 J kg-1 °K-1
Thermal conductivity
cal s-1 cm-2 (°C cm-1) 4.1868 ¥ 102 W m-2
kcal hour-1 m-2 (°C cm-1) 1.1630 W m-2
Btu hour-1 ft-2 (°F ft-1) 1.7308 W m-2
Btu hour-1 ft-2 (°F in-1) 1.4423 ¥ 10-1 W m-2

© 2000 Woodhead Publishing Limited

YOGAP 6/1/99 7:14 PM Page 599

Appendix VII

Force and pressure units

Quantity Multiplication factor

Force
dyn 1.0000 ¥ 10-5 N
kg force 0.9867 N
lb force 4.4482 N
ton force 9.9640 ¥ 103 N
Pressure
dyn cm-2 1.0000 ¥ 10-5 N m-2
kg f m-2 9.8067 N m-2
standard atmosphere 1.0133 ¥ 105 N m-2
atmosphere or kg f cm-1 9.8067 ¥ 104 N m-2
bar 1.0000 ¥ 105 N m-2
lb f ft-2 4.7880 ¥ 10 N m-2
lb f in-1 6.8948 ¥ 103 N m-2
mm mercury (Hg) 1.3333 ¥ 102 N m-2
inch Hg 3.3866 ¥ 103 N m-2

© 2000 Woodhead Publishing Limited

YOGAP 6/1/99 7:14 PM Page 600

Appendix VIII

Length and area units

Metric (SI) Imperial

Kilometre (km) Mile (mi)
Metre (m) Yard (yd)
Centimetre (cm) Foot (ft)
Millimetre (mm) Inch (in)

1 metre = 100 cm = 1000 mm

1 kilometre = 1000 m

1 metre = 39.4 in = 3.28 ft = 1.09 yd = 0.621 ¥ 10-3 mile

1 yard = 3 ft = 36 in
1 mile = 1760 yd

To convert length Multiply by

Inches to centimetres 2.5400
Feet to metres 0.3048
Yards to metres 0.9144
Miles to metres 1609.0000
Centimetres to inches 0.3940
Metres to feet 3.2810
Metres to yards 1.0936
Kilometres to miles 0.6213

To convert area Multiply by

Square inches to square centimetres 6.4520
Square feet to square metres 0.0929
Square yards to square metres 0.8360
Square centimetres to square inches 0.1550
Square metres to square feet 10.7640
Square metres to square yards 1.1970

© 2000 Woodhead Publishing Limited

YOGAP 6/1/99 7:14 PM Page 601

Appendix IX

Pearson square and algebraic methods

Pearsons square method

If the raw materials (g 100 g-1) used for the manufacture of yoghurt are: skimmed milk (solids-
not-fat 9 and water 91), skimmed milk powder (solids-not-fat 97 and water 3) and cream (fat
50), calculate the quantitites of the above raw materials required to produce a 500 l batch of
yoghurt with total solids 16 and fat 1.5 in the final product. Calculate first the quantities of
skimmed milk and skimmed milk powder required to give the desired level of solids-not-fat
14.5 g 100 g-1.

SNF in 9 97 - 14.5 = 82.5

Skimmed milk
14.5 +
SNF in skimmed
milk powder 97 14.5 - 9 = 5.5
88.0

82.5 ¥ 500
The amount of skimmed milk required = = 468.75 litres
88
5.5 ¥ 500
The amount of skimmed milk powder = = 31.25 kg
required 88
Total 500.00 litres

Since the above mix contains only small quantities of fat, e.g. 0.1 g 100 g-1, the balance of the
required fat comes from the cream as follows:

Fat present 0.1 50 - 1.5 = 48.5

in fortified +
skimmed milk 1.5
Fat in cream 50 1.5 - 0.1 = 1.4
49.9

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YOGAP 6/1/99 7:14 PM Page 602

48.5 ¥ 500
The amount of fortified skimmed milk = = 485.97 litres
required 49.9
1.4 ¥ 500
The amount of cream required = = 14.03 litres
49.9
Total 500.00 litres

Although the above calculation does not take into consideration the amount of solids-
not-fat present in the cream (4.5 g 100 g-1) and the starter culture inoculum (12 g 100 g-1), the
accuracy is sufficient for most practical purposes. However, as an additional check, the final
composition of the yoghurt can be calculated as follows:

Weight Weight of fat Weight of solids-

Product (l or kg) supplied (kg) not-fat supplied

0.1 ¥ 485.97 9 ¥ 485.97

Skimmed milk 485.97 = 0.49 = 43.74
100 100
97 ¥ 31.25
Skimmed milk powder 31.25 *** = 30.31
100
50 ¥ 14.03 4.5 ¥ 14.03
Cream 14.03 = 7.02 = 0.63
100 100
12 ¥ 15
Starter culture at 3% 15.00 *** = 1.8
rate of inoculation 100

Total 546.25 7.51 76.48

100 ¥ 7.51
\ the % of fat in yoghurt = = 1.37
546.25
76.48 ¥ 100
The % of solids - not - fat in yoghurt = = 14.00
546.25
Hence, the difference in the composition (g 100 g-1) is fat 0.13 and solids-not-fat 0.5, and such
small margin of error is due to the fact that the cream (SNF) and the starter inoculum (SNF)
are not considered. If such small % of fat and SNF is compensated for, then the prepared
milk base will have the desired level of fat and SNF.

The algebraic method

This method of calculation takes into consideration all the raw materials used for the manu-
facture of yoghurt in order to obtain exactly the quantities required for a balanced mix, an
approach which is similar to that used in the ice-cream industry (Hyde and Rothwell, 1973).
For example, if the aim is to prepare a mix for yoghurt production which has the following
chemical composition (g 100 g-1) (fat 1.5 and SNF 14.5) and the dairy materials used are whole
milk, skimmed milk, skimmed milk powder and a liquid starter culture, the composition of
the raw materials can be taken as:
X = kg of whole milk (fat 3.5, SNF 8.5 and water 88.0);
Y = kg of skimmed milk (fat 0.1, SNF 9.0 and water 90.0);
Z = kg of skimmed milk powder (SNF 97 and water 3).
If the inoculation rate (g 100 g-1) of the starter culture (SNF 12 and water 88) is 3, then in a
batch of 100 units, 3 kg of culture would be used containing (0.36 kg SNF and 2.64 kg of water).

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YOGAP 6/1/99 7:14 PM Page 603

For convenience, the liquid ingredients could be measured in litres and the procedure of
calculation is as follows:
The source of fat is whole milk (3.5 g 100 g-1) and skimmed milk (0.1 g 100 g-1) and the level
in the mix is 1.5 g 100 g-1
3.5X 0.1Y
+ = 1.5 (1)
100 100
The source of SNF (g 100 g-1) is whole milk (8.5), skimmed milk (9) and skimmed milk powder
(97), and the level in the mix is 14.5; however, the amount of SNF (0.36 kg) which originates
from the starter culture must be deducted, i.e.
8.5X 9Y 97Z
+ + = 1.45 - 0.36 = 14.14 (2)
100 100 100
The source of water (g 100 g-1) is whole milk (88.0), skimmed milk (90.9), skimmed milk
powder (3.0) and the weight of the water from the starter culture; therefore, the formula
becomes:

Amount of water present in the mix is equal to:

100 - (wt. of fat + wt. of SNF + wt. of water from the starter culture)
100 - (1.5 + 14.5 + 2.64) = 81.36
88 X 90.9Y 3Z
+ + = 81.36 (3)
100 100 100
Multiply equations (1), (2) and (3) by their denominator, i.e. 100
3.5X + 0.1Y = 150 (4)
8.5X + 9Y + 97Z = 1414 (5)
88X + 90.9Y + 3Z = 8136 (6)
Calculate the value of X from equation (4)
150 - 0.1Y
X= (7)
3.5
Substitute the value of X (7) in equation (5) and (6)
(150 - 0.1Y )
8.5 + 9Y + 97Y = 1414 (8)
3.5
(150 - 0.1Y )
88 + 90.9Y + 3Z = 8136 (9)
3.5
Multiply equation (8) by its denominator, i.e. 3.5
8.5 (150 - 0.1Y ) + 31.5Y + 339.5Z = 4949
1275 - 0.85Y + 31.5Y + 339.5Z = 4949
31.5Y - 0.85Y + 339.5Z = 4949 - 1275
30.65Y + 339.5Z = 3674 (10)
Multiply equation (9) by its denominator, i.e. 3.5
88(150 - 0.1Y ) + 318.15Y + 10.5Z = 28 476
13 200 - 8.8Y + 318.15Y + 10.5Z = 28 476
318.15Y - 8.8Y + 10.5Z = 28 476 - 13 200
309.35Y + 10.5Z = 15 276 (11)

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YOGAP 6/1/99 7:14 PM Page 604

Divide the value (Z) in equation (10) by the value (Z) in equation (11) in order to calculate
the multiplication factor by which the value (Y ) can be calculated

339.5Z
= 32.33
10.5Z

Multiply equation (11) by the factor 32.33

10 001.29Y + 339.47Z = 493 873.08 (12)
Subtract equation (10) from equation (12)
10 001.29Y + 339.47Z = 493 873.08
30.65Y + 339.5Z = 3674
9970.64Y + zero = 490 199.08
(The value of Z in equations (10) and (12) is approximately equal)

490 199.08
\Y =
9970.64
= 49.16 kg or l of skimmed milk required
Substitute the value of Y in equation (10) to calculate the value of Z
49.16(30.65) + 339.5Z = 3674
1506.75 + 339.5Z = 3674
339.5Z = 3674 - 1506.75 = 2167.25

2167.25
\Z =
339.5
= 6.38 kg of skimmed milk powder required
Substitute the value of Y in equation (7) to calculate the value of X

150 - 0.1(49.16)
X=
3.5
150 - 4.916
=
3.5
145.08
=
3.5
= 41.45 kg or l of whole milk required

Therefore add the weights of the raw materials required:

whole milk 41.45
skimmed milk 49.16
skimmed milk powder 6.38
starter culture 3.00
Total 99.99

The above total should amount to exactly 100, but the slight discrepancy is due to various
approximations made in the above calculations; however, a second check from the above
weights of raw materials can be made to confirm the chemical composition of the final
yoghurt:

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YOGAP 6/1/99 7:14 PM Page 605

Product Weight in kg Weight of fat supplied Weight of SNF supplied

3.5 ¥ 41.45 8.5 ¥ 41.45

Whole milk 41.45 = 1.45 = 3.52
100 100
0.1 ¥ 49.16 9 ¥ 49.16
Skimmed milk 49.16 = 0.05 = 4.42
100 100
97 ¥ 6.38
Skimmed milk powder 6.38 *** = 6.19
100
3 ¥ 12
Starter culture 3.00 *** = 0.36
100

99.99 1.5 14.48

The above example could be applied to calculate exactly the weight of any dairy raw
material which could be used for the manufacture of yoghurt (see Chapter 2) and since the
quantity or unit of a 100 is used, it can be easily converted to a much larger volume of
production.

Reference
hyde, k.a. and rothwell, j. (1973) In Ice Cream, Churchill Livingstone, London.

© 2000 Woodhead Publishing Limited