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Shoshonites, vaugnerites and potassic lamprophyres: similarities and

differences between ‘ultra’-high-K rocks

J. H. Scarrow, F. Bea, P. Montero and J. F. Molina

Earth and Environmental Science Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh / Volume 99 / Issue 3-4 / December 2008, pp 159 - 175
DOI: 10.1017/S1755691009008032, Published online: 06 November 2009

Link to this article: http://journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S1755691009008032

How to cite this article:

J. H. Scarrow, F. Bea, P. Montero and J. F. Molina (2008). Shoshonites, vaugnerites and potassic lamprophyres: similarities
and differences between ‘ultra’-high-K rocks. Earth and Environmental Science Transactions of the Royal Society of
Edinburgh, 99, pp 159-175 doi:10.1017/S1755691009008032

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Earth and Environmental Science Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 99, 159–175, 2009 (for 2008)

Shoshonites, vaugnerites and potassic

lamprophyres: similarities and differences
between ‘ultra’-high-K rocks
J. H. Scarrow, F. Bea, P. Montero and J. F. Molina
Department of Mineralogy and Petrology, Campus Fuentenueva, University of Granada, 18002 Granada, Spain
Email: jscarrow@ugr.es

ABSTRACT: A comparative study of three main igneous rock associations that plot in the
K2O–SiO2 diagram shoshonite field: shoshonite series absarokites–shoshonites–banakites (hence-
forth referred to as shoshonites s.l.), vaugnerites, and potassic lamprophyres, reveals that similarities
between the associations are superficial. Vaugnerites and lamprophyres are more magnesian, richer
in large ion lithophile and high field strength elements and have higher light rare earth/heavy rare
earth ratios than shoshonites. Furthermore, shoshonites have low radiogenic heat production,
typical of subduction-related rocks, but most vaugnerites and some lamprophyres are highly
radioactive. Relative to bulk-Earth, shoshonites have depleted, asthenospheric mantle-like Sr and
Nd isotope signatures, whereas vaugnerites and potassic lamprophyres have enriched, crust or
lithospheric mantle-like compositions. Though vaugnerites and some lamprophyres show evidence
of crustal contamination, the contaminated magma was not originally shoshonitic. Their compos-
ition is consistent with derivation from a metasomatised upper mantle source enriched long before
melting, thus precluding an active subduction setting. In conclusion, the term shoshonite, implying
late-stage arc magmas, cannot be applied to a rock series simply because it plots into the K2O–SiO2
diagram shoshonite field. Shoshonites with a subduction-related source may, however, be identified
by discriminant function analysis.

KEY WORDS: Discriminant function analysis, late-orogenic magmatism, rock classification,

subduction, Variscan

Recent IUGS subcommission recommendations (Le Maitre
et al. 2002) restrict the use of shoshonite to potassic varieties of
rocks which project in the basaltic trachyandesite field of the
total alkalis versus SiO2 (TAS) diagram. Originally defined as
potassic orthoclase-bearing basalts in Yellowstone National
Park, Wyoming, USA (Iddings 1895), the term has since been
used, in a general sense, to refer to potassic basalts and
andesites. Joplin (1968) defined the broader ‘shoshonite associ-
ation’ as K-rich trachybasalts to trachyandesites (and associ-
ated intrusive rocks), of the absarokite (basic) – shoshonite
(intermediate) – banakite (intermediate-acid) series. The term
shoshonitic was subsequently adopted to define the most
K-rich of the five broad types of subduction-zone primary
magmas (Peccerillo & Taylor 1976) leading to its use, often
erroneously, with a strong geodynamic connotation. Fuelling
this, a specific link between the association and tectonic
context was suggested by Morrison (1980) who proposed that
such rocks were subduction-related, either late-stage, far-from-
trench, or direction-flip arc products. Latterly, the meaning of
shoshonitic has further expanded to include other K-rich rocks
not obviously linked to a subduction environment, such as
the plutonic appinite and vaugnerite (biotite-, hornblende-,
plagiocase-bearing rocks, Le Maitre et al. 2002) series, and the
minette, vogesite, kersantite and spessartite ‘calc-alkaline’ lam-
prophyres (Rock 1987). The term shoshonitic, used in a more
relaxed way still, is currently applied to most K-rich rocks,
even including granites (e.g. De Lima & Nardi 1998; Liegeois
et al. 1998; Yao-Hui et al. 2002; etc.).
A case of classifying a rock series as shoshonitic, simply
because it plots within the shoshonitic field of the K2O–SiO2
diagram, and, either explicitly or implicitly, aiming to use this
characterisation to demonstrate a subduction zone setting, and
even to a definite stage of the evolution of a magmatic
arc-system, is well illustrated in the Variscides of Western
Europe. In this region, K- and Mg-rich ultramafic to inter-
mediate rocks, temporally and spatially closely associated with
lamprophyres, are often the only mantle-derived products
associated with huge volumes of crustal granites. Most of these
rocks belong either to the vaugnerite (durbachite) or the
appinite series, both of which are considered to be shoshonitic
by Bowes & Kosler (1993). Interpreting the geodynamic setting
based on this consideration alone can lead to conflict with
other lines of evidence. For example, the Central Iberian
Zone of Spain and Portugal comprises numerous granite–
granodiorite batholiths scattered across a 600km-wide band
centred on the orogenic axis (Bea et al. 1999). The granitoids
show no perceptible across-orogen polarity in either age or
granite typology (Bea et al. 2003) and, irrespective of their
geographic position, are composed of peraluminous K-rich
crustal granites which mostly formed within the interval
31015 Ma. Furthermore, the area lacks high-pressure meta-
morphism and contains neither ophiolites nor any other
subduction-related rocks of Variscan age. The mantle-derived
rocks consist of volumetrically insignificant, metric- to
hectometric-sized bodies of vaugnerites and appinites which
are coeval with the granites either as enclaves or as small
intrusions (Dias et al. 2002; Montero et al. 2004). From their
position in the K2O–SiO2 diagram, these rocks are shoshonitic
(vaugnerites) or high-K (appinites) (Bea 2004). Their
N-MORB normalised trace-element patterns are similar to

 2009 The Royal Society of Edinburgh. doi:10.1017/S1755691009008032

160 J. H. SCARROW ET AL.

Figure 1 (A) K2O–SiO2 plot of shoshonites (Sh), vaugnerites (Vg) and potassic lamprophyres (K-La). (B) The
same but with regression lines with 95% confidence interval (prediction) instead of individual points. The
boundaries between the shoshonitic, here renamed ultra-high-K, high-K and medium-K fields, are as recom-
mended by Tatsumi & Eggins (1995). Note how the potassic lamprophyres are, by far, the most K2O rich.
Vaugnerites and shoshonites have similar K2O average values, but they change with increasing SiO2. Vaugnerites
are the richest in K2O for SiO2 <57 wt. % but this tendency is attenuated, even reversed, at higher SiO2 contents.
Data sources discussed in text.

arc-magmas, showing an enrichment in the most incompatible absarokites–shoshonites–banakites (henceforth referred to as

elements with deep negative anomalies of Nb-Ta, Ti and Zr.
Consequently, they have repeatedly been interpreted as evi-
dence of Variscan subduction beneath the Central Iberian
Zone (e.g. Castro et al. 2003; López-Moro & López-Plaza
2004) despite this idea finding no support from either geo-
physical, geological, or structural data, nor from any other
petrological feature of the area (e.g., Bea 2004; Scarrow et al.
2009; Molina et al. 2009).
This paper is aimed at understanding whether it is possible
to define a set of chemical features specific to rocks which fall
in the shoshonitic field of the K2O–SiO2 diagram, used for the
subdivision of the sub-alkaline rocks of the total alkalis versus
SiO2 (TAS diagram, Le Bas et al. 1986), and that have a
subduction-related source, be it active arc or recycled arc
products. If this is possible, then rocks of unknown origin
having the same chemical features as the ‘arc’ shoshonites can
be deemed to have had a subduction-related source, whereas
those that do not, despite being ‘ultra’-high-K, can be inferred
to have had a different origin. To address this issue, the
chemical composition (major and trace elements, Sr and Nd
isotopes) of some 600+ selected specimens from three main
igneous rock associations that plot in the shoshonitic field
of the K2O–SiO2 diagram was compared: shoshonite series
shoshonites s.l.); vaugnerites; and the potassic ‘calc-alkaline’
lamprophyres: vogesites and minettes. The IUGS Subcomis-
sion on Igneous Rock systematics (Le Maitre et al. 2002)
defined two groups of lamprophyres: calc-alkaline and
alkaline. The former are feldspathoid-free and richer in
SiO2, Al2O3, and K2O, and poorer in Fe2O3, MgO, CaO and
TiO2.
Throughout the current work, the first group, of interest
here, are referred to as potassic lamprophyres to avoid any
potentially erroneous petrogenetic association with the term
calc-alkaline. Appinites were not included because, at least in
the West European Variscides, most of them plot in the high-K
field, a typology for which Roberts & Clemens (1993) have
already argued there is no requirement to be related to
subduction processes. The compositional similarities and dif-
ferences between the three aforementioned associations were
studied statistically and the paper discusses whether vaugner-
ites and potassic lamprophyres may, like the shoshonites, also
have a subduction-related source. A set of discriminant func-
tions was also computed based on major elements and different
combinations of frequently determined trace elements, which
seem far more useful than binary or multi-element plots to
identify true arc-related shoshonites.
 ‘ULTRA’-HIGH-K ROCKS: SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES 161

Table 1 Summary statistics of the chemical composition of the three groups.

Shoshonites Vaugnerites Potassic lamprophyres

n Mean S.D. Min Max n Mean S.D. Min Max n Mean S.D. Min Max

SiO2 260 53·20 3·15 47·20 62·94 180 55·88 4·16 45·10 62·99 196 51·52 4·47 43·00 62·45
TiO2 260 0·88 0·23 0·26 1·93 180 1·05 0·31 0·32 2·28 196 1·11 0·51 0·39 3·20
Al2O3 260 17·12 1·74 10·78 20·63 180 16·16 2·11 8·53 20·09 196 12·38 1·83 5·61 18·36
FeO tot 260 7·52 1·27 3·08 12·24 180 6·08 1·37 1·52 11·01 196 6·74 1·78 2·05 12·83
MgO 260 4·48 2·32 0·72 16·44 180 5·62 2·82 0·92 19·90 196 8·23 2·78 2·64 22·38
MnO 260 0·16 0·03 0·06 0·28 180 0·10 0·03 0·00 0·20 196 0·13 0·04 0·03 0·35
CaO 260 7·90 2·03 2·30 13·14 180 5·40 1·62 0·37 9·78 196 6·98 2·22 1·21 14·80
Na2O 260 3·11 0·79 0·48 6·08 180 2·98 0·71 0·55 5·65 196 1·97 0·90 0·04 4·82
K 2O 260 3·41 0·99 1·70 6·69 180 4·00 1·23 1·70 8·50 196 5·13 1·50 1·76 9·03
P 2O 5 260 0·50 0·15 0·15 1·09 180 0·53 0·25 0·04 1·90 196 0·92 0·53 0·10 2·78
Li 4 12 1 10 13 67 88 44 28 264 9 41 10 30 57
Rb 217 96 42 24 313 133 178 63 37 473 159 206 135 10 871
Cs 50 1·68 2·05 0·24 9·43 88 14·07 5·87 1·60 38·60 45 7·87 9·45 0·27 55·50
Be 0 36 5·5 1·6 3·0 8·5 2 14·0 9·9 7·0 21·0
Sr 217 916 437 210 3060 133 532 247 10 1401 160 1267 1038 210 5433
Ba 182 1173 487 405 3030 133 1576 783 250 6410 166 2674 2212 209 14150
Sc 132 20 8 4 51 42 19 7 6 42 102 21 7 9 53
V 129 212 47 83 301 49 127 34 69 216 125 154 56 64 337
Cr 145 88 139 2 846 124 233 230 21 1405 148 445 225 7 1140
Co 114 28 11 10 78 121 23 13 3 74 121 33 16 0 128
Ni 189 39 62 2 450 120 74 73 12 459 148 209 133 14 700
Cu 33 123 94 22 420 94 29 44 2 405 109 54 42 2 170
Zn 33 96 56 33 368 109 82 39 39 449 116 97 85 13 851
Ga 14 21 1 18 23 52 21 10 5 82 72 17 4 6 25
Y 192 28 7 7 48 88 25 8 7 46 147 22 9 7 55
Nb 196 19 13 1 101 80 14 6 4 43 137 20 16 3 76
Ta 74 0·5 0·5 0·0 1·7 59 1·4 0·8 0·1 4·6 59 1·1 1·2 0·2 5·0
Zr 211 182 72 24 424 103 258 144 10 1199 158 358 214 51 925
Hf 79 3·5 1·8 0·9 9·6 63 7·4 4·3 0·8 28·8 69 9·4 6·2 1·6 25·0
Pb 67 13 8 2 44 89 32 9 6 53 77 36 28 6 158
U 70 2·3 1·5 0·3 6·0 84 5·0 1·6 2·9 10·8 117 5·8 4·9 1·0 23·6
Th 94 7·6 5·3 0·8 19·0 105 24·7 9·5 1·5 48·7 131 22·9 24·0 1·0 220·0
La 141 50·3 36·8 5·6 206·0 86 70·7 33·8 10·0 163·2 140 82·7 82·8 19·8 753·0
Ce 176 92·4 52·9 11·4 322·0 86 135·3 64·4 22·0 296·0 137 157·7 114·0 43·0 550·0
Pr 16 10·7 3·1 6·1 15·4 50 17·6 6·2 7·1 31·0 44 15·8 10·4 5·8 48·7
Nd 116 37·1 16·0 8·9 91·0 69 59·8 22·1 8·0 114·0 122 82·1 54·3 7·4 244·0
Sm 84 6·4 2·5 2·4 13·0 73 10·5 3·4 5·1 22·1 103 14·7 8·4 4·7 48·8
Eu 79 1·76 0·54 0·80 3·25 73 2·02 0·79 0·75 5·10 101 4·47 5·89 1·10 39·00
Gd 20 6·84 1·25 4·11 8·93 55 7·43 1·84 4·36 11·80 58 8·70 4·06 1·39 21·00
Tb 77 0·84 0·25 0·39 1·37 71 1·05 0·32 0·37 2·50 80 0·99 0·39 0·54 2·32
Dy 16 5·74 1·05 3·84 7·62 63 4·84 1·15 2·43 7·69 70 4·64 1·52 2·57 12·00
Ho 30 1·20 0·24 0·80 1·79 50 0·88 0·23 0·42 1·51 48 0·80 0·28 0·43 2·00
Er 16 3·19 0·60 2·28 4·20 55 2·29 0·57 1·18 3·89 53 2·03 0·55 1·13 4·30
Tm 0 53 0·34 0·14 0·18 1·10 47 0·27 0·09 0·14 0·71
Yb 79 2·40 0·76 1·10 4·28 73 2·09 0·56 0·26 3·67 100 1·68 0·43 0·80 3·00
Lu 76 0·39 0·13 0·16 0·68 61 0·30 0·08 0·01 0·49 100 0·26 0·19 0·11 2·00
87
Sr/86Sri 55 0·7040 0·0005 0·7029 0·7061 24 0·7074 0·0004 0·7068 0·7086 26 0·7091 0·0035 0·7054 0·7206

(Nd)i 28 4·1 0·9 2·1 5·7 14
4·0 0·7
5·6
2·9 27
10·4 4·9
19·4
1·0

1. Samples of Iberian vaugnerites analysed in the authors’ laboratory.

This work used 260 samples of shoshonites, 180 samples of
vaugnerites, and 196 samples of potassic lamprophyres, mainly
vogesites and minettes. The shoshonites and lamprophyres
come from all over the world and have ages from Archean (the
lamprophyres) or Mesozoic (the shoshonites) to the present,
but the vaugnerites are restricted to the West European
Variscides and Caledonides (Supplementary Material). The
data were collected from the literature, except for 60 samples
Samples were assigned to a given category according to the
authors’ classification in the original publication. This can be
summarised as follows: shoshonites, for the most part, were
classified compositionally from their plotting position in
the K2O vs SiO2 diagram of Pecerillo & Taylor (1976);
vaugnerites, on the other hand, were classified exclusively
petrographically, being phlogopite/biotite-, amphibole-, and
alkali feldspar-bearing gabbros; potassic lamprophyre
classification was mainly petrographic based on the criteria
162 J. H. SCARROW ET AL.
 ‘ULTRA’-HIGH-K ROCKS: SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES 163

Figure 3 FeOtotal–MgO plot. Note how vaugnerites and, especially, potassic lamprophyres are more magnesian,
for a given FeO content, than shoshonites.

(abundant alkali feldspar, alkali-rich pyroxene and amphibole
and globular, panidiomorphic textures) of Rock (1991). To be
included, each analysis had to fulfil the following criteria: (1)
the published totals had to be equal to the sum of the reported
oxides to exclude typing errors; (2) K2O had to be higher than
1·5 wt. %; and (3) SiO2 had to be in the range 43–64 wt. % to
exclude oddities and highly fractionated specimens.
The data sources, summarised in three tables of Supplemen-
tary Material (Table 1E, 2E and 3E) are as follows:
Shoshonites (Supplementary Table 1E) (mostly found in
the GEOROC database, http://georoc.mpch-mainz.gwdg.de):
Barberi et al. 1974; Beard & Johnson 1993, 1997; Beccaluva
et al. 1985; Bonaccorso et al. 1996; Calanchi et al. 1983;
Carmichael et al. 1996; Carr 1998; Conrey et al. 2001; Cox &
Bristow 1984; De Astis et al. 2000; Del Moro et al. 1998;
Dickinson et al. 1968; Ellam et al. 1988, 1989; Erlikh 1966;
Esperanca et al. 1992; Feeley et al. 2002; Francalanci 1989;
Francalanci et al. 1989; Gauthier & Condomines 1999; Gibson
et al. 1991, 1992; Hogg 1972; Hornig-Kjarsgaard et al. 1993;
Jakes & White 1969; Jacques 1976; Keller 1974; Kepezhinskas
et al. 1997; Kesson & Smith 1972; Lacroix 1928; Mackenzie
1976; Mackenzie & Chappell 1972; Rogers & Setterfield 1994;
Schellekens 1988; Skipp & McGrew 1977; Sun & Stern 2001;
Tsvetkov et al. 1985; Xu 1988.
Vaugnerites (Supplementary Table 2E): Bowes & Kosler 1993;
Buda & Dobosi 2004; Debon et al. 1998; Ferre & Leake 2001;
Galan et al. 1997; Gallastegui 1993; Janousek et al. 1995, 2000;
Klotzli et al. 2004; Michon 1987; Rossi & Cocherie 1991;
Sabatier 1978, 1980, 1991; Washington 1917; Wenzel et al.
2000.
Potassic lamprophyres (Supplementary Table 3E): Allen &
Balk 1954; Ashley et al. 1994; Bor-ming et al. 1979; Buhlmann
et al. 2000; Canning et al. 1996; Carlier et al. 1997; Carmichael
et al. 1996; Greenough et al. 1993; Hoch et al. 2001; Huang
et al. 2002; Jahn et al. 1979; Janousek et al. 1995, 2000; Kapp
1960; Kemp & Billingsley 1921; Knopf 1936; Loughlin 1919;
Michaels 1969; Nemec 1973; Peterson et al. 2002; Pirsson 1905;
Prelevic et al. 2004; Righter & Rosas-Elguera 2001; Rittman
1940; Schmidtt et al. 1974; Searle et al. 1992; Sheppard &
Taylor 1992; Tingey et al. 1991; Wagner & Velde 1993; Wenzel
et al. 2000; Wierzcholowski 2003; Williams 1936; Witkind
1973; Wyman & Kerrich 1993.
2. Comparative geochemistry
Shoshonites, vaugnerites and potassic lamprophyres bear
undeniable chemical similarities. Most of them plot in the
shoshonitic field of the K2O–SiO2 diagram (Fig. 1a). The
averages of the three groups (Table 1) yield sub-parallel
N-MORB normalised trace-element patterns (Fig. 2a, b, c)
with a considerable enrichment in the most incompatible
elements, deep negative Nb and Ti anomalies, strong positive
Pb and K anomalies and LREE>HREE (Fig. 2d, e, f), a set of

Figure 2 (A, B, C) N-MORB normalised multi-element plot of the average of the shoshonites (Sh), vaugnerites
(Vg) and potassic lamprophyres (K-La). Data sources discussed in text (see also Supplementary Material Tables
1E, 2E and 3E). Grey lines mark 1 standard deviation for each element, arrows indicate values out of range. The
grey field in (B) and (C) is the shoshonite field from (A). All have features considered characteristic of subduction
magmas such as the enrichment in the most incompatible elements, negative anomalies of Nb and Ti, and positive
anomalies of Pb. Both vaugnerites and potassic lamprophyres are notably richer than shoshonites in the most
incompatible elements. Note also the strong enrichment in Cs (and Li, see Table 1) and the negative anomalies
in Sr and Ba of the vaugnerites. (D, E, F) Chondrite-normalised REE patterns of the averages of the three
groups. Grey lines mark 1 standard deviation for each element. The grey field in (E) and (F) is the shoshonite field
from (D). Note how vaugnerites and potassic lamprophyres are enriched in LREE but slightly depleted in HREE
with respect to shoshonites. Data sources discussed in text. (G) Average potassic lamprophyre and vaugnerite
normalised to average shoshonite.
164 J. H. SCARROW ET AL.

features that are characteristic of subduction-related magmas.

Figure 2g summarises the differences in trace elements between
the shoshonites and vaugnerites and potassic lamprophyres.
The similarities between the three groups, however, finish
there. For a given level of evolution, the vaugnerites and
potassic lamprophyres are far more magnesian than the shos-
honites (Fig. 3, Table 1), so that the average Mg number
(Mg#=100 molar Mg/Mg+Fe) decreases from Mg# 716 for
the potassic lamprophyres to Mg# 628 for the vaugnerites
and Mg# 519 for the shoshonites. Notwithstanding a broad
overlap of Na2O contents in the three groups, it is notable that
for a given SiO2 content, the first extend to higher sodium
contents and the last to lower sodium contents (Fig. 4a). This
distribution is also observed for V (not shown). Conversely,
albeit again with considerable overlap between the rock types,
relative to the shoshonites the vaugnerites and, even more so,
the potassic lamprophyres, scatter to higher concentrations
of P2O5 (Fig. 4b), Zr (Fig. 4c), Th (Fig. 4d), Cs (Fig. 4e), Cr
(Fig. 4f) and Ni (Fig. 4g).
Especially relevant are the differences in radiogenic heat
production between the three rock types, calculated from the
abundances of K, Th and U (Fig. 5). Shoshonites yielded an
average of 1·3 w m
3 s
1 with a mode of 0·7, vaugnerites
and potassic lamprophyres are notably more radioactive and
yield identical averages of 3·6 w m
3 s
1 though with differ-
ent distribution patterns, nearly symmetrical in the vaugnerites
but strongly tailed to high values in the potassic lamprophyres,
the mode of which is 1·7 w m
3 s
1. The meaning of these
figures becomes clear when the following points are considered
(i) the average heat production of the subduction-related rocks
of the Urals is 0·7 w m
3 s
1, akin to the shoshonites;
(ii) the giant agpaitic massif of Khibina, Kola, which derived
from a very enriched mantle source, produces about
1·7 w m
3 s
1, similar to the mode of the lamprophyres; and
(iii) the crust-derived Spanish S-type leucogranites, locally
related to uranium deposits, yielded 3·1 w m
3 s
1, some-
what less than the average of vaugnerites (authors’ unpub-
lished data). In the opinion of the present authors the
enrichment in heat-producing elements shown by the potassic
lamprophyres and vaugnerites is most easily explained by the
involvement of U–Th–K-rich continental crust, something
which the shoshonites do not require. Supporting this hypoth-
esis, is the distribution of Cs (Fig. 4e), an element extremely
partitioned into crustal micas, which reaches concentrations
more characteristic of evolved peraluminous granites in the
vaugnerites than in either of the other rock types.
Moreover, the three rock associations have elevated, some-
times very high, concentrations of Ba and Sr which reach a
maximum in some lamprophyres (Table 1). It should be
emphasised, nonetheless, that in an N-MORB normalised
trace element plot, the average vaugnerite has small but
perceptible Ba and Sr negative anomalies relative to adja-
cent elements (Fig. 2c); this would be an unusual feature
for subduction-related magmas. Remarkably, whereas a

Figure 4 (A) Na2O–SiO2 plot. Shoshonites extend to somewhat

higher values of Na2O than the vaugnerites and both these are richer in
this element than the lamprophyres. (B) P2O5–SiO2 plot. Some of the
potassic lamprophyres are far richer in P2O5 than shoshonites or
vaugnerites. (C) Zr-SiO2 plot. Note how some of the potassic lampro-
phyres have higher values of Zr. (D) Th-SiO2 plot. The potassic
lamprophyres and the vaugnerites extend to higher Th values than the
shoshonites. (E) Cs–SiO2 plot. Vaugnerites extend to higher values of
Cs than the shoshonites and most lamprophyres, so reflecting their
greater crustal contribution. See text for details. (F) Cr–SiO2 plot. (G)
Ni–SiO2 plot. Vaugnerites and lamprophyres extend to higher values
of Cr and Ni than the shoshonites.
 ‘ULTRA’-HIGH-K ROCKS: SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES 165

Figure 5 Histograms of the radiogenic heat production of the three group associations. Heat production was
calculated from the element concentrations of K, U and Th, according to the Schmucker (1969, p. 197)
expression. Vertically dashed lines labelled as S, A, and SG represent the averages of subduction-related rocks of
the Urals (S), the giant alkaline agpaitic massif of Khibina, Kola (A), and the U deposit-related S-type
leucogranites of Spain (SG) (authors’ unpublished data). The high heat production of vaugnerites and some
potassic lamprophyres are indicative of a marked crustal component. See text for details.

significant fraction of shoshonites have Ba/Sr<1, most
vaugnerites and lamprophyres have Ba/SrZ1.
The element ratios showing the sharpest differences between
the three rock associations, however, are as follows: La/Yb
changes from z14 in shoshonites to z38 in vaugnerites and
z56 in lamprophyres (Fig. 6a); Th/U is z3·2, close to the
asthenospheric mantle ratio, in the shoshonites. Although
some of the vaugnerites and potassic lamprophyres also have
Th/U z3, they are both generally enriched in Th relative to U,
more typical of crustal rocks, with Th/U up to 12–13 (Fig. 6b),
values characteristic of U-depleted lower crustal granulites
(e.g. Bea & Montero 1999). In addition, most shoshonites and
lamprophyres have Nb/Ta clustering around 17·5 (Fig. 6c),
whereas most vaugnerites have much lower ratios of around 12
or less, values that Green (1995) considered characteristic
of primitive mantle and post-Archean continental crustal
materials respectively.
Even more important are the differences in Sr and Nd
isotopes (Table 1, Fig. 7). Shoshonites have a depleted, relative
to bulk Earth, isotope signature with 87Sr/86Sri 0·70400·0005
and
(Nd)i 4·10·9. When shoshonites erupt through conti-
nental crust, such as in the Aeolian Arc (Del Moro et al. 1998)
or in the Absaroka Volcanics (Feeley 2003), 87Sr/86Sri may
increase up to z0·7050 and
(Nd)i may decrease to
1, but
rarely to more enriched, relative to bulk Earth, values.
Vaugnerites, on the other hand, have more enriched Sr and Nd
isotope compositions, with 87Sr/86Sri 0·70740·0004 and

(Nd)i z
4·00·7, and show little, if any, overlap with
shoshonites. To the present authors’ knowledge, only the
Variscan vaugnerites from the Meissen Massif, of the northern
Bohemian Massif (Wenzel et al. 2000), have isotopic values
that approach the shoshonites. The isotope compositions of
the potassic lamprophyres are still more enriched, with aver-
ages of 87Sr/86Sri 0·70910·0035 and
(Nd)i
10·44·9
(Fig. 7), although the distribution is not unimodal: 87Sr/86Sri
shows two maxima at 0·707 and 0·711, and
(Nd)i shows
another two maxima at
16 and
5.
Up to this point it has been shown that the chemical
compositions of shoshonites, vaugnerites and potassic lampro-
phyres, while overlapping somewhat, are different. To check
whether these differences are statistically significant, a series of
paired t-tests were performed, parting from the hypothesis that
elements and isotope ratios have the same mean within the
three rock associations. The results obtained are shown in
Table 2. Comparing shoshonites and vaugnerites, only P2O5,
Sc, Ga, Gd and Dy have a probability higher than 5% of
having the same mean. Likewise, between shoshonites and
potassic lamprophyres only Sc, Zn, Nb and Tb have a prob-
ability higher than 5% of having the same mean. Between
vaugnerites and potassic lamprophyres there are more simi-
larities; the equality of the means of TiO2, Rb, Sc, Zn, Y, Ta,
Pb, U, Th, Pr, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho and Lu cannot be rejected at
the 0·05 significance level. If it is assumed that this dataset is
representative of the three rock associations, these results
confirm the existence of fundamental chemical differences
between shoshonites, on the one hand, and vaugnerites and
potassic lamprophyres, on the other hand.
Consequently, if these premises are accepted, it must be
concluded that there is no reason to consider these latter two
rock associations as shoshonitic. It would be better, therefore,
to remove the term shoshonitic from the K2O–SiO2 diagram
and instead have a field marked very- or ultra-high-K (Fig. 1a).
3. Identification of shoshonites from their chemical
composition
Once it is recognised that neither vaugnerites nor potassic
lamprophyres are compositionally comparable to shoshonites,
i.e., they are not true shoshonites, the question is whether it is
166 J. H. SCARROW ET AL.

Figure 6 (A) Yb–La plot. Note how La/Yb increase from shoshonites to vaugnerites and potassic lamprophyres.
(B) Th–U plot. All shoshonites plot along the line Th/U 3·2, close to the mantle ratio, but some potassic
lamprophyres and most vaugnerites are significantly enriched in Th, with Th/U up to 12–13, values only found
in metapelitic granulites (e.g. Bea & Montero 1999). (C) Ta–Nb plot. Most shoshonites and potassic
lamprophyres have Nb/Ta clustering around 17·5 whereas most vaugnerites have Nb/Ta around 12 or less, values
considered characteristic of mantle and crustal materials respectively (Green 1995).
 ‘ULTRA’-HIGH-K ROCKS: SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES 167

Figure 7 (A) Histograms of the initial 87Sr/86Sr. Note that most shoshonites are below 0·705, whereas most
vaugnerites and all lamprophyres are above this value. (B) Histograms of
(Nd)i. Most shoshonites have positive
values, whereas most vaugnerites and the lamprophyres have negative
(Nd)i. Note the population of
lamprophyres with
(Nd)i <
10. See text for details.

possible to identify a rock series as shoshonitic solely from the
chemical composition of the specimens that form it. Since
neither element (or element-ratio) scatter-plots nor multi-
element spider-plots were found to be selective enough, the
present authors turned to multivariate statistical techniques,
specifically to discriminant function analysis which seemed
best suited for their purposes. Discriminant functions are
calculated for a given combination of variables (in this case
analysed elements or isotope ratios) and are the linear combi-
nation of these variables that best separate two or more
previously defined groups, here being shoshonites, vaugnerites
and potassic lamprophyres. Depending on the chosen com-
bination of variables, it is possible to calculate different
discriminant functions for the same data set.
The quality of discrimination depends on the representative-
ness of the initial data set and how well it is partitioned into the
groups to be discriminated; this depends on the availability of
data and the criteria of the researcher and cannot be statisti-
cally quantified. Nevertheless, how well the previously defined
groups are separated by the discriminant functions can be
evaluated by means of the Mahalanobis distance, which com-
pares the distances between group means, with a larger value
indicating a better discrimination. In addition, the authors
checked that the Mahalanobis distance was greater than
zero, that is the groups did not coincide, using an F test
which determines the equality of variances (average squared
deviation of all possible observations from the mean) of the
groups based on the theoretical distribution of values to be
expected by randomly sampling a normal population (F-
distribution).
Table 3 presents the results of the multivariate analysis on
the shoshonites, vaugnerites and potassic lamprophyres show-
ing the discriminant functions found to be most useful. A first
analysis used the major elements except MnO (because when
expressed as an oxide percentage this element suffers from high
relative errors and may therefore introduce noise into the
discriminant function) (260 shoshonites, 180 vaugnerites, 196
potassic lamprophyres); and a second analysis used the major
elements plus trace elements Rb, Cs and Th (47 shoshonites,
79 vaugnerites, 43 potassic lamprophyres). The significant
improvement in goodness of fit upon inclusion of the trace
elements is, in fact, somewhat deceptive, being, in part, a result
of the reduction in the number of samples in the data set (only
a selection of the rocks were analysed for those trace elements)
and, it is suggested, a relative increase in the quality of the
data. This was demonstrated by repeating the analysis using
the major elements alone for those samples for which Rb, Cs
and Th were analysed. The percentage of rocks classified by
rock type was practically indistinguishable from the major
elements plus selected trace elements discriminant functions
for the same data set. The clear division of the rock types and
the improvement in separation, as indicated by the larger
168 J. H. SCARROW ET AL.

Table 2 Paired t-test with unequal variance.

Shoshonites/Vaugnerites Shoshonites/K-lamprophyres Vaugnerites/K-lamprophyres

t t prob d.f. t prob d.f. t prob d.f.

TiO2
64·118 0·0000 347
54·732 0·0000 217
14·004 0·1625 276
Al2O3 52·628 0·0000 383 291·750 0·0000 395 195·907 0·0000 368
FeO tot 101·964 0·0000 402 51·346 0·0000 293
30·635 0·0058 338
MgO
49·078 0·0004 382
148·124 0·0000 324
89·041 0·0000 367
MnO 187·018 0·0000 424 84·623 0·0000 282
56·007 0·0000 311
CaO 137·614 0·0000 468 33·919 0·0000 353
81·569 0·0000 329
Na2O 33·445 0·0099 442 136·985 0·0000 323 105·137 0·0000 332
K 2O
61·268 0·0000 360
129·381 0·0000 272
68·341 0·0000 346
P2 O 5
17·990 0·0730 312
94·783 0·0000 197
80·093 0·0000 248
Li
141·313 0·0000 67
82·833 0·0000 9 74·423 0·0000 55
Rb
135·256 0·0000 221
81·379 0·0000 154
0·6601 0·5099 206
Cs
179·719 0·0000 118
42·992 0·0001 48 40·260 0·0002 62
Sr 120·326 0·0000 377
43·082 0·0000 169
90·624 0·0000 152
Ba
48·073 0·0000 259
71·946 0·0000 160
49·451 0·0000 185
Sc 0·9312 0·3547 75
15·278 0·1280 228
20·739 0·0415 75
V 125·400 0·0000 122 80·956 0·0000 254
39·392 0·0001 142
Cr
67·235 0·0000 241
149·135 0·0000 211
70·223 0·0000 267
Co 25·200 0·0106 251 34·492 0·0007 171
53·380 0·0000 178
Ni
39·281 0·0000 302
144·733 0·0000 174
116·817 0·0000 190
Cu 59·341 0·0000 66 33·965 0·0005 72
48·827 0·0000 184
Zn 27·781 0·0068 78 0·4938 0·6222 149
15·757 0·1178 118
Ga
0·1114 0·9116 81 73·765 0·0000 78 37·894 0·0003 100
Y 51·726 0·0000 178 70·413 0·0000 227 11·437 0·2540 225
Nb 45·659 0·0000 284
0·7091 0·4789 245
40·543 0·0001 188
Ta
74·382 0·0000 87
37·150 0·0004 72 14·721 0·1441 103
Zr
38·008 0·0000 237
79·736 0·0000 201
46·166 0·0000 239
Hf
66·562 0·0000 79 76·789 0·0000 78
22·241 0·0280 122
Pb
80·296 0·0000 161
43·220 0·0000 68
13·580 0·1794 62
U
27·013 0·0000 165
13·297 0·0000 176 15·094 0·1328 193
Th
57·009 0·0000 179
28·694 0·0000 199 0·9875 0·3251 142
La
12·924 0·0000 260
34·893 0·0000 162
28·199 0·0054 156
Ce
28·561 0·0000 227
53·384 0·0000 158
33·702 0·0009 177
Pr
54·618 0·0000 51
30·892 0·0033 48 0·1118 0·9114 53
Nd
45·478 0·0000 170
70·200 0·0000 153
42·338 0·0000 161
Sm
45·396 0·0000 181
71·181 0·0000 137
45·575 0·0000 130
Eu
0·1354 0·0000 170
40·390 0·0000 98
40·058 0·0001 98
Gd
18·533 0·0694 53
29·248 0·0047 68
18·469 0·0689 71
Tb
27·660 0·0000 160
13·866 0·1679 132 0·9203 0·3590 139
Dy 29·164 0·0092 24 35·383 0·0012 33 12·066 0·2300 116
Ho 59·795 0·0000 55 62·194 0·0000 68 13·941 0·1675 74
Er 53·207 0·0000 22 71·198 0·0000 24 30·079 0·0033 101
Yb 27·052 0·0054 176 86·637 0·0000 160 60·353 0·0000 140
Lu 41·074 0·0000 161 45·060 0·0000 155 18·441 0·0674 133
86
Sr/86Sri
269·811 0·0000 77
69·410 0·0000 25
23·866 0·0247 26

(Nd)i 133·760 0·0000 53 121·476 0·0000 37 66·275 0·0000 28

Notes: Prob is the probability of the means being equal; d.f. represents Satterthwaite’s degrees of freedom.
Silica is not included because samples were selected within the interval SiO2 43–64 wt. %.
Italic values are those for which equality of means cannot be rejected at the 0·05 significance level.

Mahalanobis distance, resulting from analysis of the smaller
dataset, in particular when the trace elements are included
(Table 3), is clearly illustrated in Figure 8 which shows the
distribution of the three groups in discriminant function
space.
Generally, in discriminant function analysis, the first func-
tion is the most important discrimination tool with later
functions providing additional, most often significant, differ-
entiation. This is reflected in function 1 having an elevated
canonical correlation (a measure of the usefulness of a function
in determining the differences between the groups) and eigen
value (a measure of the relative discriminating power of the
function) compared with function 2 (Table 3). In the present
case function 1 broadly discriminates between the shoshonites
and the vaugnerites plus the potassic lamprophyres, with
function 2 dividing the latter group (Fig. 8). The relative
importance of each element in distinguishing between the
different rock types is indicated by the standardised canonical
discriminant function coefficients (Table 3). The shoshonite
versus vaugnerite plus potassic lamprophyre distinction is
 ‘ULTRA’-HIGH-K ROCKS: SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES 169

Table 3 Standardised coefficients for the canonical discriminant function, the canonical correlation, the eigenvalues
and the percentage total variance accounted for. To apply a discriminant function to an unknown sample, sum the
products of the concentration of the elements, in the appropriate units, by the corresponding coefficient. Number of
samples in the major element only data set: 260 shoshonites; 180 vaugnerites; 43 potassic lamprophyres. Abbreviations:
Sh=shoshonites; Vg=vaugnerites; K-La=K-rich lamprophyres.

Major elements Major elements and trace elements Major elements smaller dataset

fn1 fn2 fn1 fn2 fn1 fn2

SiO2
0·8858
0·2036
0·9529 0·9141
1·3792 0·3579

TiO2 0·2128
0·5975 0·4974
0·1436 0·6146 0·3031
Al2O3
0·8065
0·6399
0·4985 1·3235
1·0456 0·9466
FeO tot
0·9117 0·5087
1·1382 0·2503
1·3587
0·6462
MgO
0·081
0·9325 0·6856 1·1838
0·0418 1·1286
MnO
0·7689 0·7966
1·1391 0·4226
1·5614
0·6312
CaO
0·2726 0·0989
0·0046 0·1863
0·3885
0·4183
Na2O
0·1989 0·4849
0·6546 0·0828
0·8495
0·4864
K2O 0·2595 0·1464 0·4259 0·0577 0·1483
0·0850
P2O 5 0·2164 0·0625
Rb 0·5865 0·2439
Cs 0·3461 0·4916
Th
Canonical correlation 0·8421 0·6323 0·9364 0·8773 0·9133 0·8363
Eigenvalue 2·43762 0·66608 7·11650 3·34160 5·03050 2·32730
Variance accounted (%) 78·5 21·5 68·0 32·0 68·4 31·6

Mahalanobis squared distance between groups

Major elements Major elements and trace elements Major elements smaller dataset

Sh Vg Sh Vg Sh Vg

Vg 6·06 34·97 18·65

K-La 13·80 7·45 46·69 20·37 37·09 18·31

Percentage of samples classified as rock type

True lithology Major elements Major elements and trace elements Major elements smaller dataset

Percentage classified (%)

Sh Vg K-La Sh Vg K-La Sh Vg K-La

Sh 91·9 7·3 0·8 100 0 0 100 0 0

Vg 2·8 87·8 9·4 0 98·7 1·3 0 98·7 1·3
K-La 7·1 8·2 84·7 0 2·3 97·7 2·3 2·3 95·4

principally controlled by differences in SiO2, FeO, CaO and
K2O (function 1), with Al2O3, MgO and Th playing a more
important role in separating the vaugnerites and potassic
lamprophyres (function 2).
The larger data set using major elements alone to discrimi-
nate shoshonites from the other two groups yielded w8% of
false positives (i.e., specimens classified as shoshonites when
they are not) and 8% of false negatives for shoshonites (i.e.,
shoshonites classified as non-shoshonites) (Table 3). Whereas
in the smaller data set, discrimination improved the fit such
that the percentage of false positives and negatives for shos-
honites both decreased to 0%. Similar decreases in the number
of false positives and negatives between the larger and smaller
data sets were also observed for the vaugnerites and potassic
lamprophyres (Table 3).
As stated before, discriminant functions should be used
cautiously, for their validity strongly depends on the repre-
sentativeness of the data set used to calculate them, something
very difficult to estimate in geological collections. In the
present case, however, given the number of specimens and
their varied age and provenance, it seems reasonable to assume
that the data set is adequately representative. It is concluded,
therefore, that for high quality data, discriminant function
analysis using major elements alone (although if available we
recommend including trace elements Th and Cs), will dis-
tinguish between shoshonites, vaugnerites and potassic lam-
prophyres. So, if application of the discriminant functions in
Table 3 to a rock series that plots in the upper region of the
K2O–SiO2 diagram results in the rejection of most samples
as shoshonites, then the present authors believe there is no
reason for qualifying the series as shoshonitic. If, on the other
hand, most samples are not rejected and they have no other
chemical and isotopic feature radically different from shos-
honites, the ground seems firm enough to classify the series as
truly shoshonitic and to claim for it a subduction-related
source.
170 J. H. SCARROW ET AL.
Figure 8 Discriminant function 1–Discriminant function 2 plot. The shoshonite versus vaugnerite plus potassic
lamprophyre distinction is principally controlled by differences in SiO2, Al2O3, FeO, CaO and K2O (function 1),
with Al2O3, MgO and Th playing a more important role in separating the vaugnerites and potassic lamprophyres
(function 2). See text for details.
4. Do vaugnerites and potassic lamprophyres
represent: crust-contaminated shoshonite magmas
or enriched lithospheric mantle melts?
From the data presented in the previous sections, it seems clear
that vaugnerites and potassic lamprophyres are chemically and
isotopically different from subduction-related shoshonites,
from which they can be efficiently separated on a composi-
tional basis. This fact, however, still does not preclude a
subduction source for the two rock types if it is accepted that
they could have been derived from shoshonite magmas vari-
ously contaminated with crustal materials. The elevated Li, Cs,
Th, U, high Th/U, and low Nb/Ta of most vaugnerites and
some lamprophyres lends support to the idea of crustal
contamination; to assess whether the initial magma was
shoshonitic, we turn to Sr and Nd isotopes.
The solid curve in Figure 9a represents the evolution of a
magma with the average composition of shoshonites
(1300 ppm Sr, 87Sr/86Sr 0·703882, 28 ppm Nd and 143Nd/144Nd
0·512884) contaminated with increasing percentages of a
crustal material (CM) with 300 ppm Sr, 87Sr/86Sr 0·715,
26 ppm Nd and 143Nd/144Nd 0·5122. This crustal composition
is especially favourable to causing perceptible contamination
effects because it combines high Sr and Nd contents (higher
than the average composition of greywackes, Wedepohl 1995),
elevated 87Sr/86Sr (similar to the present-day average compos-
ition of suspended load of worldwide rivers, Goldstein &
Jacobsen 1988) and low 143Nd/144Nd. Looking at Figure 9a, it
is evident that production of a composition similar to more
isotopically primitive vaugnerites requires the assimilation of
30% to 50% of crustal material, with the percentage rising up
to w70% to produce the most common vaugnerites or potassic
lamprophyres. These values are totally unrealistic, and incom-
patible with both the thermodynamics of assimilation and the
relatively unfractionated major and trace element composition
of vaugnerites and lamprophyres, so it must be concluded
these two rock types do not represent contaminated shosho-
nitic magmas. Nevertheless, as indicated before, crustal con-
tamination of some type seems likely in the generation of
vaugnerites and probably some lamprophyres, but the magma
that underwent contamination must have had an initial isotope
composition distinct from most shoshonite magmas (e.g. Prelevic
et al. 2004).
The key to understanding the isotope composition of
vaugnerite and lamprophyre magmas is to consider that they
derive from metasomatised mantle with anomalous Rb/Sr and
Sm/Nd enriched long before the melting event. This idea was
proposed for a group of potassic lamprophyres with extremely
low
(Nd)t (<
10) and moderate 87Sr/86Sri (0·705 to 0·707)
(Tingey et al. 1991; Buhlmann et al. 2000), but it seems
applicable to many such rocks. Figure 9b shows the isotopic
evolution with time of three different metasomes with identical
initial 87Sr/86Sr 0·703882 and 143Nd/144Nd 0·512884, represent-
ing a wide spectrum of enriched mantle sources. The first has
Rb/Sr 0·13 and Sm/Nd 0·19, similar to the Puy Beaunit mantle
xenoliths, French Massif Central (Fémènias et al. 2004); the
second has Rb/Sr 0·05 and Sm/Nd 0·15 similar to the mantle
xenoliths found in the giant agpaitic massifs of Kola, Lovozero
and Khibina (Arzamastsev et al. 2001 and authors’ unpub-
lished data); and the third has Rb/Sr 0.31 and Sm/Nd 0.215
similar to the phlogopite peridotites of Finero, Ivrea Zone
(authors’ unpublished data). For simplicity, it is assumed that
metasomatism changed just the element ratios but kept the
isotope ratios constant. The calculations show that the isotope
composition of vaugnerites may be easily attained by magmas
derived from 200 to 800 M.y. old metasomes with Rb/Sr w0·1
to 0·13 and Sm/Nd w0·17 to 0·20, especially if they underwent
some additional crustal contamination. The isotope compos-
ition of most potassic lamprophyres, on the other hand,
requires older metasomes with a longer residence, between
1000 and 1500 M.y.
To discuss the petrogenesis of vaugnerites and potassic
lamprophyres in detail is beyond the scope of this paper. For
the present purposes, it is sufficient to highlight that they need
a long-term enriched metasomatic source.
5. Geodynamic considerations
Many of the compositional features of the shoshonites point
towards them having a subduction-related source, be it active
arc or recycled arc products.
 ‘ULTRA’-HIGH-K ROCKS: SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES 171

Figure 9
(Nd)i–87Sr/86Sri plot. (A) The solid grey curve represents the mixing line between a magma with the
average composition of shoshonites (1300 ppm Sr, 87Sr/86Sr 0·73882, 28 ppm Nd and 143Nd/144Nd 0·512884) and
increasing percentages of a crustal material (CM) with 300 ppm Sr, 87Sr/86Sr 0·715, 26 ppm Nd and 143Nd/144Nd
0·5122. Note how the isotopic composition of the less ‘crustal’ vaugnerites requires assimilation of about 30% of
crustal material by a shoshonitic magma; this percentage reaches 65–70% for the most common vaugnerites. (B)
Dashed grey lines represent the temporal evolution of three distinct metasomes with identical initial isotope
composition and different Rb/Sr and Sm/Nd ratios. It follows that the isotope composition of vaugnerites may
be easily attained by magmas derived from 200 to 800 M.y. old metasomes with Rb/Sr w0·1 to 0·13 and Sm/Nd
w0·17 to 0·20, especially if they underwent some crustal contamination. The isotope composition of most
potassic lamprophyres, on the other hand, requires metasomes with longer residence, between 1000 and
1500 M.y.

By contrast, the compositional characteristics of the
vaugnerites and lamprophyres are interpreted to be the result
of metasomatism of their mantle source. The cause of such
metasomatism resulting in the isotopic characteristics seen in
the vaugnerites and lamprophyres could be the dehydration of
a subducting slab but, if so, it must have occurred long before
the mantle melting event that generated these rocks. It is not
surprising, therefore, that the most favourable scenarios for
these rocks are cratonic areas or Hercynotype (Pitcher 1979)
orogens such as the Variscides of western Europe, in which old
metasomes can later be involved in melting events as a result of
mantle dynamics (e.g., Tingey et al. 1991; Bea et al. 1999). As
172 J. H. SCARROW ET AL.
mentioned before, most vaugnerites also require a significant
percentage of crustal contamination as indicated by their
elevated heat production, high Th/U, low Nb/Ta (Fig. 5), and
elevated Cs contents (Table 1, Fig. 4e). Considering the
repeated association between vaugnerites and crustal-melt
granites (e.g. Sabatier 1991, and references therein), the likeli-
est scenario is of magmas derived from a mantle metasome
intruding into a crustal anatectic zone, where extensive mixing
with already molten materials is likely to occur.
Conversely, the role of crustal contamination in potassic
lamprophyres is not essential. Lamprophyres with 87Sr/86Sri
<0·707 and
(Nd)i <
10, characteristic of non-orogenic
areas, are likely to represent old-metasome melts with little
crustal contamination, as reflected by their mantle-like Th/U
ratio, low Cs (<5 ppm) and high Rb/Cs (>40). The lampro-
phyres found in orogenic areas, on the other hand, frequently
show evidence of crustal contamination and their mineralogy
and chemical and isotopic composition overlap with the
vaugnerites with which they are often spatially and temporarily
associated (e.g. Sabatier 1991; Wenzel et al. 2000; Buda &
Dobosi 2004). These lamprophyres likely represent less-
contaminated portions of mantle-magma which gave rise to
the vaugnerites.
6. Conclusions
+ The term shoshonitic should not be applied to a rock series,
such as the appinite–vaugnerite series or the potassic lam-
prophyres, solely because it plots in the shoshonitic region
of the K2O–SiO2 diagram.
+ The identification of shoshonites cannot be carried out
solely by means of the K2O–SiO2 and the N-MORB nor-
malised multi-element plots. These do not discriminate true
subduction-source shoshonites from other K-rich rocks.
The discrimination of shoshonites from other rocks that
plot in the shoshonitic field of the K2O–SiO2 diagram can
be carried out by means of dichotomous discriminant
functions such as those shown in Table 3.
+ Vaugnerites generally show a considerable degree of crustal
contamination. The contaminated magma, however, was
not shoshonitic. Its isotope composition is consistent with
derivation from a metasomatic layer of the lithospheric
mantle (metasome) enriched at least 200 M.y. before melt-
ing. The source of metasomatism may be the dehydration of
a subducting slab but, if so, subduction must have occurred
in an earlier orogenic cycle.
+ Potassic lamprophyres, on the other hand, require older
metasomes (1000 to 1500 M.y.) and may also have under-
gone variable degrees of crustal contamination, though
rarely to the same extent as vaugnerites. In orogenic areas,
the potassic lamprophyres that appear temporally and
spatially closely connected to vaugnerites might represent
the less-contaminated portions of the magma that, upon
contamination, gave rise to vaugnerites.
7. Acknowledgements
The authors are indebted to the creators and curators of
the GEOROC database at Mainz, Germany, which greatly
facilitated the finding of data. We are grateful to J. P. Liégois
and J. R. Stern for detailed reviews which helped us to con-
siderably improve the manuscript. C. H. Donaldson is thanked
for his editorial handling. This work has been supported
by the Spanish CICYT projects CGL2005–05863/BTE and
CGL2008–02864, and the Andalusian grant RNM1595.
8. Supplementary Material
Tables 1E, 2E and 3E are published as Supplementary Ma-
terial with the on-line version of this paper. This is hosted by
the Cambridge Journals Online service and can be viewed at
http://journals.cambridge.org/tre
9. References
Allen, J. E. & Balk, R. 1954. Mineral resources of Fort Defiance and
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MS received 25 March 2008. Accepted for publication 26 February 2009.